**8. Effect of land degradation on woody plant communities and opportunities for restoration**

Rangeland degradation starts with the formation of small bare patches which then expand to form large denuded areas [100], leading to the reduction or loss of biodiversity and woody plant productivity [101]. The recovery of woody vegetation in severely degraded areas through natural succession processes is very slow, necessitating active intervention in the form of restoration efforts [102]. Restoration efforts are aimed at returning ecosystems to their previously stable states through the re-establishment of lost vegetation. Cairns [103] argued that restoration must be firmly rooted in ecology and the connection between ecological succession and ecological restoration. The presence of large trees in an African savanna represents a structured stable ecosystem that is productive because of the benefits of the presence of woody plants such as soil enrichment, favourable sub-habitats for the maintenance of positive grass-tree associations and increased stability as large trees may suppress the establishment and development of woody seedlings under their canopies or in their close proximity [4]. The presence of large trees plays a critical role in the restoration of degraded rangelands, particularly the suppression of bush encroachment. Smit [4] suggested that restoring savanna structure requires a highly selective approach where woody plants are thinned in such a way that the remaining trees will benefit from the reduced competition from other woody plants, resulting in increased growth and thus an increasing sphere of influence on newly establishing seedlings.

In most African savannas, woody plant recovery is facilitated through the initial development of pioneer woody species, usually xerophytic spinescent microphyllous species, which are then replaced by a more stable savanna consisting of long-lived broad-leaved species [4]. The broad-leaved woody species are able to germinate and develop under the canopies of spinescent species like some *Acacia* species. The spinescent species later succumb to natural causes, enabling the broad-leaved species to predominate, as the former are unable to establish under the canopies of established trees [4].

The vegetation structure of African savannas is being altered by expansion of human settlements into previously undisturbed areas [104], with fuelwood harvesting as the key driver [105]. Preventing loss of plant communities is more cost-effective than attempts to restore degraded ecosystems, because restoration processes will require costly inputs, such as woody plant establishment. Nonetheless, restoration of degraded savanna systems is inevitable to increase rangeland productivity. Restoration measures include the re-introduction of desired grass species or other investments to improve rangeland quality from both an ecological and an economic perspective.

Attempts at restoring encroached areas by the removal of some or all of the woody plants will normally result in an increase of grass production and thus also the grazing capacity. However, the rapid establishment of tree seedlings after the removal of some or all of the mature woody plants may reduce the effective time span of restoration measures. In many cases, the resultant re-establishment of new woody seedling may in time develop into a state that is worse than the original state. To counter this, a more stable environment can be created by maintaining or restoring savanna structure (large trees). In a structured savanna, large trees are able to suppress the establishment of new seedlings, while maintaining the other benefits of woody plants like soil enrichment and the provision of food to browsing herbivore species. The loss of large trees from savanna ecosystems through indiscriminate, nonselective bush control measures results in failure to successfully restore encroached areas. Restoration should involve a highly selective process where woody plants are thinned in such a way that the remaining trees will benefit from the reduced competition from other woody plants. Direct competition between grasses and woody seedlings and saplings for soil water can suppress the recruitment of woody species.
