4. Glacier water chemistry and the origin of chemical additions

The chemical composition of glacial meltwaters in Svalbard has been subject to increased interest in recent years [34–37]. Waters originating from glaciers affect the quantity and quality of water delivered to the environment in glaciated catchments, which also plays an important role in ice mass dynamics [13]. Furthermore, glaciated catchments regulate the biogeochemical circulation of nutrients, and influence the cryosphere-atmosphere interactions [38].

Although the high latitude regions of the Arctic experience very limited human impact and low emission of local origin, they cannot be considered free from pollutants any more. The long-range atmospheric transport from the regions of Eurasia with higher emissions may influence the Arctic water quality, making atmospheric deposition one of the main factors (alongside rock-water interactions) controlling water chemistry of the polar regions. Due to high rates of chemical weathering and minimal human impact in glaciated areas, they constitute an environment almost ideal for studying water-rock interactions [11–13]. Hydrochemical data on proglacial waters provide explanation of water drainage pathways through glaciers and estimations of chemical weathering rates [34, 39].

Ref. [12] has emphasized the specific conditions of the Arctic environment, such as: "(1) relatively short water-rock contact time, (2) cold temperatures, (3) thin soils, and (4) lack of vegetation," which reduce the activity of geochemical processes, including chemical weathering. However, the contact of water with eroded glacial debris and the abundance of soluble rocks such as carbonates and sulphides tend to considerably enhance such activity. In addition to the chemical weathering of rocks and the atmospheric deposition, other factors potentially influence dissolved solute concentrations, these are "(1) discharge conditions at the time of sampling, (2) inputs and outputs from the soil exchange pool, (3) uptake of organic nutrients by biomass, and local variations in non-living organic material (humus), and (4) changes in the topography and soil development" [12, 13].

The ionic composition of glacial meltwater varies due to different types of its transit through the glacial system, and the duration of chemical weathering reactions supplying solutes to such waters. The variety of glacial processes, and consequently chemical weathering, is strongly influenced by the thermal regime of glaciers. Meltwater in contact with the bedrock is present in temperate and subpolar glaciers. The acquisition of solute derived from chemical weathering occurs at the glacier bed during the transit of meltwater through two types of drainage systems: distributed and channelised. The distributed drainage involves linked cavities or porous flow through permeable subglacial sediments, and is mainly fed by snowmelt or slow transit of meltwater. This system of drainage is characterised by high water pressure and long residence time. The rock-water contact area is high. The channelised drainage system is fed by ice melt, mixed with waters from the distributed system to produce bulk meltwater. This system rapidly drains high volumes of water from beneath the glacier. The chemical reactions occurring on the water-rock interface in the glacial system depend on the type of drainage and their changeability during the ablation season [13, 40].

The most important mechanism of chemical rock weathering is acid hydrolysis. Ref. [13] has emphasized that dissolved anion signature of the meltwater indicates the source of protons necessary to drive acid hydrolysis reactions. Furthermore, Ref. [13] has listed the sources of protons such as (1) dissociation of atmospheric CO2 [Eq. (1)], (2) sulphide oxidation [Eq. (2)], and (3) oxidation of pyrite [Eq. (3)]. The latter is often coupled with carbonate dissolution.

$$\text{CaCO}\_3(s) + \text{H}\_2\text{CO}\_3(aq) \leftrightarrow \text{Ca}^{2+}(\text{aq}) + 2\text{HCO}\_3^-(\text{aq})\tag{1}$$

$$4\text{FeS}\_2(\text{s}) + 14\text{H}\_2\text{O}(\text{l}) + 15\text{O}\_2(\text{aq}) \leftrightarrow 16\text{H}^+(\text{aq}) + 8\text{SO}\_4^{2-}(\text{aq}) + 4\text{Fe}(\text{OH})\_3(\text{s})\tag{2}$$

$$\begin{aligned} \text{4FeS}\_2(\text{s}) + 16\text{CaCO}\_3(\text{s}) + 14\text{H}\_2\text{O}(\text{l}) + 15\text{O}\_2(\text{aq}) &\leftrightarrow 4\text{Fe(OH)}\_3(\text{s}) + 8\text{SO}\_4^{2-}(\text{aq}) \\ + 16\text{Ca}^{2+}(\text{aq}) + 16\text{HCO}\_3^-(\text{aq}) \end{aligned} \tag{3}$$

$$+16\text{Ca}^{2+}(\text{aq}) + 16\text{HCO}\_3^-(\text{aq})$$

Glaciers adjust their size in response to changes in climate, e.g. in temperature and precipitation. Therefore, they are considered very sensitive climate indicators. Changes in their size or shape may be observed over several decades or even several years. Svalbard glaciers also have a contribution in the sea level rise, estimated at 4% of the total contribution of smaller glaciers and ice caps. The contribution of the archipelago corresponds to the ratio between the glaci-

For the Arctic environment, with a fragile homeostasis, the regional role of glaciers is significant [10, 32]. Glaciers are the most visible component of the Svalbard environment. Due to this, they can also be considered a major geomorphological factor of the entire archipelago [32]. They respond the fastest and strongest to climate changes among all environmental components, and are a major regulator of water circulation in the Arctic [33]. Ref. [32] has emphasised the role of glacier runoff in Svalbard, a factor affecting not only the hydrology of rivers, but also circulation in the neighbouring seas and fjords, due to changes in stratification within the water column. Local climate and biota may also be influenced by changes in the glacial runoff, affecting the sea ice conditions of the archipelago. Even deep-water production close to the shelf of Svalbard may be influenced by a rapid discharge of freshwater

ated area of Svalbard and the global surface covered by glaciers and ice caps [4, 8].

Figure 6. The role of glaciers in the environment [5, 32].

12 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

4. Glacier water chemistry and the origin of chemical additions

circulation of nutrients, and influence the cryosphere-atmosphere interactions [38].

The chemical composition of glacial meltwaters in Svalbard has been subject to increased interest in recent years [34–37]. Waters originating from glaciers affect the quantity and quality of water delivered to the environment in glaciated catchments, which also plays an important role in ice mass dynamics [13]. Furthermore, glaciated catchments regulate the biogeochemical

Although the high latitude regions of the Arctic experience very limited human impact and low emission of local origin, they cannot be considered free from pollutants any more. The

from glaciers [32].

The relative proportions of HCO3 � and SO4 <sup>2</sup>� in the bulk outflow reflect the dominance of the major sources of aqueous protons driving subglacial weathering reactions. Ref. [13] has assumed that, when using the C-ratio [HCO3 �/(HCO3 �þSO4 <sup>2</sup>�)], a value of 1 signifies weathering by carbonation reactions, while a value of 0.5 reflects coupled sulphide oxidation and carbonate dissolution.

## 4.1. Pollutants examined in the catchments of Svalbard glaciers

Next to the natural chemicals from rock-water contact, human activity also contributes chemicals to Arctic waters, despite the distance of thousands of kilometres between the Arctic and the industrial and agricultural areas. During the last two decades, pollutants continued arriving into the Arctic, and despite their decreasing or steady atmospheric levels [41], their negative impact on the polar environment remains an important concern [42–49].

The Svalbard archipelago is different from the other Arctic regions. Due to its geographical location and specific climate conditions, it is particularly exposed to the accumulation of a wide range of chemical substances recognised as pollutants [9, 10]. Its relatively short distance from continental Europe, the location of the archipelago in the gap between the continents surrounding the Arctic Basin, and its landscape dominated by rugged mountains with glaciers, make it conducive to the accumulation of pollutants on its glaciers. Moreover, ocean and wind currents contribute to the transport of pollutants from lower geographic latitudes. In combination with low temperatures, this results in Svalbard and its glaciers becoming a sink for xenobiotics [50–54]. Although the levels of multiple pollutants such as heavy metals and many POPs contained in various elements of the living and inanimate environment are well known [10], knowledge on the fate of pollutants in Svalbard glaciers is still scarce.

Many scientific studies discuss the issue of the contamination of the Arctic environment. A vast number of publications concern the content of xenobiotics detected both in the living organisms (e.g. [46, 55–59]) and in the inanimate environment [60–64]. In Ref. [10], levels of pollutants present in samples collected in the Svalbard archipelago are discussed in detail. This paper focuses on the literature directly related to the presence of a wide range of chemicals recognized as pollutants in glacial catchments. The majority of research on the chemistry of glacier catchments is performed on Spitsbergen, the largest island of the archipelago (Figure 7).

The research site locations are directly related to the occurrence of the warm West Spitsbergen Current, considerably affecting the climate of the western coast of Spitsbergen. The warm waters limit the sea-ice development, which makes this area easier available for research activities. This is evident in the contribution of individual fjords, with the only representant of the eastern side of the island being Woodfjorden. Moreover, due to the cold East Spitsbergen Current, the east coast is dominated by several large ice caps [7, 10, 32].

Three main types of glacial catchments on Svalbard may be distinguished. The first two types involve the glacier terminus ending in the sea. In the first case, the glacier basin covers the coastal valley, and in the second case, the basin reaches into the centre of the island, covering large glaciated valleys. The third type of a glacial catchment is distinguished by the glacier terminus ending on land [78]. The glacier moraine is located in front of the glacier terminus, at Glaciers as an Important Element of the World Glacier Monitoring Implemented in Svalbard http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69237 15

The relative proportions of HCO3

and carbonate dissolution.

14 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

assumed that, when using the C-ratio [HCO3

� and SO4

4.1. Pollutants examined in the catchments of Svalbard glaciers

major sources of aqueous protons driving subglacial weathering reactions. Ref. [13] has

weathering by carbonation reactions, while a value of 0.5 reflects coupled sulphide oxidation

Next to the natural chemicals from rock-water contact, human activity also contributes chemicals to Arctic waters, despite the distance of thousands of kilometres between the Arctic and the industrial and agricultural areas. During the last two decades, pollutants continued arriving into the Arctic, and despite their decreasing or steady atmospheric levels [41], their

The Svalbard archipelago is different from the other Arctic regions. Due to its geographical location and specific climate conditions, it is particularly exposed to the accumulation of a wide range of chemical substances recognised as pollutants [9, 10]. Its relatively short distance from continental Europe, the location of the archipelago in the gap between the continents surrounding the Arctic Basin, and its landscape dominated by rugged mountains with glaciers, make it conducive to the accumulation of pollutants on its glaciers. Moreover, ocean and wind currents contribute to the transport of pollutants from lower geographic latitudes. In combination with low temperatures, this results in Svalbard and its glaciers becoming a sink for xenobiotics [50–54]. Although the levels of multiple pollutants such as heavy metals and many POPs contained in various elements of the living and inanimate environment are well

negative impact on the polar environment remains an important concern [42–49].

known [10], knowledge on the fate of pollutants in Svalbard glaciers is still scarce.

Current, the east coast is dominated by several large ice caps [7, 10, 32].

Many scientific studies discuss the issue of the contamination of the Arctic environment. A vast number of publications concern the content of xenobiotics detected both in the living organisms (e.g. [46, 55–59]) and in the inanimate environment [60–64]. In Ref. [10], levels of pollutants present in samples collected in the Svalbard archipelago are discussed in detail. This paper focuses on the literature directly related to the presence of a wide range of chemicals recognized as pollutants in glacial catchments. The majority of research on the chemistry of glacier catchments is performed on Spitsbergen, the largest island of the archipelago (Figure 7).

The research site locations are directly related to the occurrence of the warm West Spitsbergen Current, considerably affecting the climate of the western coast of Spitsbergen. The warm waters limit the sea-ice development, which makes this area easier available for research activities. This is evident in the contribution of individual fjords, with the only representant of the eastern side of the island being Woodfjorden. Moreover, due to the cold East Spitsbergen

Three main types of glacial catchments on Svalbard may be distinguished. The first two types involve the glacier terminus ending in the sea. In the first case, the glacier basin covers the coastal valley, and in the second case, the basin reaches into the centre of the island, covering large glaciated valleys. The third type of a glacial catchment is distinguished by the glacier terminus ending on land [78]. The glacier moraine is located in front of the glacier terminus, at

�/(HCO3

�þSO4

<sup>2</sup>� in the bulk outflow reflect the dominance of the

<sup>2</sup>�)], a value of 1 signifies

Figure 7. Places of conducting chemical research in glacial catchments in Svalbard, including the contribution of particular fjords of the Spitsbergen island [12, 34, 35, 38, 40, 49, 55, 65–77].

a certain distance from the seashore. Ablation water leaving the glacier flows through the glacier moraine and into the fjord via a number of channels developing a river system between the glacier and the fjord. Various types of surface water samples can be collected and examined depending on the type of catchment. According to the literature, glaciers representing the latter type of glacial catchments are subject to most frequent research activities (Figure 8). The evaluation was based on selected scientific articles, cited in Tables 4, 5 and 6.

A vast majority of publications [12, 34, 40, 49, 75–77] focused on water from glaciers (proglacial, supraglacial, subglacial, and cryoconite waters). However, some include also direct

Figure 8. Contribution of different type of samples examined on the Svalbard archipelago [12, 34, 35, 38, 40, 49, 55, 65–77].

tributaries of glacial rivers [12, 76], as well as other streams and groundwaters functioning in glacier basins [12, 38]. A smaller number of studies involves the analysis of ice samples. In prevalence, the examined ice was collected from the surface of glaciers rather than from drilled ice cores, and this sampling strategy may be driven by the predominance of polythermal regime among Spitsbergen glaciers (90%). The percolation of water and chemical substances in this thermal regime disturbs the original depositional sequence of chemical composition, making it difficult to analyze their accumulation in glaciers over time. Therefore, the examined Svalbard ice cores originate usually from ice caps. Only in Ref. [49], authors analyze pollutants in ice cores collected from the polythermal glacier of Longyearbreen. Snow samples for analysis are collected from the surface of glaciers and their surroundings in nearly equal proportion. Substantially, more sediment samples from cryoconite holes [72, 77, 79] on glaciers are subject to research than soil samples collected in glacier catchments.

Projects listed in Table 2 mainly focus on glaciological investigations [80–84]. Some of them are associated with the impact of climate change on cryosphere components and the modelling of possible cryosphere-climate interactions [8, 85]. Many scientific works also focus on the presence of pollutants such as heavy metals or POPs in biotic samples [50, 55, 61, 86, 87]. The majority of the research is related to biochemistry, and refers to the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants within the marine or terrestrial food webs. Publications concerning abiotic samples collected from glacier catchments of Svalbard focus on types of research presented in Figure 9. The evaluation was based on selected scientific articles cited in Tables 4, 5 and 6.

According to the literature review, the majority of conducted research concerns the fate and transport of pollutants in the abiotic environment. These publications mostly refer to levels of selected metals (e.g., Al, Hg) or POPs (e.g., PCN, PCBs, PFOA, PFOS, DDD, DDE, DDT) in snow [49, 67, 69–71] and ice samples [49, 55, 73, 74]. Ref. [49] discusses the effect of pollutants

Figure 9. Types of research performed on inanimate samples collected in the Svalbard archipelago [12, 34, 35, 38, 40, 49, 55, 65–77].

present in snow, ice, and surface water samples (i.e., supraglacial lake or river and sea water) collected throughout the glacial catchment, starting from the top of the glacier and ending in the fjord waters. This is the only work providing an insight into the transport of anthropogenic pollutants through almost all of the elements of the glacial catchment. A considerable number of publications focus on the chemical weathering process [12, 34, 35, 38, 75]. Others concern seasonal changes in hydrochemistry [68, 76], or compare the hydrochemistry of inanimate samples collected in different parts of the environment [66, 72]. Such works mainly present results of analysis of inorganic ions (e.g., K<sup>þ</sup>, Na2<sup>þ</sup>, Mg2þ, F�, Cl�, NO3 �, NO2 �). A smaller number of studies concerns biogeochemistry [40, 65] or microbiology related to the fixation of nitrogen on glaciers or carbon cycle [77, 79].

tributaries of glacial rivers [12, 76], as well as other streams and groundwaters functioning in glacier basins [12, 38]. A smaller number of studies involves the analysis of ice samples. In prevalence, the examined ice was collected from the surface of glaciers rather than from drilled ice cores, and this sampling strategy may be driven by the predominance of polythermal regime among Spitsbergen glaciers (90%). The percolation of water and chemical substances in this thermal regime disturbs the original depositional sequence of chemical composition, making it difficult to analyze their accumulation in glaciers over time. Therefore, the examined Svalbard ice cores originate usually from ice caps. Only in Ref. [49], authors analyze pollutants in ice cores collected from the polythermal glacier of Longyearbreen. Snow samples for analysis are collected from the surface of glaciers and their surroundings in nearly equal proportion. Substantially, more sediment samples from cryoconite holes [72, 77, 79] on glaciers are subject

Projects listed in Table 2 mainly focus on glaciological investigations [80–84]. Some of them are associated with the impact of climate change on cryosphere components and the modelling of possible cryosphere-climate interactions [8, 85]. Many scientific works also focus on the presence of pollutants such as heavy metals or POPs in biotic samples [50, 55, 61, 86, 87]. The majority of the research is related to biochemistry, and refers to the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants within the marine or terrestrial food webs. Publications concerning abiotic samples collected from glacier catchments of Svalbard focus on types of research presented in Figure 9. The evaluation was based on selected scientific articles

According to the literature review, the majority of conducted research concerns the fate and transport of pollutants in the abiotic environment. These publications mostly refer to levels of selected metals (e.g., Al, Hg) or POPs (e.g., PCN, PCBs, PFOA, PFOS, DDD, DDE, DDT) in snow [49, 67, 69–71] and ice samples [49, 55, 73, 74]. Ref. [49] discusses the effect of pollutants

Figure 9. Types of research performed on inanimate samples collected in the Svalbard archipelago [12, 34, 35, 38, 40, 49, 55,

to research than soil samples collected in glacier catchments.

cited in Tables 4, 5 and 6.

16 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

65–77].

Since data from long-term chemical monitoring of glaciers are scarce and rarely published in full, we collected here an inventory of shorter published measurement series or important datasets that can be treated as a proxy of the current state of the glacial chemical monitoring in Svalbard. First, we present an overview of the techniques and equipment used for the determination of a wide range of analytes studied in the environmental samples from glacial catchments of the Svalbard Archipelago. We have divided the data into three categories: snow (Table 4a), ice (Table 4b) and surface water (Table 4c). According to the literature review, ion chromatography (IC) is the analytical method that is used most frequently for the determination of not only inorganic ions, but also other pollutants (e.g., methyl-sulfonic acid and glutaric acid). The determination of the concentration of metals in the environment usually involves the methods of flow injection analysis (FIA) or atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The determination of organic pollutants, which are highly detrimental for Arctic biota, is performed by means of gas chromatography (GC), usually coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) in different resolution modes (low resolution, high resolution). Inorganic ions and metals are the most frequently determined analytes in almost all of the elements of glacial catchments (snow, ice, water, soil, and cryoconite). Research involving the determination of persistent organic pollutants (e.g., DDD, DDT, PCBs, PCNs, HCH, HCB) is conducted very rarely in the glacier catchments. These dangerous chemical compounds are usually determined in snow and ice samples (ice cores and surface ice) collected in the glacial catchment, where they reflect contribution of long-range atmospheric transport and their history of accumulation.

Except water samples, other abiotic material has also been investigated in the glacial catchments of Svalbard, especially rock material of different types. For example, cryoconite sediment has been analysed for its nutrient content (for DIN, TIN and TN, using Bran and Luebbe Autoanalyzer 3, [77]) or heavy metal concentration (Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd; by voltamperometric and spectrophotometric method, [72]). Similar parameters to water samples were established in soils, especially pH [34, 65], inorganic anions (Cl- , NO3 - , SO4 2-, HCO3 - ) and cations (Naþ, Kþ, Mg2þ, Ca2<sup>þ</sup>) [34, 65], SiO2 concentration [34], and organic carbon and nitrogen [65]. The methods used in the mentioned studies matched those used for snow, with the exception of the Fisons NCS analyser application for organic carbon and nitrogen.

In Tables 5a, 5b and 5c, we present the published chemical concentration data from the samples described in Tables 4a, 4b and 4c, respectively. Most studies concerned watercourses, and there the highest variability of chemical parameters was found. Ice samples have shown



Determined compound(s)/parameters Analytical method/apparatus References

electrode

<sup>2</sup>�) IC Dionex ion

� Titration (0.01 M HCI) [68]

Metals Altotal AAS [65]

MMHg

S ICP-OES [66] Si-Si(OH)4 FIA [65] SiO2 [34] Si [68]

(monomethylmercury)

<sup>þ</sup>, Kþ, Mg2þ, Ca2þ) AAS [34, 38, 65]

combination electrode

pH meter [66] Heito pH meter (Paris) [67] Orion SA 250 portable meter with Ross combination

Titration (1 mmol HCl) [34] Titration (10�<sup>3</sup> mol/L H2SO4) [65]

ICP-OES [66] FIA [40] IC Dionex ICS-3000 [67]

Hgtotal CVAFS [67]

Hgreactive ICP-QMS [69]

IC (Dionex ICS 3000) [67]

GC-MS-EI-SIM [70]

chromatography

DionexR 2100 [66] Dionex DX100 [40] IC, colorimetric method [38] Dionex ICS 3000 [67] Dionex 4000i [34, 68] Dionex ICS-1100 [49]

Dionex 4000i [68] ICS-1100 Dionex [49]

ICP-SFMS [69]

AFS [67]

Orion 290a portable pH meter with Ross

[34]

[68]

[65]

pH [65]

EC conductivity meter [66]

Anions (Cl�, Br�, NO3

18 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

HCO3

Cations (Na<sup>þ</sup>, NH4

MSA(methyl-sulfonic acid), Glut

(glutaric acid)

�, SO4

Table 4a. Literature data on the analytical techniques and equipment used for the determination of a wide range of compounds in the snow samples (snowfall, surface snow, snowpack) collected in the glacial catchments of the Svalbard archipelago.


Table 4b. Literature data on the analytical techniques and equipment used for the determination of a wide range of compounds in the ice samples (glacier surface, ice cores from glaciers and ice caps) collected on the glaciers of Svalbard.



Determined compound(s)/parameters Analytical method/apparatus References pH [37, 38, 65]

EC CC-317 conductivity meter [35]

� IC Dionex 4000i [75]

� IC Dionex DX-120 [12]

� Dionex Ion Chromatography [65]

þ Dionex DX-120 [12]

Metals (Altotal, Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd) AAS [65]

Si Colorimetric method (Skalar Autoanalyser) [76]

<sup>þ</sup>, Kþ, Mg2þ, Ca2þ) IC Dionex 4000i [75]

meter

Anions (Cl�, NO3

HCO3

N-NO2

N-NO3

N-NH4

Cations (Na<sup>þ</sup>, NH4

�, PO4

20 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

<sup>3</sup>�, SO4

Orion SA 250 portable meter with a Ross combination electrode [34] Jenco pH-meter [35] Orion (Thermo Scientific), WPA (Cambridge, UK) or VWR pH

> Dionex Ion Chromatography [65] Dionex DX100 [40, 36] IC, colorimetric method [38] Dionex 4000i [34] Metrohm Compact IC 761 [35, 37] Dionex DX-120 [12] Dionex ICS-90 [76, 36]

Dionex DX-120 [12]

Dionex DX-120 [12]

Dionex ICS-90 [76, 36] Metrohm Compact IC 761 [37]

AAS [12, 34–36, 38]

Titration (10�<sup>3</sup> molc/L H2SO4) [65] Colorimetric titration [38] Titration (1 mmol HCl) [34] Titration (10 mmol HCl) [36] Titration (0.02 M HCl) [35] Titration (Metrohm 702 SM Titrino) [37]

FIA [65]

FIA [40]

FIA [34] Voltamperometric method, spectrophotometric method [72]

<sup>2</sup>�) IC Dionex 4000i [75]

[36]

Table 4c. Literature review of the analytical techniques and equipment used for the determination of chemical parameters in the surface water samples (glacial waters, streams, springs, cryoconite water) from glacial catchments of Svalbard.



Table 5a. Literature data on snow samples collected in the glacial catchments of Svalbard.

the pHs closest to neutral and lowest electrical conductivities, and also in terms of inorganic ions their concentration range was smaller than experienced in snow samples (Table 5b and 5a). This reflects the effects of snow accumulation on inorganic chemicals, which are readily removed in meltwater (Table 5c) and therefore less of them remains in glacial ice. Conversely, the POPs found in ice were usually occurring at higher concentration than in snow, showing their historical deposition was higher, but also perhaps the ability of the accumulating snowpack to retain them better. An environmental concern are also the concentrations of heavy metals experienced in glacial ice (Table 5b), which additionally demonstrate the possibility that glaciers store pollutants of various types.

In Table 6 we additionally provide the data on other abiotic media except frozen and liquid water, i.e. soil and cryoconite sediment. For cryoconite, it is noteworthy that it may contain Glaciers as an Important Element of the World Glacier Monitoring Implemented in Svalbard http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69237 23


the pHs closest to neutral and lowest electrical conductivities, and also in terms of inorganic ions their concentration range was smaller than experienced in snow samples (Table 5b and 5a). This reflects the effects of snow accumulation on inorganic chemicals, which are readily removed in meltwater (Table 5c) and therefore less of them remains in glacial ice. Conversely, the POPs found in ice were usually occurring at higher concentration than in snow, showing their historical deposition was higher, but also perhaps the ability of the accumulating snowpack to retain them better. An environmental concern are also the concentrations of heavy metals experienced in glacial ice (Table 5b), which additionally demonstrate the possibility that glaciers store

Determined compound(s)/parameters Identified level/range References

SiO2 0.0 [34]

Metals Altotal 3.78-117 [µg L-1] [65]

]

Hgreactive 2.2–45.3 [69]

]

]

∑PCN 59.0–1100 [71] PFOA 89.5–590.8 [49]

Table 5a. Literature data on snow samples collected in the glacial catchments of Svalbard.

]

0.03–0.13 [65]

<LOD-59.9 [67, 69]

<LOD-1.56 [67]

116–2000 [70, 71]

] [67]

] [66]

] [68]

Si-Si(OH)4 [mg L<sup>1</sup>

22 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

Si <LOD-1.5 [µmol L<sup>1</sup>

S 0.17–0.88 [mg L<sup>1</sup>

MSA (methyl-sulfonic acid) [µmol L<sup>1</sup>

Glut (glutaric acid) <LOD-0.07 ∑PCB9 [pg L<sup>1</sup>

α-HCH <LOD-47.6 γ-HCH 186–3090 ∑DDT 0.391–59.5 HCB 3.10–35.3

PFOS 18.6–133.2

Hgtotal [ng L<sup>1</sup>

MMHg 3–43 [pg L<sup>1</sup>

In Table 6 we additionally provide the data on other abiotic media except frozen and liquid water, i.e. soil and cryoconite sediment. For cryoconite, it is noteworthy that it may contain

pollutants of various types.


Table 5b. Literature data on chemical concentrations in ice samples from Svalbard glaciers.

Glaciers as an Important Element of the World Glacier Monitoring Implemented in Svalbard http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69237 25


Determined compound(s)/parameters Identified level/range References

Aldrin 69,000 30,000 Dieldrin 7500 54.7 Endosulfan (α, β) 10,700–19,700 2.8–6.8 Endrin – 16.3 Endrin-aldehyde 13,600 – Endrin-ketone – 13.6 Heptachlor 6500 470 Heptachlor epoxide 32,800 1580 HCH (α, γ) 1100–7700 295–369 Methoxychlor 4700 19.6 Chlorpyrifos 16,200 809 Dacthal 300 12.7 Diazinon 20,500 1410 Dimethoate 87000 598 Disulfoton 6500 447 Imidan 44,100 3030 Methylparathion 7400 357 Terbufos 11,100 530 Alachlor 1200 57 Desethyl-atrazine 2100 144 Metolachlor 9300 450 Pendimethalin 18,600 890 Chlordane (α, γ) – 13.39–18.3 DDD(o.p') – 11.5 DDE (p.pʹ) – 1.14 DDT (L) (p.pʹ) – 2.93 Endosulfan sulphate – 2.81 Metribuzin – 1.05 Nonachlor (trans, cis) – 2.28–5.03 Trifluralin – 2.32

Table 5b. Literature data on chemical concentrations in ice samples from Svalbard glaciers.

<LOD-0.566

] [88]

] [73, 74]

] [pg cm<sup>2</sup> yr<sup>1</sup>

PFOS <LOQ-13.5

DOC [mg L<sup>1</sup>

24 Glacier Evolution in a Changing World

Pesticides [pg L<sup>1</sup>


Table 5c. Literature overview of chemical concentrations in surface water samples from the glacial catchments of Svalbard.

marked amounts of both harmful heavy metals and life-supporting nutrients. In respect to soils, it can be highlighted that their ionic components may be at lower concentrations than those encountered in the riverine waters flowing out of glacial catchments, especially the fastflowing, sediment-rich proglacial rivers (Table 5c).



Table 6. Literature data on sediment samples (soil, cryoconite) collected in the glacial catchments of Svalbard.
