**3. Review of entrepreneurship literature**

Leff [7] defined entrepreneurship from the Schumpeterian perspective as a combination of already existing endowments to produce something which is novel, innovative or original. He further had the notion that entrepreneurship is increasingly viewed as essential to economic growth and social development. Societies are not static and the entrepreneurs of today are not identical to the ones which existed before. In any country, some regions produce more entrepreneurial activities than others, because entrepreneurship cultural bound. When we look at entrepreneurial activities of the Nama, Maori, First Nations or Aboriginal people, we usually talk about "indigenous entrepreneurship."

Hindle and Lansdowne [8] argued that indigenous entrepreneurship is the creation, management, and development of new ventures by indigenous people for their own benefit. The desired benefits that are ultimately achieved can range from the narrow view of economic profit for an individual to the broad view of multiple people. Thereto, indigenous entrepreneurship creates socio-economic advantages for communities, and the outcomes derived from indigenous enterprise which extends to non-indigenous enterprise partnerships and stakeholders.

As claimed in Ref. [9], the common perception of indigenous business as a community-run venture is inadequate and renders indigenous entrepreneurs invisible, missing the fact that most indigenous people live in urban areas. It is also the argument of the researchers in Ref. [10, p. 6] that there is cultural legitimacy to some extend and indigenous identity and the desire to positively reflect indigenous values in the surrounding mainstream community.

According to the authors in Ref. [11], indigenous entrepreneurship refers to the entrepreneurial process of an enterprise which encompasses the desire of an indigenous person to become more self-reliant and socially cohesive. Also, as stated in Ref. [12], discussions around indigenous entrepreneurship in the academic literature is prominent in the Canadian and Australian literature, as scholars have done research pertaining to issues of indigenous people and how they sustain their livelihoods through self-employment based on indigenous knowledge. When looking at the academic literature and the definitions from various scholars indigenous entrepreneurship also looks into people's own traditional customs, knowledge and values.

It is noted in Ref. [8] that people who are indigenous see themselves as a collective group working together on the basis of their common ancestry, history, language and, at times, religion. This observation came to light from a study which was conducted with the Aboriginals of Australia and Torres Strait Islanders. The primary motive behind this latter mentioned study was to search new paths to interpret indigenous entrepreneurship in the context of the indigenous people of Australia.

Indigenous entrepreneurship domain has two main areas which it strives to achieve name: (i) the essence of reconciling tradition with innovation; and (ii) the importance of understanding values and worldviews which are not necessarily part of the mainstream views.


It is also confirmed in Ref. [8] that indigenous entrepreneurs can offer many benefits to the mainstream society and the global village. Furthermore, if indigenous people intend to pursue a successful indigenous business activity, cultural heritage must not be lost as that is the good and service that is placed on the market, unique and innovative, a niche on any market.

Ref. [13, p. 563] reported that as part of the migration settlement of the Polynesian peoples in the Pacific the last 500 years indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand were viewed as indigenous to the land. Entrepreneurial activities of the Maori people in New Zealand were viewed as "Kaupapa Maori entrepreneurship." This relates to the specific ways Maori people practice, think and feel toward activities related to the improvement of their livelihoods. Kaupapa Maori Entrepreneurial activities are focused on the development community rather than individual development and it is that aspect that drives the enterprise.

To the Maori, indigenous to New Zealand, the *whanau, hapu and iwi* play a very essential role in their survival. The Maori establish businesses for both profit and non-profit, this enhances their *whanau, hapu and iwi*, and also creates robust strategic organizations that impact the development of the Maori communities [13, p. 547].

An indigenous group of people are defined by the following characteristics as per the World Bank:

**1.** Attached to ancestral territories and natural resources;

look at entrepreneurial activities of the Nama, Maori, First Nations or Aboriginal people, we

Hindle and Lansdowne [8] argued that indigenous entrepreneurship is the creation, management, and development of new ventures by indigenous people for their own benefit. The desired benefits that are ultimately achieved can range from the narrow view of economic profit for an individual to the broad view of multiple people. Thereto, indigenous entrepreneurship creates socio-economic advantages for communities, and the outcomes derived from indigenous enterprise which extends to non-indigenous enterprise partnerships and

As claimed in Ref. [9], the common perception of indigenous business as a community-run venture is inadequate and renders indigenous entrepreneurs invisible, missing the fact that most indigenous people live in urban areas. It is also the argument of the researchers in Ref. [10, p. 6] that there is cultural legitimacy to some extend and indigenous identity and the desire to positively reflect indigenous values in the surrounding mainstream

According to the authors in Ref. [11], indigenous entrepreneurship refers to the entrepreneurial process of an enterprise which encompasses the desire of an indigenous person to become more self-reliant and socially cohesive. Also, as stated in Ref. [12], discussions around indigenous entrepreneurship in the academic literature is prominent in the Canadian and Australian literature, as scholars have done research pertaining to issues of indigenous people and how they sustain their livelihoods through self-employment based on indigenous knowledge. When looking at the academic literature and the definitions from various scholars indigenous entrepreneurship also looks into people's own traditional customs,

It is noted in Ref. [8] that people who are indigenous see themselves as a collective group working together on the basis of their common ancestry, history, language and, at times, religion. This observation came to light from a study which was conducted with the Aboriginals of Australia and Torres Strait Islanders. The primary motive behind this latter mentioned study was to search new paths to interpret indigenous entrepreneurship in the context of the

Indigenous entrepreneurship domain has two main areas which it strives to achieve name: (i) the essence of reconciling tradition with innovation; and (ii) the importance of understanding

• *The essence of reconciling tradition with innovation:* Generally, modern entrepreneurship is revenue driven and based on innovation. With culture being an identity, indigenous people are driven fundamentally to restore and preserve their own cultural heritage. The aim is to create an understanding of the language and cultural values so it may not be lost, but serve as a means to revenue creation as well ensuring the cultural heritage

• Values and worldviews are usually not part of the mainstream but understanding these two aspects are important. Worldviews are regarded as backward; the benefits indigenous

values and worldviews which are not necessarily part of the mainstream views.

people can offer are sometimes missed out on by mainstream society.

usually talk about "indigenous entrepreneurship."

stakeholders.

110 Indigenous People

community.

knowledge and values.

is not lost.

indigenous people of Australia.


As cited in Refs. [11, 14] also acknowledged that the aforementioned clearly places "indigenous people" to be distinct. Indigenous people around the world range between 300 and 500 million people and they constitute at least 80% of the cultural diversity on this planet. Five thousand (5000) different groups of indigenous people are recognized by the United Nations (UN). It is important that the rich diversity of cultural heritage is recognized by these institutions to both restore and protect the identity of these groups.

Drawing from the diverse insights and writings of the scholars above, and for the purpose of this chapter, indigenous people are defined as "the first inhabitants of a particular nation. Indigenous People worldwide still maintain their social cultural norms, language and institutions [11]." The next section will look at Entrepreneurship in a Nama cultural context.
