**2. Study area and research methodology**

#### **2.1. Study area**

**1. Introduction**

136 Indigenous People

based on indigenous weather forecasting.

that merit appreciation for scientific validation.

Indigenous weather forecasting system is dynamic and is built on observation and long years of experience [1]. The importance of indigenous knowledge transcends the culture from which it is born and offer exciting insights to scientists and others who seek to assist the development of local people [2]. Agricultural decisions, such as the timing of planting, indigenous ranch management, herd composition, and number, are highly interlinked with anticipated weather phenomenon [3, 4]. Hence, the capacity of people to be drought resistant is highly related to the precision and credibility of their indigenous weather forecasting systems [5–8].

Different cultures make use of biotic and/or abiotic indicators to forecast about the future weather conditions. For example, atmospheric conditions and astronomic, plant, human, and animal indicators are used in Zimbabwe for weather forecasting [9, 10]. Besides, traditionally, the behavioral changes of some animals and birds, change of wind directions, and phonological changes in plant species are used to make weather forecast in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Kenya [1, 3, 11, 12]. Astrology is also cited in Kenya. The ritual observation of the Pleiades alignment is used for weather forecast in Peru and Bolivia [13]. Cultural and ritual specialists in Burkina Faso observe plant and animal behaviors for the same purpose [14]. In Uganda indigenous weather forecasting is made based on cloud color, features of vegetation, the cycle and shape of the moon, and seasonal calendar [15], while in Swaziland, reading animal behavior and environmental clues are the sources of weather forecasting indicators. In western Ethiopia indigenous experts have a sophisticated indigenous knowledge of weather forecasting by way of reading and interpreting astrological phenomena [16]. The list goes on and is too much to mention all, and much commonality is shared in different cultures. History shows that over the last 400 years, the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes people were able to forecast El Nino years

However, studies show that in recent years the vitality of indigenous weather forecasting mechanisms is declining. Among many factors the disappearance of biotic indicators and the influence of religion and modern education [10, 17], poor documentation and knowledge transfer mechanism [9, 18], generation gap, poor finance, and passing away of skilled persons [15] are identified as causes for the gradual weakening of the precision and acceptance of indigenous knowledge of weather forecasting. In addition to examining how the reality of the study area feeds into the short survey made above, this study extends the discussion to forecast dissemination systems and reaction of the herders to the forecast information.

Most related studies are highly descriptive (of the view of indigenous people) and lack critical appraisal on how to determine the validity of indigenous weather forecasting system. In a bid to address that lacuna, this book chapter assesses the relative merits and demerits of different indigenous weather forecasting systems and their level of acceptance by the people. It is hoped that it would make significant contribution as to what policy directions should be followed vis-à-vis agricultural development programs. Attempt is made to distinguish aspects of indigenous weather forecasting that could be readily dismissed as superstitious from those Borana zone is found in Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia between 3°36ʹ–6°38ʹ N and 36°43ʹ–41°40ʹ E [20]. The zone covers a total area of 35,000 km2 [19]. The study site experienced semiarid climatic condition and has four distinct seasons. These are small rainy season, hot dry season, main rainy season, and cool dry season that roughly cover from September to November, December to January, March to May, and June to August, respectively. The rainfall amount decreases toward south, and annual rainfall amount ranges between 400 and 600 mm. The study site receives 59 and 27% of its rainfall during the main rainy season and small rainy season, respectively. There is no perennial river which crosses the study site [20]. In the study site, pastoralism is the dominant way of life. This study was conducted in Yabello and Arero *woredas* (districts) of CCAFS 30 × 30 block learning site.
