**3.1. Study area**

The study area covered Vihiga County and subcounties and areas adjacent to Kakamega tropical rainforest in western Kenya (**Figure 1**). Subsistence agriculture is the mainstay of the inhabitants of the area. The Kakamega forest ecosystem is a major source of charcoal and firewood, livestock grazing, medicinal extracts and wild honey and provides ground for the local community to practice their cultural activities such as circumcision [51]. The prominent SLM practices include: planting of improved seed varieties, timely implementation of agronomic practices, mulching, contouring on slopes, planting multipurpose farm trees and livestock integration [43, 44]. The SLM strategies for conservation of Kakamega forest ecosystem include: the promotion of farm forestry, sustainable planting and harvesting regimes for plantations, rehabilitation of natural forest stands and protection of riparian vegetation [52].
