*3.3.1.2. The apparent movement duration of Bekalcha Bari or Bekalcha Gulchu*

The morning star known locally as *Bekalcha Bari* (star at dawn east direction) and *Bekalcha Gulchu* or *Ahiha* (in the west) is used to forecast extreme drought conditions. If it is seen in the west 70 days after it has been observed in the east, and if it is seen in the east 7 days after its appearance in the west, it assumed that the prospective season will be normal. However, if it is not observed in the east on the seventh day after its appearance in the west and is observed again in the west after 140 days, it is regarded as an indicator of future extreme drought.

#### *3.3.1.3. Geometrical alignment of celestial bodies*

In Borana the alignment of the moon with the *Busan* is also used to forecast the upcoming weather. If the *Busan* is observed in the west by a man milking a cow at 08:00 p.m. under the cow belly, then it is regarded as an indicator of the arrival of the main rainy season. On the other hand, if it is seen in the east to a person milking a cow at night at 08:00 p.m. under the cow belly, it indicates the arrival of the small rainy season. The informants could not explain why the observer should be in a milking position with a cow in such a way that he/she should observe *Busan* in the east or west. If it is supposed to imply any geometrical value, for example, to calculate the impact of that constellation on earth, unfortunately that is out of the scope of this study to prove. Here, it is interesting only to say that this observation is not made to forecast the likelihood of normal rainfall or drought, but to simply know the arrival of the main and small rainy seasons.

#### *3.3.1.4. The apparent size of the stars*

A star locally known as *Kormi Mado* is located in the southern hemisphere. It moves in a clockwise direction and never moves to the north of a perceived line of the equator (see **Figure 3**). The position of *Kormi Mado* is used to make forecasts both for the long and short rainy seasons. The forecasting is based on the size of the star at the time of observation. If it is observed in the month of *Birra* and seemingly smaller in size at the 14th day of the moon at 09:00 p.m., the forecast for the upcoming main rainy season would be drought. On the other hand, if the star is observed, on the same month, day, and time, with a seemingly greater size to normal, a rainy season is expected. The star is also used to make weather forecasts for the small rainy season. While the interpretation of the size of the star is the same, for the small rainy season, the timing of observation is in the month of *Biouttessa* on the 1st day of the moon and at 09:00 p.m. local time.

#### *3.3.1.5. Apparent movement of the star*

*Turban* is located only in the northern hemisphere moving in a clockwise direction. The position of *Turban* is not used to forecast the starting and cessation time of rainfall as well as the Revisiting Indigenous Biotic and Abiotic Weather Forecasting for Possible Integration... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69887 143

**Figure 3.** Significant moon positions used for weather forecast. Sources: Diagram sketched based on the description of *Urgii Elaltu*.

volume of the rain. When it is observed on the position shown in **Figure 3**, experts realize that the rainy season is approaching. When *Turban* is observed near to the extreme North Pole, *Urgii Elaltus* believe that the small rainy season is approaching. Conversely, when *Turban* moves from its southern path into the northern path of rotation, it is believed that the main rainy season will arrive within 2 weeks.

#### *3.3.1.6. Other indicators used to validate star-moon alignment weather forecasting*

The Borana herders use data from the condition of weather and climate elements such as sunlight, cloud cover, temperature, and wind necessary not only to forecast weather but also to strengthen forecasts based on other biotic and abiotic indigenous weather forecasting systems. If, at the time of star observation, the sun is surrounded with what is locally called *Muna Garti*, herders conclude that drought will occur in the next season. If, on the same day, a solar radiant with reddish color is observed at sunrise, experts believe that the next season will have normal rainfall. A dull and white sky at sunrise is equated to the future drought. When people notice that their locality experiences a strong and fast wind blowing from east to west, they expect that drought is forthcoming. However, if the wind blows slowly raising the dust upward, people expect normal rainfall at the right time. The appearance of a whitish feather-like column of cloud (in a vertical position) in the sky is regarded as indicative of rainfall which is about to fall. If the sky is dominantly covered by light cloud, herders do not expect rainfall shortly.

#### *3.3.2. Reading of animal intestines*

a very regular succession, and if changes to that regularity are to happen, it would only be possible in thousands of years. Hence, the actually experienced drought seasons being very erratic than regular, and knowing that the alignment changes are very regular, indigenous experts' claim does not tally with the reality. This must account for the discrepancy between

The morning star known locally as *Bekalcha Bari* (star at dawn east direction) and *Bekalcha Gulchu* or *Ahiha* (in the west) is used to forecast extreme drought conditions. If it is seen in the west 70 days after it has been observed in the east, and if it is seen in the east 7 days after its appearance in the west, it assumed that the prospective season will be normal. However, if it is not observed in the east on the seventh day after its appearance in the west and is observed again in the west after 140 days, it is regarded as an indicator of future extreme drought.

In Borana the alignment of the moon with the *Busan* is also used to forecast the upcoming weather. If the *Busan* is observed in the west by a man milking a cow at 08:00 p.m. under the cow belly, then it is regarded as an indicator of the arrival of the main rainy season. On the other hand, if it is seen in the east to a person milking a cow at night at 08:00 p.m. under the cow belly, it indicates the arrival of the small rainy season. The informants could not explain why the observer should be in a milking position with a cow in such a way that he/she should observe *Busan* in the east or west. If it is supposed to imply any geometrical value, for example, to calculate the impact of that constellation on earth, unfortunately that is out of the scope of this study to prove. Here, it is interesting only to say that this observation is not made to forecast the likelihood of normal

rainfall or drought, but to simply know the arrival of the main and small rainy seasons.

tion is in the month of *Biouttessa* on the 1st day of the moon and at 09:00 p.m. local time.

*Turban* is located only in the northern hemisphere moving in a clockwise direction. The position of *Turban* is not used to forecast the starting and cessation time of rainfall as well as the

A star locally known as *Kormi Mado* is located in the southern hemisphere. It moves in a clockwise direction and never moves to the north of a perceived line of the equator (see **Figure 3**). The position of *Kormi Mado* is used to make forecasts both for the long and short rainy seasons. The forecasting is based on the size of the star at the time of observation. If it is observed in the month of *Birra* and seemingly smaller in size at the 14th day of the moon at 09:00 p.m., the forecast for the upcoming main rainy season would be drought. On the other hand, if the star is observed, on the same month, day, and time, with a seemingly greater size to normal, a rainy season is expected. The star is also used to make weather forecasts for the small rainy season. While the interpretation of the size of the star is the same, for the small rainy season, the timing of observa-

*3.3.1.2. The apparent movement duration of Bekalcha Bari or Bekalcha Gulchu*

their forecasting and the actual phenomena.

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*3.3.1.3. Geometrical alignment of celestial bodies*

*3.3.1.4. The apparent size of the stars*

*3.3.1.5. Apparent movement of the star*

*Uchuus* claim that intestinal features that are used for weather forecast are mirrors of the future weather conditions. This stems from a dictum that the future weather and sociopolitical conditions of an area are encoded in animals' intestines where the sex and age of the animal do not matter, although an informant indicated the females and older ones preferably. The intestines of cattle, sheep, and goats are used to forecast about the magnitude, severity, and duration of drought, drought-affected places, disease outbreak, the prospect of peace, and/or conflict.

Like astrological weather forecasting, intestinal forecasting system is full of secrecy. *Uchuus* read and interpret slaughtered animal organs such as the large intestine (*Kechuma*), small intestine, lymph node (*Kabello*), and blood vessels (veins) to forecast the upcoming season (see **Figure 4**). *Uchuus* infer the amount of food substance in the intestine, color and amount of blood, and lymph node size to forecast the small and main rainy season drought condition. For instance, the more the amount of food substance in the small intestine and large intestine, the forecast translates into normal rainfall season. But, the drought season will be expected if they observe small amount of food substance in the digestion process in the small intestine and large intestine. The intestinal weather forecasting system also used to predict the magnitude of drought. Mild, moderate, severe, and extreme drought conditions are forecasted when *Uchuus* see small, smaller, and very small food subsistence in both the small intestine and large intestine

When *Uchuus* observe uniform lymph node thickness entirely and the node is covered by darker color tissues, normal rainfall season is forecasted, and rainfall onset will begin on the right time. Forecast for drought is made if a thin and very thin lymph node is observed. A very thick lymph node and large intestine are signs to predict that rainfall will commence in 2 weeks time and 2 months, respectively. Regardless of its thickness, if a marked protrudes is observed at the end of the lymph node that is regarded as the right sign to forecast an outbreak of livestock disease. In Borana, intestinal reading of weather forecasting system is used only for short-term weather forecasting, i.e., from 2 to 3 months. This system of forecasting enables to identify the village and peasant's association level of drought severity. These help herders to send scout to areas which will not affect by drought.

The amount and color of blood in the blood vessel on different parts of the intestine are also indicators for weather forecasting (see **Figure 4**). If the blood filled tauten the vessel and its color

**Figure 4.** Parts of the intestine used for weather forecasting. Source: Photo taken during data collection when *Uchuu* interprets the intestine.

is darker, *Uchuus* forecast drought for both small rainy season and main rainy season. But if the blood is smaller and yellowish in color at the junction of blood vessel in the small intestine and large intestine, the forecast for the next season would be normal rainy season. The severity of the drought is inferred in indirect proportion to the amount of blood contained in the vessel; if the amount of blood in the blood vessels is small and yellowish in color, normal year is predicted. However, the absence of blood in the vessels is an indication of extreme drought condition.

Like astrological weather forecasting, intestinal forecasting system is full of secrecy. *Uchuus* read and interpret slaughtered animal organs such as the large intestine (*Kechuma*), small intestine, lymph node (*Kabello*), and blood vessels (veins) to forecast the upcoming season (see **Figure 4**). *Uchuus* infer the amount of food substance in the intestine, color and amount of blood, and lymph node size to forecast the small and main rainy season drought condition. For instance, the more the amount of food substance in the small intestine and large intestine, the forecast translates into normal rainfall season. But, the drought season will be expected if they observe small amount of food substance in the digestion process in the small intestine and large intestine. The intestinal weather forecasting system also used to predict the magnitude of drought. Mild, moderate, severe, and extreme drought conditions are forecasted when *Uchuus* see small, smaller, and very small food subsistence in both the small intestine

When *Uchuus* observe uniform lymph node thickness entirely and the node is covered by darker color tissues, normal rainfall season is forecasted, and rainfall onset will begin on the right time. Forecast for drought is made if a thin and very thin lymph node is observed. A very thick lymph node and large intestine are signs to predict that rainfall will commence in 2 weeks time and 2 months, respectively. Regardless of its thickness, if a marked protrudes is observed at the end of the lymph node that is regarded as the right sign to forecast an outbreak of livestock disease. In Borana, intestinal reading of weather forecasting system is used only for short-term weather forecasting, i.e., from 2 to 3 months. This system of forecasting enables to identify the village and peasant's association level of drought severity. These help

The amount and color of blood in the blood vessel on different parts of the intestine are also indicators for weather forecasting (see **Figure 4**). If the blood filled tauten the vessel and its color

**Figure 4.** Parts of the intestine used for weather forecasting. Source: Photo taken during data collection when *Uchuu*

herders to send scout to areas which will not affect by drought.

and large intestine

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interprets the intestine.

In the diagnostic data collection sessions, the researcher confirmed that *Uchuus* used the same signs and sign interpretation procedure and made similar forecast. In three diagnostic sessions, six of *Uchuus* forecasted accurately the 2015 main rainy season. Likewise, all weather forecasting systems made accurate forecast for the 2014 main rainfall season. However, faulty weather forecast was made for the 2015 small rainy season. The timely onset of rainfall was forecasted by *Uchuus* and *Urgii Elaltu*, which foresaw drought. The *Urgii Elaltus* rightly forecasted the 2014 small rainy season. It may mislead to comment the reliability of intestinal weather forecasting system by single right forecast and faulty forecast. Hence, I argue that since meteorological forecast has its own limitations, repeated diagnostic and astrological observation is compulsory to reach a conclusion on the precision of Borana indigenous forecasting system.

The researcher tried to substantiate *Uchuu* signs and interpretations with the experience of veterinarians. Veterinarians have different positions on the intestinal indigenous weather forecasting signs and interpretations. Those who have research experience on indigenous knowledge have positive attitude to indigenous weather forecasting system, whereas others connect the amount of food substance in the small intestine and large intestine with the amount of food taken, laying position of the animal at the time of slaughtered and the color of the blood with the effect of disease or toxic grass. They emphasized that the blood color variation might be the effect of disease or toxic grass that is mostly encountered during times of environmental stress. Proper red color simply reflects the good health status of the animal rather than to be a code for the future of rainfall.

The view of veterinarians holds that the inequality in the amount of waste found in the right and left blood vessel of intestines could vary depending on the age, sex, pregnancy, and health conditions of animals and is not necessarily linked with future climatic events, peace/ war, conflict, etc. However, the researcher observed the similarity of interpretations made on the intestine of three goats by different readers. In both cases, normal year was forecasted, and the amount of waste, color blood, and shape of the blood vessel are found similar. However, this could be attributed to the similarity and harmony with which fathers train their sons and does not necessarily lend the craft of intestinal reading a force of scientific truth, and we know myths told even in distant cultures show high degree of consistency.

It suffices here to point out that indigenous intestine observation is not impure to superstition. Hence, it may make too big claims in forecasting the range from the fate of the animal owner to that of local weather information and world peace and conflict. It looks as if the practice is an archaic form of early warning system for socioeconomic, political, and security threats of the people. At any rate, it is very difficult and misleading to entirely disregard the craft as it might risk perpetual loss of valuable cultural heritage, and rigorously thus scientific validation should take place.

The same assumptions apply to forecast about the prospect of peace, conflict, starvation, mass death of livestock, etc., from a reading of the intestine. The prospect of conflict (including at the global level) can be deciphered if the section of the intestine that bears "the map" is observable beneath the matter that envelops it. Intestinal reading is also used as to who would come to visit them or even where guests would park their car, not only the belief that intestinal feature give clue to forecast the rain time but also when the owner of the animal would die.

## *3.3.3. Reading of animal behaviors and body conditions*

The informants believed that particular body conditions and behaviors of cattle during abundant resources are signals for future weather condition. Cattle behaviors that are interpreted as signs of a future drought are calmness, sleeping in the zoo very close to one another, being unwillingness to go to the nearby pasture, reluctance to go away from water points after drinking, and poor appetite for grass and salt. Besides, the bull would isolate himself from the herd, goes to forest, and refuses to return to the zoo. Cattle body conditions that are considered as indicators of a future drought are loss of body weight, erection of skin hair, and swollen bellies, which do not get raised even when they have eaten much, urinating and defecating while sleeping and diminishing of dung amount even when they eat enough and lack of desire for mating.

On the other hand, informants believe that in view of a prospective normal rainy season, cattle lick each other's body, roam around villages, eat any bone found, leave water points immediately after drinking, show a relaxed mood, and amuse them with frenzy wriggling around. Besides, the bull mounts on any cows in a short period of time. In other words, they think that the future weather conditions of the area find expression in animals' external behavior to a degree that warrants weather forecasts. Such views are endorsed by scholars who said that animals detect the incoming weather conditions, and that is an essential component of their survival strategy. Veterinarians also agreed with the view of herders in that animals have natural ability to sense the future precisely than human-made technology. They believed that sensing the future and making behavioral changes are essential features of their instinctual knowledge. Behaviors such as reduced appetite for food and mating prepare cattle to withstand incoming harsh condition. Some of the cattle body conditions and behaviors mentioned by study participants such as looking hungry is similar with a study result in Kenya but contradicts with the assertion that cattle fight over food [12].

Some of the above body conditions and behaviors of cattle used by herders as harbingers of the future weather conditions could lead to misinterpretation. In science, things like lack of appetite for mating and food are caused by sickness than the influence of the future weather phenomenon. The cattle behaviors that are said to be indicators of a future drought are in fact typical conditions of animals during actual drought time and may not necessarily be indicators of a future drought. Likewise, the cattle behaviors interpreted as indicators of normal rainy season are actually conditions that can be seen in time of abundant resources rather than the effects of what would happen during the next season.

Of course, it is not difficult to explain some of the cattle behaviors and body conditions. Forecasts of rainfall are made during the dry season where resources are scarce. By then cattle have very little to eat, and their bellies would not rise up and hence would have defected diminished dung. In fact, this is indirectly admitted by informants who said that if the future is to be drought, the palatability of grass decreases which reduces the amount of grass consumption of animals below the normal years. On the other hand, if animals show behaviors and body conditions that are believed to be indicators of good rainy season, it could be because they are not hard-hit during the dry season for various reasons such as herders have had stored enough forage. Moreover, it is odd to believe that cattle would demonstrate behaviors and body conditions that are typically observed during the time of resource abundance while living during the dry season. Hence, without disregarding a possibility that specific body languages and behaviors could be signs of future weather conditions, it would be difficult to distinguish those signs from those caused by sickness and hunger.

In addition to cattle, in Borana weather forecast is made using the behavior of other wild animals. If ground squirrels (*Tuka*) are busy digging holes, the ants' movement along a course of nearly a straight line, a normal rainy season is expected and vice versa, while drought is forecasted if squirrels are passive and ants are dispersed in search of food. The migration of bees during the time of resource abundance season in their locality from north to south is regarded as a signal for a future drought, while normal rainfall will be forecasted if they migrate in the reverse direction. In Kenya the same activity of ants and bee migration are interpreted similarly for weather forecast [12]. The termites' activity 2 months before the small and main rainy season commence is also other indicator for the forthcoming season. When termites are actively engaged in gathering and storing of food, building hills is regarded as normal rainy season. In the contrary, if termites did not show any activity to gather and store food and build their home, drought will be expected. It seems clear that the above behaviors and activities of animals confirm that the forecast is derived from a belief that those animals act in a way that ensure their survival in the face of forthcoming season. Among the Borana herders, the varying screaming hyenas' tones and songs of birds are employed to make forecasts about different things. But it is a daunting task to describe the musical or vocal scale of different voices of hyenas and birds here. This result is in line with previous study in Borana [24].

#### *3.3.4. Reading of plant body languages*

The same assumptions apply to forecast about the prospect of peace, conflict, starvation, mass death of livestock, etc., from a reading of the intestine. The prospect of conflict (including at the global level) can be deciphered if the section of the intestine that bears "the map" is observable beneath the matter that envelops it. Intestinal reading is also used as to who would come to visit them or even where guests would park their car, not only the belief that intestinal feature give clue to forecast the rain time but also when the owner of the animal would die.

The informants believed that particular body conditions and behaviors of cattle during abundant resources are signals for future weather condition. Cattle behaviors that are interpreted as signs of a future drought are calmness, sleeping in the zoo very close to one another, being unwillingness to go to the nearby pasture, reluctance to go away from water points after drinking, and poor appetite for grass and salt. Besides, the bull would isolate himself from the herd, goes to forest, and refuses to return to the zoo. Cattle body conditions that are considered as indicators of a future drought are loss of body weight, erection of skin hair, and swollen bellies, which do not get raised even when they have eaten much, urinating and defecating while sleeping and diminishing of dung amount even when they eat enough and lack of desire for

On the other hand, informants believe that in view of a prospective normal rainy season, cattle lick each other's body, roam around villages, eat any bone found, leave water points immediately after drinking, show a relaxed mood, and amuse them with frenzy wriggling around. Besides, the bull mounts on any cows in a short period of time. In other words, they think that the future weather conditions of the area find expression in animals' external behavior to a degree that warrants weather forecasts. Such views are endorsed by scholars who said that animals detect the incoming weather conditions, and that is an essential component of their survival strategy. Veterinarians also agreed with the view of herders in that animals have natural ability to sense the future precisely than human-made technology. They believed that sensing the future and making behavioral changes are essential features of their instinctual knowledge. Behaviors such as reduced appetite for food and mating prepare cattle to withstand incoming harsh condition. Some of the cattle body conditions and behaviors mentioned by study participants such as looking hungry is similar with a study result in Kenya but con-

Some of the above body conditions and behaviors of cattle used by herders as harbingers of the future weather conditions could lead to misinterpretation. In science, things like lack of appetite for mating and food are caused by sickness than the influence of the future weather phenomenon. The cattle behaviors that are said to be indicators of a future drought are in fact typical conditions of animals during actual drought time and may not necessarily be indicators of a future drought. Likewise, the cattle behaviors interpreted as indicators of normal rainy season are actually conditions that can be seen in time of abundant resources rather than

Of course, it is not difficult to explain some of the cattle behaviors and body conditions. Forecasts of rainfall are made during the dry season where resources are scarce. By then cattle have very little to eat, and their bellies would not rise up and hence would have defected

*3.3.3. Reading of animal behaviors and body conditions*

tradicts with the assertion that cattle fight over food [12].

the effects of what would happen during the next season.

mating.

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In Borana, the phonology of Tedecha (acacia flowering tree with narrow leaves and black fruit pods, *Acacia tortilis*) (see **Figure 5**) and Ret (aloe tree, a plant with fleshy-toothed leaves) (see **Figure 6**) is used to forecast the main and small rainy season rainfall situation. In both cases, herders expect rainfall a month after the date of flowering of these trees. If the trees have small amount of flower and shed it early, that is regarded as a sign for a future drought. Botanists corroborate the claims of herders. They elaborated that to survive or withstand the incoming harsh conditions, plants respond through different ways: by restricting their growth (which can be observed at the tree ring), shading their flower before pollination to minimize their fruit, and minimizing their flower to reduce the food intake. All such strategy helps them minimize the loss of energy in times of scarcity. Otherwise, the plant would perish (see also similar scientific arguments from [12, 25]. Shukurat et al. [12] discovered partially conflicting result with the Borana plant observations and botanists in that forecasting is made busing same tree spices fruits. In the contrary, other botanists claimed that plant body conditions are reflections of the conditions they live in rather than the future weather phenomenon.

**Figure 5.** *Tedecha/*acacia tree. Source: Photo taken during data collection.

If herders observe a less number of locally growing green leaf plants such as *Hamesa* (*Commiphora africana*), Agarsu (*Commiphora erythraea*), *Dakkara* (*Boswellia neglecta*), and *Sukela* (*Delonix elata*) during *Obra-Teka* (August) and *Amajjii* (January), the forthcoming small rainy season and main rainy season are forecasted as drought. In the contrary

**Figure 6.** *Ret*/aloe tree. Source: Photo taken during data collection.

when the density of the aforementioned tree leaves increased, normal year is predicated. *Bisduga* (*Kirkia burgeri*) tree provides more precise forecast information than the above tree types. However, the observation and interpretation system is the same with the rest of the plants. Unlikely, our finding [9] observed plants that are used for long-term weather forecast. The variation could be due to biophysical (e.g., climate, topography, soil, tree type) differences.

On the other hand, there is something discomforting about herders' explanations. They say that the tree flowers and leaves before the onset of the rainy season and the flowering and lavishness by itself are not sufficient to make weather forecasts; it is the amount of the flowers and leaves as well as its early fall. If the flowers and/or the leaves are small and drop early, it could be because of the actual moisture stress felt by plants rather than in anticipation of drought. Like cattle behaviors, it is hard to distinguish plant body conditions that are caused by actual drought, disease, etc. from those natural signs caused by the perceived drought. To make a conclusive argument about the true cause for the smallness of the flowers and leaves and their early fall, it is imperative to make experimental research such that a group of trees would be continuously watered since the time of flowering while leaving the other group with no water. If both groups shed their flowers and leaves early than the usual time and then drought follows, herders claim would make good sense. But that is not the scope of this study. Herders expect that rain follows a month after the starting date of flowering and lavishness of the leaves. If their analogy is correct, their ability to make weather forecast depends on how early or late the trees drop their flowers and leaves. At any rate, they do not seem to be able to make forecast for drought before about 2 weeks, a time too small to make adequate preparation. In summary, scientists have not reached consensus about the implication of plant body conditions, and it is very difficult to downplay the claims of tradition. A more conclusive answer awaits for in-depth scientific investigation.

#### **3.4. System of disseminating weather information**

**Figure 5.** *Tedecha/*acacia tree. Source: Photo taken during data collection.

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**Figure 6.** *Ret*/aloe tree. Source: Photo taken during data collection.

If herders observe a less number of locally growing green leaf plants such as *Hamesa* (*Commiphora africana*), Agarsu (*Commiphora erythraea*), *Dakkara* (*Boswellia neglecta*), and *Sukela* (*Delonix elata*) during *Obra-Teka* (August) and *Amajjii* (January), the forthcoming small rainy season and main rainy season are forecasted as drought. In the contrary

> The *Uchuu*, *Urgii Elaltu*, and Ayantu (Borana calendar experts) are in charge of forecasting weather and disseminating information, but do not have obligation to do so and are not paid. The *Uchuu*, *Urgii Elaltu*, and Ayantu communicate their weather forecast information to community elders and heads of Geda who would then disseminate it by summoning the people for urgent meetings. Alternatively, the information is provided to people in market places, water points, and village settlements. Moreover, interested people could go to the houses of weather forecasters and personally ask for weather information. Individuals who receive weather information also inform others. The development agents, local administrators, and NGOs participate in the dissemination of forecasted information by *Uchuu*, *Elaltu*, and Ayantu. Besides, they are responsible for disseminating modern weather information by translating it to local language to influence herders to make appropriate preparations. In Alona *kebele*, an NGO called Action for Development (AFD) provides early warning and preparation service by registering the observation of *Uchuu* and *Urgii Elaltu* every 15 days. AFD also disseminates the information to concerned government and nongovernment authorities.
