**4. Results and discussions**

sometimes collected from indigenous reserves without local communities' full consent. The ethical issues that were addressed by the researcher in consultation with Kenyatta University

**2.** Consultation with the communities to ascertain interest in the project in allowing access

While systematic documentation captures and preserves orally transmitted knowledge for present and future generations, it exposes local farmers to the risk of losing their IPR through piracy and commercial exploitation. Cognizant of this, the research team strived to use creative ways of documenting oral ethnobotanical knowledge while protecting the IPRs of the community right at the beginning of the study. The provision of an explanation on the objective of the study hopefully led to a relaxed and positive attitude from the respondents to facilitate data collection. Additionally, field observations, photography, participatory resource

The inclusion of the community in the study by giving local people a chance to coordinate the study process enabled the research team to build linkages and ensured that the local com-

**1.** The local steering committee that mobilized people were recognized as key people who had interacted with senior scientists and obtained knowledge on some aspects of indigenous ethnobotanical resources that they could cascade to other members in the community. **2.** The youth who participated in the study as research assistants were not only remunerated for their services but also gained insight into ethnobotanical knowledge that they did not

**3.** Members of the research team were given seedlings by some herbalists who had preserved

Such collaboration through an exchange of seedlings between the community and researchers as well as empowerment of the research team to cascade the gained knowledge about ethnobotanical resources enhanced the buy-in of study results and recommendations to improve the current environmental policy with a view to integrating indigenous ethnobotanical

pivotal plant species in nurseries to plant in their homesteads for future use.

**6.** Access to their genetic resources embodying their traditional knowledge.

mapping and transect walks were employed in data collection.

knowledge in development programs for sustainability.

munity owned the work. The local community benefited in three ways:

Directorate of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) included:

**1.** Identifying the communities living in the study area.

**3.** Negotiating agreement with potential users.

**7.** Issues related to equitable benefit sharing. **8.** Community intellectual property rights.

to their resources.

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have previously.

**4.** Providing copies of the report. **5.** Third-party use of information.

#### **4.1. Awareness of traditional knowledge and practices**

The results shown in **Table 3** indicate that most respondents (95%) were aware of these practices, whereas the remaining 5% were not aware. To establish the levels of understanding of TEK on SLM, respondents in the study subcounties were asked to state whether they were aware of the various TEK and practices related to SLM. Majority of the respondents (95%) were aware of these practices, whereas the remaining 5% were not aware (**Table 3**).

The level of awareness of traditional knowledge and listed practices of SLM was not significantly different among respondents across levels of education. Significant differences emerged between gender categories. Majority of male respondents (73%) were aware of the different traditional methods and practices of SLM compared to 27% among female respondents. This difference was statistically significant (*χ*<sup>2</sup> = 9.75, *df* = 2, *p* < 0.017). Similar findings have been reported elsewhere [59]. This difference can be attributed to the fact that customarily, men are inheritors of ancestral land among communities inhabiting this region and hence are keener on conserving land than women. This was summarized as follows:

*Women can never inherit ancestral land in this region. Land is inherited by sons of the home. Girls are expected to get married elsewhere when they become of age (in-depth interview).*

Young respondents aged 18–25 years had limited knowledge about traditional methods and practices of SLM. Respondents aged 45 years and above appeared to be more aware of these methods and practices. Chi-square test confirmed that these differences observed were statistically significant (*χ*<sup>2</sup> = 14.143, *df* = 5, *p* < 0.001). The differences in levels of awareness about traditional methods and practices of SLM between young and elderly were further emphasized by respondents in a FGD, thus:


**Table 3.** Respondents' awareness of soil land management in the study area.

*Only old men and women have same knowledge about indigenous plant resources and how they are used. As for young people, only few who go to the forest to harvest some species for use as medicine have some knowledge about indigenous plant resources. The reason that the youth lack such knowledge is that the elderly withhold a lot of information from the former so that they can continue reaping economic benefits from their knowledge of indigenous medicinal plants. (Male FGD, Malava Sub-county).*

These above results corroborate results of other studies that younger people are less knowledgeable about indigenous plant resources. In Bahia State of Brazil for example, younger women and men, especially those with the most education and travel experiences, show little interest in learning the identities and uses of local plants, albeit having a strong general commitment to environmental conservation [64].

## **4.2. Current traditional knowledge and SLM practices in western highlands of Kenya**

Some of the identified practices that address the myriad soil land management challenges (**Plate 1**) in the study area are elaborated here below.

**Plate 1.** Environmental challenges facing the people of western highlands of Kenya (source: Author, 2016).

## *Cultivation of ridges*

*Only old men and women have same knowledge about indigenous plant resources and how they are used. As for young people, only few who go to the forest to harvest some species for use as medicine have some knowledge about indigenous plant resources. The reason that the youth lack such knowledge is that the elderly withhold a lot of information from the former so that they can continue reaping economic benefits from their knowledge of indigenous medicinal plants. (Male FGD, Malava Sub-county).* These above results corroborate results of other studies that younger people are less knowledgeable about indigenous plant resources. In Bahia State of Brazil for example, younger women and men, especially those with the most education and travel experiences, show little interest in learning the identities and uses of local plants, albeit having a strong general com-

**4.2. Current traditional knowledge and SLM practices in western highlands of Kenya**

**Plate 1.** Environmental challenges facing the people of western highlands of Kenya (source: Author, 2016).

Some of the identified practices that address the myriad soil land management challenges

mitment to environmental conservation [64].

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(**Plate 1**) in the study area are elaborated here below.

The most popular practice used in the study area is the "*fanya-juu*" terracing. *Fanya-juu* terraces have had the positive effect of increasing crop yields in East Africa by about 25%, hence the high adoption rate by smallholder farmers (**Figure 3**) [65].

On the importance of *fanya-juu* terraces, respondents during in-depth interview were unanimous that:

*Fanya-juu terraces help preserve valuable topsoil rich in soil organic matter, thus promoting the use of fewer chemical inputs to sustain yields, which have positive economic and ecological consequences for both farmers' livelihoods and the environment.*

#### *Use of organic farmyard manure*

This practice of using farm yard manure (FYM) (*imbolea*) in crop farming enterprises is common in the study area. Cattle manure is an integral component of soil fertility management in western highlands of Kenya, and its importance as a source of nutrients for crop production is widely recognized [66–68]. Field interviews showed that respondents rely on organic manures as low cost and easily available alternatives to inorganic fertilizers. The quantity and quality of manures available are the major factors limiting its contribution to increased crop yields.

The use of FYM requires that farmers own livestock as the market for it is thin because of inadequate amounts available partly because of inadequate knowledge on its benefits [69]. Respondents during FGD reported that they make their farm yard manure from a wide range

**Figure 3.** The architecture of *fanya-juu* terraces (source: Ref. [65]).

of organic materials including plant residues (maize stover, bean straw, grass trash, tree/ hedge cuttings and banana pseudostems), animal manures and kitchen waste.

#### *Mulching*

Mulching is an effective method of manipulating crop-growing environment to increase yield and improve product quality by controlling weed growths, ameliorating soil temperature, conserving soil moisture, reducing soil erosion, improving soil structure and enhancing organic matter content [70]. Over 95% of respondents interviewed reported practicing mulching on their crop fields.
