*5.1.2. New technology, utilization and conservation of indigenous plant resources*

**5.1. Enculturation, gender dynamics, utilization and conservation of plant resources**

discussed below.

176 Indigenous People

respondent in **Box 1**.

*5.1.1. Changing culture and gender roles*

*(Female, FGD with farmers in Malava Sub-county)*

Field results show a change in the use of indigenous plant resources due to societal changes in the former western highlands of Kenya. They include cultural changes and gender roles as

Unlike in the ancient days when culture prohibited women from cultivating and utilizing some plant resources such as indigenous trees and banana fibers, there is a change in modern times because culture is no longer strictly upheld. The introduction of exotic plant resources such as *Cupressus lusitanica* (*mutarakwa*) or Cyprus trees and genetically improved *Musa acuminata* (*amakomia*) or banana fibers has benefited illiterate women who feel free to handle the new plant species unlike indigenous species that culture prohibits women from cul-

*Beliefs and traditions used to demean women and prohibit them from planting trees and Musa acuminate (amakhola) banana fibres. However, times have changed leading to relaxation of stringent traditions and customs. Nowadays women do plant exotic trees and improved Musa acuminate (amakomia) banana fibres in women groups: something that was considered as a taboo in the olden days.* 

These changes have enabled women to play an important role in agro-biodiversity by cultivating, caring for and conserving plant resources by borrowing from traditional indigenous knowledge where women are well endowed as seen earlier. Women provide required food for households because they live in rural areas as spouses live in urban centers due to urbanization. Our findings corroborate with other studies [34]. The vital role played by women in the western Kenya resonates with the emphasis of the Rio Earth Summit that recognized and fostered the traditional methods and the knowledge of indigenous people and communities by emphasizing the particular role of women that is relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of biological resources [71]. Despite the engendered use of plant resources that has been enhanced by modernization and urbanization, there are specific indigenous plant resources that some illiterate women feel uncomfortable to plant due to cultural prohibitions. These include planting indigenous species of *Musa acuminata* (*amakomia*) or bananas, trees and fences, fearing that their spouses could die as elaborated by a

There are some traditions that are still upheld, and these discourage women from planting indigenous plant resources such as *Musa acuminate* (banana) fibers and indigenous trees. Tradition demands that these crops be planted by men only. It is believed that men can die if women plant trees and bananas fibers. To this end, woman must rely on men to plant bananas fibers. If spouses are away, women request brothers-in-law to plant these species on their behalf. But in case the men decline, then bananas fibers and indigenous trees are not planted until when spouses return to villages to

play their appropriate roles in homesteads. (Female oral interviewee, Shinyalu Sub-county)

**Box 1.** Some women not free to plant bananas and some indigenous trees.

tivating and caring for. A respondent reiterated this fact in the following excerpt:

Agricultural technology could be perceived as both destroyer and conserver of indigenous plant resources. On the one hand, the introduction of technology has led to destruction of indigenous herbs/weeds that were resourceful to people. A case in point is where wastes from factories pollute rivers, leading to destruction of plant resources. When referring to this trend, a respondent noted, "*Long ago, we had different varieties of indigenous plant resources in our river basin that served many purposes. But with the introduction of factories in this area, the waste is dumped in rivers leading to extinction of most indigenous plant resources along river valleys."* (Male, Oral interviewee, Ikolomani subcounty)

Pollution of the environment negates Act 87 of the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act [72] that prohibits discharge of wastes that pollute the environment. The Act expects owners of factories to minimize wastes through treatment, reclaiming and recycling: failure to which such individuals are guilty of an offence liable to imprisonment for a term of not more than 2 years or to a fine of not more than 1 million Kenya shillings or to both such imprisonment and fine. To this end, local people ought to be made aware of their rights under this Act so as to put pressure on factory owners to minimize wastes prior to discharging water into local rivers. On the other hand, the introduction of technology has enabled people to conserve some species such as *Aloe kedongensis* (*likakha*) or *aloe vera* whose economic value was unknown. These trends are further discussed below.

#### *5.1.3. Modern technology as destroyer of indigenous plant resources and soil nutrients*

The onset of modern agricultural practices such as tractors and power saws led to clearing of indigenous herbs/weeds thereby threatening their future existence. For instance, a species called *Mondia whitei* (*mukombero*) for increasing sexual libido and other weeds/herbs used to be found in bushes but are extinct because farms were cleared using modern technology to plant food crops as revealed in the following excerpt from the field:

*Mondia whyttei (mukombero) used to be found everywhere when we [people in the western highlands of Kenya] had fallow land full of indigenous bushes and forests. But nowadays people use their land mainly for agriculture. Tractors or bulls are used to plough thereby destroying many indigenous weeds/ herbs that existed in the past. If someone needs Mondia whytei (mukombero,) these days, he/she must travel to Kakamega Forest to look for the species therein. (Male, FGD with charcoal burners in Malava Sub-county)*

The results from FGD further show that the use of modern fertilizers is believed to have introduced new species of stubborn weeds/herbs that never existed in western highlands of Kenya before. All FGD participants mentioned a weed called *Tithonia diversifolia* (*kayongo*) as one of the stubborn new weeds that have been introduced by the use of modern fertilizers. The challenge of nuisance and invasive species that cause harm to the environment is increasing along with the increase in international trade. In order to address this challenge, the people in the highlands of western Kenya need to establish teams to research on such invasive species and advice the government on how to eradicate them as is the practice in the United States of America [60].

Again, modern fertilizers have led to extinction of some indigenous species as shown in the excerpt below:

*The use of new farm inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers have led to the disappearance of Cupressus lusitanica (inarutsaka) and even the leaves of that plant that was used to chase away birds in Albizia coriaria (mavere) or sorghum plantations. (Male, FGD with farmers in Ikolomani Sub-county).*

Key respondents further emphasized the role of technology in the extinction of indigenous herbs/weeds and vegetables as seen in **Boxes 2** and **3**, respectively.

People in this area have acquired knowledge regarding best practices in planting exotic species such as *Zea mays* (*amatuma*) or maize. They have knowledge about how and when to use varied forms of organic manure to plant *Zea mays* (*amatuma*). However, the people also know that continued use of modern fertilizers cause soil infertility and nothing can germinate unless the chemicals are added to the soil. This has led to reduced food production in this area and extinction of some valuable indigenous plant resources such as *Albizia coriaria* (*shivembe or obusinde*), *Ricinus cummunis* (*amabono*), *Cupressus lusitanica* (*inabutsaka*) and *Biden pilosa* (*olukoye*) or black jack that used to be common prior to introduction of modern fertilizers. Since many people lack cash to purchase the expensive fertilizers, they prepare composite manure in their homesteads to mix with modern chemicals to enhance productivity on their farms. (Male oral interviewee, Ileho Sub-county)

**Box 2.** Modern fertilizers' role in extinction of indigenous herbs/weeds.

Modern manure is responsible for loss of traditional vegetables. These vegetables cannot grow on the modern fertilizer. If an attempt is made, they merely wither away. For example, *Solanum nigrum* (*lisutsa*) and *Gynandropsis gynandra*  (*tsisaka*) used to grow on uncultivated land. But these days, these vegetables together with *Amaranthus* (*tsimboka*) and *Portulaca oleracea* (*inderema*) are getting extinct due to the use of modern fertilizers. Whereas modern fertilizers increase the yield of *Zea Mays* (*amatuma*), the crop is very seasonal and very few people can afford the cost of fertilizer. On the contrary, indigenous food species such as *Ipomoea batatas* (*lipwoni*) or sweet potatoes were available throughout and enabled people to have food all the time. But the indigenous species of many crops are not available any more. (Female, oral interviewee in Shinyalu Sub-county)

**Box 3.** Modern fertilizers' role in extinction of indigenous vegetables.

FGD participants pointed out that agricultural inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers destroy nutrients in their farms. Farmers are forced to incur high costs to purchase farm inputs to improve ever-diminishing crop yields. One respondent stated that:

*The use of fertilizer makes the soil very acidic and infertile. Previously, we just used organic manure for cultivating crops. We used to apply manure once for a whole season resulting to very good yields. But nowadays, our soils have changed. When you plant crops, with modern fertilizer, you must apply it again or top dress with ammonia before harvesting. Failure to constantly apply manure to food crops results to poor harvest. Again, nowadays, if you plant crops without fertilizer, you should not expect to harvest any crops. (Female, FGD with herbalists in Ileho Sub-county)*

In order to improve the soil nutrients, FGD participants observed that agricultural officers encourage them to interplant *Grevillea robusta* (*amapipilia*) trees with food crops because the trees are friendly to the environment and to other crops. According to one participant:

*Nowadays, agricultural officers advice us to intercrop our food crops with Grevillea robusta (amapipilia)* **or** *gravellier trees to improve the fertility of our farms. Even long time ago, we used to inter crop Tamarindus indica (mukumu) tree, and Olea capensis (mukavakava), which shed their seeds and*  *leaves to improve soil fertility. That is why we desire to have our indigenous plants to be returned to farmers so that we can bring back [revitalize] the soil fertility (Male, oral interviewee in Ikolomani Sub-county)*

Again, modern fertilizers have led to extinction of some indigenous species as shown in the

*The use of new farm inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers have led to the disappearance of Cupressus lusitanica (inarutsaka) and even the leaves of that plant that was used to chase away birds in Albizia coriaria (mavere) or sorghum plantations. (Male, FGD with farmers in Ikolomani Sub-county).*

Key respondents further emphasized the role of technology in the extinction of indigenous

People in this area have acquired knowledge regarding best practices in planting exotic species such as *Zea mays* (*amatuma*) or maize. They have knowledge about how and when to use varied forms of organic manure to plant *Zea mays* (*amatuma*). However, the people also know that continued use of modern fertilizers cause soil infertility and nothing can germinate unless the chemicals are added to the soil. This has led to reduced food production in this area and extinction of some valuable indigenous plant resources such as *Albizia coriaria* (*shivembe or obusinde*), *Ricinus cummunis* (*amabono*), *Cupressus lusitanica* (*inabutsaka*) and *Biden pilosa* (*olukoye*) or black jack that used to be common prior to introduction of modern fertilizers. Since many people lack cash to purchase the expensive fertilizers, they prepare composite manure in their homesteads to mix with modern chemicals to enhance productivity on their farms. (Male oral

FGD participants pointed out that agricultural inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers destroy nutrients in their farms. Farmers are forced to incur high costs to purchase farm inputs to

Modern manure is responsible for loss of traditional vegetables. These vegetables cannot grow on the modern fertilizer. If an attempt is made, they merely wither away. For example, *Solanum nigrum* (*lisutsa*) and *Gynandropsis gynandra*  (*tsisaka*) used to grow on uncultivated land. But these days, these vegetables together with *Amaranthus* (*tsimboka*) and *Portulaca oleracea* (*inderema*) are getting extinct due to the use of modern fertilizers. Whereas modern fertilizers increase the yield of *Zea Mays* (*amatuma*), the crop is very seasonal and very few people can afford the cost of fertilizer. On the contrary, indigenous food species such as *Ipomoea batatas* (*lipwoni*) or sweet potatoes were available throughout and enabled people to have food all the time. But the indigenous species of many crops are not available any more. (Female,

*The use of fertilizer makes the soil very acidic and infertile. Previously, we just used organic manure for cultivating crops. We used to apply manure once for a whole season resulting to very good yields. But nowadays, our soils have changed. When you plant crops, with modern fertilizer, you must apply it again or top dress with ammonia before harvesting. Failure to constantly apply manure to food crops results to poor harvest. Again, nowadays, if you plant crops without fertilizer, you should not expect to* 

In order to improve the soil nutrients, FGD participants observed that agricultural officers encourage them to interplant *Grevillea robusta* (*amapipilia*) trees with food crops because the

*Nowadays, agricultural officers advice us to intercrop our food crops with Grevillea robusta (amapipilia)* **or** *gravellier trees to improve the fertility of our farms. Even long time ago, we used to inter crop Tamarindus indica (mukumu) tree, and Olea capensis (mukavakava), which shed their seeds and* 

trees are friendly to the environment and to other crops. According to one participant:

improve ever-diminishing crop yields. One respondent stated that:

**Box 3.** Modern fertilizers' role in extinction of indigenous vegetables.

**Box 2.** Modern fertilizers' role in extinction of indigenous herbs/weeds.

oral interviewee in Shinyalu Sub-county)

interviewee, Ileho Sub-county)

*harvest any crops. (Female, FGD with herbalists in Ileho Sub-county)*

herbs/weeds and vegetables as seen in **Boxes 2** and **3**, respectively.

excerpt below:

178 Indigenous People

This finding shows that lack of adequate knowledge on ethnobotanical plant resources could lead to unsustainable utilization of the environment. Farmers who are unaware of how intercropping indigenous trees with food crops improve soil fertility are unlikely to plant indigenous trees on their farms. Fortunately, agricultural extension workers are sharing such information with farmers as they promote planting of *Grevillea robusta* (*amapipilia*) trees. In addition, agricultural extension workers disseminate information about the need to conserve genetic resources to meet the demand for future food security [73]. Our finding on the need to preserve indigenous plant species for sustainable use of the environment resonates with findings of other studies that new technology could be used to preserve indigenous plant resources and eliminate viruses for safe exchange of germ plasm using enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) [73]. Ultimately, an integration of indigenous ethnobotanical knowledge with modern agricultural development will ensure sustainable use of the environment.
