**1. Introduction to indigenous knowledge and systems**

Indigenous knowledge (IK) and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) refer to knowledge and knowledge systems that are unique to a given culture [1]. Indigenous knowledge can be differentiated from the modern scientific knowledge system (MSKS) and international knowledge systems. The roots of MSKS rest on scientific research conducted and generated in institutions of higher learning such as universities and research institutions. MSKS can be seen as a component of society, part of the scientific and technological advancements of humanity; this knowledge cannot be orally garnered or obtained through anything but rigourous academic study. It is propagated through advanced study's institutes, graduate research and education, including internships and training workshops and modules. What should be understood most clearly about the MSKS is that it is self-perpetuating, where the models for training and development and career advancement all involve the reinforcement of existing systems of research and knowledge propagation and development. Nevertheless, there are examples of indigenous knowledge systems that have survived and even thrived despite the challenges brought up through the MSKS such as *Ayurveda* [2] and *Unani* [3] and even acupuncture, which is basically an indigenous Chinese medical knowledge system. The strength of IKS can be seen in how these three systems have gained acceptance in various contexts, including the National Institute of Health establishing centres of research and study for both acupuncture and *Ayurveda* in the United States, as well as various governmental research centres that have been established by the Indian government, for example, to research *Unani*.

At its most elemental level, IKS can be considered the foundation upon which local communities make determinations about local issues. These decisions pertain to various areas of endeavour, including water and other resource use, conservation and management, agriculture, health care issues, as well as providing information and public outreach and education within a local community.

The major problem with indigenous knowledge and indigenous knowledge systems reside in the difficulty encountered in establishing what constitutes 'indigenous' in particular social, geographical and cultural contexts. The difficulty for a society to come to agreement on what and who is indigenous can be quite high, especially because of establishing a socially and culturally accepted identification of what constitutes the indigenous groupings within a given country or region. The conflict can range from groups that desire to be recognized as indigenous to groups that find paternalistic offense in that identification. Global transcontinental migration drives the mix of peoples of different backgrounds and ethnicities towards greater complexity and the discourse has to dissect whether only communities that are native, aboriginal or tribal should be included or the scope expanded to include other types of residents or migrants. The process of classifying and providing tangible examples of indigenous knowledge systems, researchers, educators and practitioners have developed a plethora of terms that can be linked closely to IKS [4]. These include such labels as traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous technical knowledge (ITK), folk and local knowledge, environmental or ecological knowledge (EK), and sometimes it has also been called people's science.

Despite the multitude of terms used to identify IKS, there are generally accepted and received notions of what IKS comprise, specifically around the space of traditional knowledge in diverse cultural surroundings and geographical spaces. Thus, what is helpful is developing operational and characterizing ideas of what IK is, how it is developed, and how it grows as a knowledge system within a particular cultural space.

**1. Introduction to indigenous knowledge and systems**

the Indian government, for example, to research *Unani*.

within a local community.

124 Indigenous People

Indigenous knowledge (IK) and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) refer to knowledge and knowledge systems that are unique to a given culture [1]. Indigenous knowledge can be differentiated from the modern scientific knowledge system (MSKS) and international knowledge systems. The roots of MSKS rest on scientific research conducted and generated in institutions of higher learning such as universities and research institutions. MSKS can be seen as a component of society, part of the scientific and technological advancements of humanity; this knowledge cannot be orally garnered or obtained through anything but rigourous academic study. It is propagated through advanced study's institutes, graduate research and education, including internships and training workshops and modules. What should be understood most clearly about the MSKS is that it is self-perpetuating, where the models for training and development and career advancement all involve the reinforcement of existing systems of research and knowledge propagation and development. Nevertheless, there are examples of indigenous knowledge systems that have survived and even thrived despite the challenges brought up through the MSKS such as *Ayurveda* [2] and *Unani* [3] and even acupuncture, which is basically an indigenous Chinese medical knowledge system. The strength of IKS can be seen in how these three systems have gained acceptance in various contexts, including the National Institute of Health establishing centres of research and study for both acupuncture and *Ayurveda* in the United States, as well as various governmental research centres that have been established by

At its most elemental level, IKS can be considered the foundation upon which local communities make determinations about local issues. These decisions pertain to various areas of endeavour, including water and other resource use, conservation and management, agriculture, health care issues, as well as providing information and public outreach and education

The major problem with indigenous knowledge and indigenous knowledge systems reside in the difficulty encountered in establishing what constitutes 'indigenous' in particular social, geographical and cultural contexts. The difficulty for a society to come to agreement on what and who is indigenous can be quite high, especially because of establishing a socially and culturally accepted identification of what constitutes the indigenous groupings within a given country or region. The conflict can range from groups that desire to be recognized as indigenous to groups that find paternalistic offense in that identification. Global transcontinental migration drives the mix of peoples of different backgrounds and ethnicities towards greater complexity and the discourse has to dissect whether only communities that are native, aboriginal or tribal should be included or the scope expanded to include other types of residents or migrants. The process of classifying and providing tangible examples of indigenous knowledge systems, researchers, educators and practitioners have developed a plethora of terms that can be linked closely to IKS [4]. These include such labels as traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous technical knowledge (ITK), folk and local knowledge, environmental or ecological

Despite the multitude of terms used to identify IKS, there are generally accepted and received notions of what IKS comprise, specifically around the space of traditional knowledge in

knowledge (EK), and sometimes it has also been called people's science.

The main characterizing feature of an IKS is that it is locally based, grounded in a particular culture and geography. The oral tradition is strong in IKS, most of the knowledge being passed on orally, and through mimicry and practical application. In general, IK can be considered the cultural and technological product, or knowledge product, from a society or culture's interaction and engagement with daily living. Theoretical grounding is not IKS's hallmark—that is, the foundation of the MSKS. On the other hand, IKS is developed through daily engagement and through trial and error to see what meets a particular community's needs.

The notion of the static nature of IK has been disproved through numerous examples showing how IK can be changing continuously, especially as a culture or a community develops and grows, and is subject to changing environmental, cultural, physical and economic stressors. Because of its oral traditions, IKS tend to be more transparent and openly accessible to communities. Intellectual property is not a strong point in the IKS ecosystem—knowledge is supposed to be shared for the benefit of the community and not for private gain. As described earlier, IKS are grounded in a specific local culture and as such tend to be distributed through a given community according to different bases; IK can be quite asymmetrical dispersed in a given community. The bases can be age, seniority, gender, or sometimes based within a particular community sub-group or segment that focuses on the particular activity the IKS is integral to—such as, for example, river keepers and water masters clustered around rapine communities focused on water treatment and conservation.

IKS is often maintained and propagated through community members who are experts recognized and accepted as such by the community. This standing may obtain from political authority, particular ritualistic standing an individual may possess, or simply from being the most respected authority with the most experience and acknowledged as such within a particular community. In terms of knowledge organization and management, indigenous knowledge is broadly seen as based in its function, which may include both technical and non-technical aspects within a particular field of application [5].

An excellent illustrative example of IKS being employed in decision-making at the local level is the *panchayathi raj* form of local government that involves all stakeholders at the grass roots level in governance decisions at the village level [6].

To summarize, indigenous knowledge and indigenous knowledge systems are based in communities at the very grass roots level; this knowledge provides the critical socio-cultural capital that is essential for communities to not only survive but also to go beyond and flourish within the given contexts of that community's geography, environment, culture and economy. At the same time, IKS is not static—it changes as is required and in response to the various stressors that a community faces, including environmental, social, public health and safety; IKS is also informed through external interchanges and interactions that any community undergoes through trade, exchange and other cross-boundary type interactions.

Given the importance of IKS to a community's survival and flourishing, these knowledge bases and systems are critically important for capacity building within a community. This capacity building takes the form of development of appropriate technologies (ATs) to sustainably address the challenges that a community may be faced with [7-9].
