**3. Indigenous knowledge and appropriate technology**

For a community to survive and flourish, elementary community necessities for survival such as clean water and air, safe and healthy food, renewable energy, accessible and affordable healthcare, relevant and topical education as well as information and technology needs, must be satisfactorily met. The focus of appropriate technologies being developed across the planet is the development of sustainable technologies to satisfy these fundamental needs. Communities focus on the development of the technologies appropriate to the satisfaction of these community needs. Often, it is the indigenous knowledge of these communities that was the basis for the community's technological development.

capacity building takes the form of development of appropriate technologies (ATs) to sustain-

Before being able to relate indigenous knowledge and IKS to appropriate technology (AT), it is important to clearly define what an 'appropriate' technology is, something that has been quite difficult to do and has been the source of much controversy [10]. There is some consensus that has emerged from the various discourses, however, on the operations and manifestations of technologies that have been deemed appropriate, despite many accepted notions of AT being brought into question [11]. Perhaps most important for AT is the underlying philosophy and ethic that focuses on empowerment of communities at the grassroots through the development and implementation of appropriate technologies that address basic needs of clean air, water, shelter, safe and nutritious food, relevant education, and pertinent information and communication technologies among other needs. Some of the tenets generally applicable to ATs include: require little capital, utilize local materials and resources, be relatively labour intensive, be small scale and be affordable. Nevertheless, there has recently emerged the notion of micro-AT and macro-AT, challenging some of the previously mentioned tenets of AT. It is clear that many long held presumptions about AT are now being debated and questioned. AT philosophy does emphasize grounding in specific communities, implementation within the constraints of local community-specific socio-cultural and geographical contexts. Perhaps most important, the end result of development and implementation of ATs within communities must result in building community capacity and empowering the community at

The most critical feature of the appropriate technology ethic speaks to the holistic inclusion of the local targeted community in the entire development process. This has to begin with the actual technology conceptualization stage, going on right through to technology innovation, development, implementation and execution, followed by monitoring and evaluation. Any technology that claims the mantle of 'appropriate' should also be adaptable and flexible, while eliminating adverse environmental impacts [12, 13]. An earlier paper [13] provided a broad over view of appropriate technologies available for water collection, treatment and storage in the context of land reform and a more recent version [14] updated appropriate

For a community to survive and flourish, elementary community necessities for survival such as clean water and air, safe and healthy food, renewable energy, accessible and affordable healthcare, relevant and topical education as well as information and technology needs, must be satisfactorily met. The focus of appropriate technologies being developed across the

ably address the challenges that a community may be faced with [7-9].

**2. Appropriate technology**

126 Indigenous People

the local grass roots level [12–14].

water technologies in the context of public health.

**3. Indigenous knowledge and appropriate technology**

A launching point for the analysis of how indigenous knowledge and IKS might contribute to the development of appropriate technologies would be to address these identified needs. More importantly, after identifying relevant and applicable needs, IKS that include appropriate technologies for these targeted efforts must be identified through engagement of the local community. A broad and diverse spectrum of appropriate technologies can be called upon as a resource base, allowing communities to self-select and focus on those areas that are of critical immediate need for the community. This drawing from IKS for the development of ATs will promote and enhance sustainability practices and principles within the community.

Numerous and diverse examples exist of appropriate technologies that are being implemented and practiced that originate in indigenous knowledge. The application of the prolific and multifaceted neem tree in a broad array of rural sustainability practices such as health and agriculture is an excellent and pertinent example [15]. The spice turmeric has been utilized for centuries by indigenous communities in agriculture, animal husbandry and in health and medicinal applications [16]. Turmeric is also widely employed in the Ayurvedic medical practices, as well; indeed, medical systems for health management such as acupuncture and Unani [17] are examples of IKS on a much larger and deeper social milieu.

Among the rich resources that emanate from IKS, agricultural knowledge and management systems also abound. An example that has particular relevance in the age of synthetic fertilizers and large-scale pesticide inputs into industrial scale agriculture and the various problems that ensue is *vrikshaturveda*. This is an old IKS that focuses on agricultural practices that only call for organic and natural interventions into the farming process and cycle. Thus, in *vrikshaturveda*, traditional agricultural outputs such as cow dung and biomass waste are manipulated to create sustainable and naturally and organically renewable input. Thus, a spray for plants is created out of cow urine, yogurt, milk and *ghee* (clarified butter), and this can displace synthetic pesticide and foliar sprays that might have large negative impacts on the environment [18].

Alongside food and agriculture, water is a critical natural resource that needs to be managed sustainably for the community. Various indigenous knowledge systems have developed water sourcing, conservation, storage and treatment techniques and practices that are sustainable in the context of that local community. As part of the natural hydrological cycle and the seasonal variations in rainfall, indigenous knowledge systems developed such as the various water tank systems of India [19], including the *ery, kere and cheruva* water tank systems of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, respectively.

Indigenous knowledge systems are being supported by some governments such as those of India (*Ayurveda and Unani*) and China (*Accupuncture*), with the aim of undergirding the IKS with scientific backing and support. Turmeric, as utilized and implemented in indigenous knowledge practices, lends itself to more fundamental scientific and clinical study in order to be able to develop an understanding of the mechanisms and processes by which turmeric might be affecting various health outcomes. As something that has widespread use in *Ayurvedic* practices as well as in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for numerous ailments. Turmeric has been indicated for use to treat wounds, skin diseases and liver problems. It has also been used extensively as an anti-inflammatory agent, not just in human medicine but in animal husbandry as well. Turmeric's anti-bacterial properties are well known; nevertheless, it is also being investigated for beneficial therapeutic effects in the treatment of atherosclerosis, stomach ulcers, ulcerative colitis and cancer. It has also been employed as an anti-viral agent [20]. The tremendous breadth of research that is now on-going and being initiated to explore the diverse therapeutic potential of turmeric is what can drive the engagement of appropriate technologists with local medical technologies to develop sustainable solutions to public health issues.

Acupuncture is perhaps the most widely known traditional Chinese medical practice that is being reflective of a tradition of indigenous knowledge that has a history of over thousands of years [21]. Although there is broad awareness of TCM, the need to develop a more fundamental understanding of what happens in TCM from a biomedical perspective is great [22]. This need has been addressed by the Chinese government, which has thrown a great deal of resources behind establishment of institutes devoted to the systematic and scientific study of these traditional medical practices. In the west, government research institutes such as the National Institute of Health, have established departments and centres for the study of acupuncture and other non-traditional or non-conventional medical practices. The realization that these traditional medical practices have led to positive health outcomes for diseased individuals who have been so treated underscores the great need for thorough scientific investigation and understanding of indigenous medical practices, ranging from Ayurveda to acupuncture [22].

Although much of the world's attention has been focused on Asia, many African Indigenous Knowledge systems (AIKS) are now being documented and described and are becoming the focus of study, especially as these indigenous practices pertain to development in the African context [23]. Indigenous knowledge from Africa can be a central vehicle by which education for all (EFA) target and goals can be met. It has been argued [24] that formal schooling and regular school education may not be the appropriate vehicle for delivery of the outcomes that are being visualized in the EFA context [24]. Formal schooling, with more traditional educational practices, may need to be integrated with and into these practices to enhance their impact and expand their reach.

Another critical area that needs to be paid attention to is the issue of 'intellectual property (IP)', as it impacts the articulation, development and implementation of indigenous knowledge system-based technologies. It is important to be able to protect the IKS as well as the knowledge bearers and practitioners. To do this, it may be critical to grant legal effect to existing indigenous protocols for the preservation, as well as protection, of indigenous knowledge possessed by native healers. A good first step is to identify indigenous knowledge and to ensure that indigenous knowledge practices must be researched and given due credit when reviewing and considering IP and patents that have their origins in that indigenous understanding [8].

It is clear that support for indigenous knowledge and systems must emanate from the state. This has been the case in both India and China, and is also emerging as a model that is being employed in other countries such as Ghana, Sudan and Guyana. In India, for instance, there is the National Mission for Manuscripts that seeks to document and catalogue a rich trove of indigenous knowledge that spans the diverse country [25]. The issues that need to be addressed by such institutions include access, documentation and sharing and the incorporation of appropriate digital technologies for the knowledge management, sharing and dissemination [26].

order to be able to develop an understanding of the mechanisms and processes by which turmeric might be affecting various health outcomes. As something that has widespread use in *Ayurvedic* practices as well as in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for numerous ailments. Turmeric has been indicated for use to treat wounds, skin diseases and liver problems. It has also been used extensively as an anti-inflammatory agent, not just in human medicine but in animal husbandry as well. Turmeric's anti-bacterial properties are well known; nevertheless, it is also being investigated for beneficial therapeutic effects in the treatment of atherosclerosis, stomach ulcers, ulcerative colitis and cancer. It has also been employed as an anti-viral agent [20]. The tremendous breadth of research that is now on-going and being initiated to explore the diverse therapeutic potential of turmeric is what can drive the engagement of appropriate technologists with local medical technologies to develop sustainable solutions to

Acupuncture is perhaps the most widely known traditional Chinese medical practice that is being reflective of a tradition of indigenous knowledge that has a history of over thousands of years [21]. Although there is broad awareness of TCM, the need to develop a more fundamental understanding of what happens in TCM from a biomedical perspective is great [22]. This need has been addressed by the Chinese government, which has thrown a great deal of resources behind establishment of institutes devoted to the systematic and scientific study of these traditional medical practices. In the west, government research institutes such as the National Institute of Health, have established departments and centres for the study of acupuncture and other non-traditional or non-conventional medical practices. The realization that these traditional medical practices have led to positive health outcomes for diseased individuals who have been so treated underscores the great need for thorough scientific investigation and understanding of indigenous medical practices, ranging from Ayurveda to

Although much of the world's attention has been focused on Asia, many African Indigenous Knowledge systems (AIKS) are now being documented and described and are becoming the focus of study, especially as these indigenous practices pertain to development in the African context [23]. Indigenous knowledge from Africa can be a central vehicle by which education for all (EFA) target and goals can be met. It has been argued [24] that formal schooling and regular school education may not be the appropriate vehicle for delivery of the outcomes that are being visualized in the EFA context [24]. Formal schooling, with more traditional educational practices, may need to be integrated with and into these practices to enhance their

Another critical area that needs to be paid attention to is the issue of 'intellectual property (IP)', as it impacts the articulation, development and implementation of indigenous knowledge system-based technologies. It is important to be able to protect the IKS as well as the knowledge bearers and practitioners. To do this, it may be critical to grant legal effect to existing indigenous protocols for the preservation, as well as protection, of indigenous knowledge possessed by native healers. A good first step is to identify indigenous knowledge and to ensure that indigenous knowledge practices must be researched and given due credit when reviewing and considering IP and patents that have their origins in that indigenous understanding [8].

public health issues.

128 Indigenous People

acupuncture [22].

impact and expand their reach.

The underlying philosophical approach that most indigenous knowledge systems take is a holistic one. The 'disciplinary' approach, which seeks to break everything down to some elemental constitutive components and study these individually, is the opposite of the indigenous approach, which takes a systemic perspective in its approach to developing solutions to particular problems. The developing world does not lack for this creativity, as Goonatilake [27, 28] has so clearly described: in fact, creative and innovative solutions that were sophisticated in their complexity, integration and effectiveness have been implemented across the centuries in various areas of human endeavour and need, from agriculture and food to health and the environment.
