*Protection of indigenous plant resources through religio-cultural beliefs and rituals*

A herb called *Euphorbia tirucalli* (*ingoi*) was mostly used during rites of passage. Other ethnobotanical species that were mostly mentioned by respondents as instrumental in rites of passage include: *Musa acuminate* (*amakomia*) or bananas (315 respondents, 90%), *Trichilia emetica* (*munyama*) (315 respondents, 90%), *Tamarindus indica* (*mukumu*) (315 respondents, 90%) and *Ficus thonningii* (*mutoto*) (300 respondents, 85.7%).

FGD participants observed that an herb called *Euphorbia tirucalli* (*ingoi*) acts as a disinfectant/ antibiotic and facilitates faster healing of wounds. This explains why the herb was applied on fresh wounds after circumcision of boys in the western highlands of Kenya. According to respondents:

*When we were circumcised, there was something that was crushed called Euphorbia tirucalli (nyingwa or ingoi), mixed with water and applied on our fresh bleeding wounds to facilitate faster healing. (Male, FGD, Malava Sub-county)*

The value of trees was equally mentioned during rituals related to child birth. According to a respondent, "*the leaves of Dioscorea villosa (induma) or yams were boiled in water and used to bathe new born babies in order to neutralize their bad smell and wade off evil eyes of some people who could cause harm to the baby."* (Female, FGD with herbalists in Shinyalu subcounty). A species of a tree called *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) was used during rites of passage, starting with birth, initiation, marriage and death. "*Leaves of Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) *and another tree called Plectranthus barbatus* (*shiroko*) *were used with warm water to massage a child's knees to enable them to walk faster."* (Female, FGD with farmers in Luanda subcounty).

The *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) tree was also utilized during marriage rituals. According to a respondent, "*during marriage arrangements, branches from Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) *tree were customarily used to shepherd cows during dowry delivery. This is because the tree was perceived to link the living dead and future generations."* (Male, FDG with farmers in Shinyalu subcounty). "*A species of a creeping plant, Cussonia arborea* (*lirande*), *was used to determine whether or not a marriage deal would be successful."* (Male, FGD with herbalists, Ikolomani subcounty). When emphasizing how the success of a marriage was determined, a respondent noted that:

*There is a root of a plant called Cussonia arborea (lirande). The Cussonia arborea (lirande) could be extracted and had to come out whole so as to give the expected result. If successful, a man went ahead to approach the girl. The girl could simply follow the man and accept all his wishes. (Male, FGD with farmers in Shinyalu Sub-county)*

When death occurred, *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) tree was used to light mandatory fires that were believed to unite the dead and living members of the community in the former Kakamega district. A respondent noted:

of organic materials including plant residues (maize stover, bean straw, grass trash, tree/

Mulching is an effective method of manipulating crop-growing environment to increase yield and improve product quality by controlling weed growths, ameliorating soil temperature, conserving soil moisture, reducing soil erosion, improving soil structure and enhancing organic matter content [70]. Over 95% of respondents interviewed reported practicing mulch-

A herb called *Euphorbia tirucalli* (*ingoi*) was mostly used during rites of passage. Other ethnobotanical species that were mostly mentioned by respondents as instrumental in rites of passage include: *Musa acuminate* (*amakomia*) or bananas (315 respondents, 90%), *Trichilia emetica* (*munyama*) (315 respondents, 90%), *Tamarindus indica* (*mukumu*) (315 respondents,

FGD participants observed that an herb called *Euphorbia tirucalli* (*ingoi*) acts as a disinfectant/ antibiotic and facilitates faster healing of wounds. This explains why the herb was applied on fresh wounds after circumcision of boys in the western highlands of Kenya. According to respondents: *When we were circumcised, there was something that was crushed called Euphorbia tirucalli (nyingwa or ingoi), mixed with water and applied on our fresh bleeding wounds to facilitate faster healing.* 

The value of trees was equally mentioned during rituals related to child birth. According to a respondent, "*the leaves of Dioscorea villosa (induma) or yams were boiled in water and used to bathe new born babies in order to neutralize their bad smell and wade off evil eyes of some people who could cause harm to the baby."* (Female, FGD with herbalists in Shinyalu subcounty). A species of a tree called *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) was used during rites of passage, starting with birth, initiation, marriage and death. "*Leaves of Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) *and another tree called Plectranthus barbatus* (*shiroko*) *were used with warm water to massage a child's knees to enable* 

The *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) tree was also utilized during marriage rituals. According to a respondent, "*during marriage arrangements, branches from Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) *tree were customarily used to shepherd cows during dowry delivery. This is because the tree was perceived to link the living dead and future generations."* (Male, FDG with farmers in Shinyalu subcounty). "*A species of a creeping plant, Cussonia arborea* (*lirande*), *was used to determine whether or not a marriage deal would be successful."* (Male, FGD with herbalists, Ikolomani subcounty). When emphasiz-

*There is a root of a plant called Cussonia arborea (lirande). The Cussonia arborea (lirande) could be extracted and had to come out whole so as to give the expected result. If successful, a man went ahead to approach the girl. The girl could simply follow the man and accept all his wishes. (Male, FGD with* 

hedge cuttings and banana pseudostems), animal manures and kitchen waste.

*Protection of indigenous plant resources through religio-cultural beliefs and rituals*

90%) and *Ficus thonningii* (*mutoto*) (300 respondents, 85.7%).

*them to walk faster."* (Female, FGD with farmers in Luanda subcounty).

ing how the success of a marriage was determined, a respondent noted that:

*(Male, FGD, Malava Sub-county)*

*farmers in Shinyalu Sub-county)*

*Mulching*

174 Indigenous People

ing on their crop fields.

*"Markhamia lutea (lusiola) tree was used to light mandatory sacred fires that are believed to link the living and the dead." (Male, FGD with charcoal burners, Shinyalu Sub-county)*

The results also demonstrate that some indigenous tree species were used to demarcate sacred space such as graves of elderly and other respected people in the highlands of western Kenya. According to a respondent:

*"Markhamia lutea (lusiola), Tamarindus indica (mukumu) and Croton macrostachyus (musutsi) trees were planted on graves of prominent people in the community." (Man, FGD with farmers, Ikolomani Sub-county)*

Study participants mentioned that some trees such as *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*), *Mimusops bagshawei* (*lutori*) *and Diospyros abyssinica* (*lusuyi*) are perceived as symbols of power and authority in the western highlands of Kenya. This explains why "*walking sticks for respected elderly people are made from trees called Mimusops bagshawei* (*lutori*), *Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) *or Diospyros abyssinica* (*luswi*). *Again, circumcision clubs for identifying initiates were derived from Markhamia lutea* (*lusiola*) *tree."* (Male oral interviewee, Malava subcounty).

Some participants mentioned the value of indigenous plant resources to exorcize demonic forces from haunted people. A respondent observed that "*the bark from Vangueria apiculata* (*mukhaa*) *is used to exorcise demons and evil spirits from a possessed individual."* (Male, FGD with farmers in Ikolomani subcounty). *Spathodea campanulata* (*luviru*) is also used to exorcize demons and evil spirits. According to a respondent, "*Spathodea campanulata* (*luviru*), is burnt over fire and its ash licked by the affected person to neutralize demonic forces in him/ her." (Male, FGD with herbalists, Ikolomani subcounty). A female herbalist reiterated, "*the leaves and bark of Rubia cordifolia* (*mulonda musala*) *herb also block evil spirits and demons from attacking people."* (Female, FGD with herbalists, Ikolomani subcounty). Results also revealed that some indigenous plant species were used to bind oaths. Such plant species were planted by participants after making oaths to seal intentions of keeping promises. According to a respondent, "*Tamarindus indica* (*mukumu*) *and Sesbania sesban* (*lukhuvu*) *trees were used in administering oaths*. A shrub species called *Sesbania sesban* (*lukhuvu*) was mostly utilized to seal oaths" (Male, FGD with herbalist in Shinyalu subcounty).
