**3.1. Hunting and trapping methods**

Cuscus, Celebes wild boar and Timor deer are very important to Amanioho, accounting for almost 90% of the wild animal food resources consumed by villagers in terms of the amount of protein (**Figure 2**). Hunters sometimes use dogs for hunting wild boar and deer, but in many cases, these animals are caught by using a spear trap, *hus pana*. On the other hand, local people hunt cuscus by spear hunting when cuscus are resting in a tree hollow or a lair made inside the accumulated moss on a branch. However, these arboreal marsupials are primarily trapped using a weighted noose made of rattan, *sohe* [21] (**Figure 3**).

Trapping is usually conducted in *kaitahu*, a primary and mature secondary forest situated far from the village settlement and thought of as a ground primarily used for hunting and trapping. As mentioned earlier, *kaitahu* area has been divided into many small forest lots based on trails and natural landmarks such as rivers, ridges and large stones. Each forest lot (*kaitahu*) belongs to a specified individual or a group called the *kaitahu kua*. The villagers set *hus pana* or *sohe* in one forest lot of *kaitahu* or two adjoining lots of *kaitahu* and regularly check their traps approximately two times a week. They continue trapping in this manner in a certain *kaitahu*  until the number of animal decreases. If the number of caught game animals decreases, the *kaitahu kua* imposes a temporary prohibition on forest use, *seli kaitahu*, as we will mention later.

Indigenous Resource Management Practices and the Local Social-Cultural Context: An Insight... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70104 83

**Figure 2.** Cuscus (*Phalanger orientalis*).

trajectory of forest right inheritance and transfer, and (4) household interviews on forest use and tenure, and imposition of temporary forest use ban. All interviews were conducted by Masatoshi Sasaoka using Bahasa (a common Indonesian language) mixed with the local lan-

In the key informant interviews, I conducted in-depth interviews intermittently during 2003– 2010 with the village head, the village council members and customary law leaders to gather data about forest tenure system, norms for controlling forest use and local people's view of

In the participatory forest mapping, 34 villagers draw a forest map by marking the location of each forest lot in 2003 (as I explain later, forest area in Amanioho is divided into more than

In the focus group interviews, I interviewed with village elders from 10 of the 11 soa (patrilineal descent groups) in 2003 and 2004 to clarify the tenure status of all forest lots and historical

In the household interviews, in 2004, I asked all heads of households in Amanioho about the tenure status of each forest lot, temporary hunting and trapping bans, actual forest use and

**3. Forest use and interactions between humans and supernatural agents**

Cuscus, Celebes wild boar and Timor deer are very important to Amanioho, accounting for almost 90% of the wild animal food resources consumed by villagers in terms of the amount of protein (**Figure 2**). Hunters sometimes use dogs for hunting wild boar and deer, but in many cases, these animals are caught by using a spear trap, *hus pana*. On the other hand, local people hunt cuscus by spear hunting when cuscus are resting in a tree hollow or a lair made inside the accumulated moss on a branch. However, these arboreal marsupials are primarily

Trapping is usually conducted in *kaitahu*, a primary and mature secondary forest situated far from the village settlement and thought of as a ground primarily used for hunting and trapping. As mentioned earlier, *kaitahu* area has been divided into many small forest lots based on trails and natural landmarks such as rivers, ridges and large stones. Each forest lot (*kaitahu*) belongs to a specified individual or a group called the *kaitahu kua*. The villagers set *hus pana* or *sohe* in one forest lot of *kaitahu* or two adjoining lots of *kaitahu* and regularly check their traps approximately two times a week. They continue trapping in this manner in a certain *kaitahu*  until the number of animal decreases. If the number of caught game animals decreases, the *kaitahu kua* imposes a temporary prohibition on forest use, *seli kaitahu*, as we will mention

trapped using a weighted noose made of rattan, *sohe* [21] (**Figure 3**).

guage, *Sou upa*.

82 Indigenous People

250 forest lots).

later.

the supernatural world.

its historical trajectories.

**3.1. Hunting and trapping methods**

trajectory of forest right inheritance and transfer.

**Figure 3.** Left: a weighted noose trap, *sohe*. Right: a spear trap, *hus pana*.

#### **3.2. Interactions with supernatural agents**

Amanioho people think of primary forest as a hunting and trapping ground (locally called *kaitahu*) as a place where supernatural agencies such as spirits of ancestors and various natural spirits live. They believe there are natural spirits called *sira tana* that raise and protect the Celebes wild boar and Timor deer. The natural spirits that bring up and protect cuscus are called *awa*. Each forest lot has these natural spirits. It is also believed that ancestor spirits, *mutuaila*, dwell the *kaitahu* where they used before.

After practicing the ritual to remove *seli kaitahu*, the trapper usually remains in the forest for several days and sets traps intensively. Each forest lot has a *liakika*, a camping site usually formed at the foot of a protruding precipice, for the trapper to stay when he comes to a forest that is far from the village to check traps and to produce smoked meat if numerous games are caught (**Figure 4**).

Trappers and hunters offer jewels or/and ornaments such as earrings, rings, beads, gold necklaces and dolls as offerings to *sira tana* and *awa* at *liakika* (**Figure 5**). Then they pray to them for success in their trapping or hunting endeavours. In the local people's perceptions, obtaining game animals means receiving a gift (game animals) from *sira tana* and *awa*. They believe that *mutuaila* delivers these offerings to the natural spirits and then receives game animals given by *sira tana* and/or *awa* in return for the offerings. Next, *mutuaila* bring the game animals to the villagers (*mutuaila* make the animals be caught in the traps).

Some of the *awa* or *sira tana* are good spirits (*alowa oho*), while others are evil (*alowa kina*). Natural spirits who inform the villagers of their names in their dreams are good. The villagers

**Figure 4.** A man who cuts a Timor deer at his *liakika*.

Indigenous Resource Management Practices and the Local Social-Cultural Context: An Insight... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70104 85

**Figure 5.** Offerings to *sira tana* and *awa*.

After practicing the ritual to remove *seli kaitahu*, the trapper usually remains in the forest for several days and sets traps intensively. Each forest lot has a *liakika*, a camping site usually formed at the foot of a protruding precipice, for the trapper to stay when he comes to a forest that is far from the village to check traps and to produce smoked meat if numerous games are

Trappers and hunters offer jewels or/and ornaments such as earrings, rings, beads, gold necklaces and dolls as offerings to *sira tana* and *awa* at *liakika* (**Figure 5**). Then they pray to them for success in their trapping or hunting endeavours. In the local people's perceptions, obtaining game animals means receiving a gift (game animals) from *sira tana* and *awa*. They believe that *mutuaila* delivers these offerings to the natural spirits and then receives game animals given by *sira tana* and/or *awa* in return for the offerings. Next, *mutuaila* bring the game animals to the

Some of the *awa* or *sira tana* are good spirits (*alowa oho*), while others are evil (*alowa kina*). Natural spirits who inform the villagers of their names in their dreams are good. The villagers

villagers (*mutuaila* make the animals be caught in the traps).

**Figure 4.** A man who cuts a Timor deer at his *liakika*.

caught (**Figure 4**).

84 Indigenous People

believe that if a trapper intones the names when offering or setting traps, he or she succeeds in trapping. On the other hand, there are evil natural spirits such as the *awa kina*, who try to make hunters fall from trees or get injured by machetes. Then there is the evil *sira tana* that makes villagers get lost in the forest. A forest where a villager once disappeared or a villager lost his/her way is considered as a place in which evil natural spirits have been dwelling. These forests have not been used for a long time by the imposition of *seli kaitahu*.
