**3. Conceptual framework of LOC primary science module**

This LOC primary science module applied several theories of learning, namely behaviourist learning theory, cognitivist learning theory and constructivist learning theory. Behaviourist learning theory emphasises behavioural changes that can be observed and measured. The principles in Thorndike Theory [37] such as Law of Readiness (pupils readiness to learn), Law of Exercise (the importance of practice and repetition) and Law of Effect (the impact or effect which is obtained by pupils when doing an action) are taken into consideration. Additionally, the principle of reinforcement in Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory [38] also applied together. Meanwhile, the cognitivist learning theory based on Ref. [39] which emphasises information processing in the mind also included in this module. Ausubel [39] emphasises meaningful learning and the use of advance organiser in the T&L process.

In addition, contextual approach based on constructivist theory that stimulates a person's mind to find meaning in context by making meaningful and relevant relationship to their environment also applied. The learning materials used are readily available from the environment in which these marginalised children are already familiar with these materials. This can make it easier for the children and enhance further the process of understanding the learning that takes place where the children can process new knowledge in a way that is meaningful to them. The sequence of information presentation during the science T&L process is based on Needham's Five Phase Constructivist Learning Theory [40] that is able to create learning environment that stimulates and motivates marginalised pupils. Needham's Five Phase Constructivist Model [40] involves the orientation phase, eliciting ideas, restructuring of ideas, application of ideas and reflection as shown in **Table 1**.

Apart from the learning theories above, the construction of the LOC module will also take into account the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), which aims to reduce the learning load experienced


**Table 1.** Needham's five phase constructivist model.

and pedagogies in science education for marginalised children is extremely important to drastically improve the scientific literacy by giving value and enjoyment in learning science. New strategies needed to create opportunities for marginalised children to be motivated and actively involved in learning science, not only in the classroom, but also outside of traditional classroom. LOC primary science module requires teachers take children out of the classroom during the science T&L process. Hence, the learning process will occur in locations that are close to the environment. Marginalised children need to see its relevance in a societal sense to have the opportunity to be engaged in meaningful learning. This is because forest and the environment are important elements in their daily life. This fun and enjoyable situation will have positive impact and effect on their learning process and intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, Ref. [36] mentioned that LOC approach will be able to build dynamic knowledge and subsequently can explore the skills and abilities of the children. This is to prepare them to face the future when pursuing STEM careers that are highly competitive in

**3. Conceptual framework of LOC primary science module**

of ideas, application of ideas and reflection as shown in **Table 1**.

This LOC primary science module applied several theories of learning, namely behaviourist learning theory, cognitivist learning theory and constructivist learning theory. Behaviourist learning theory emphasises behavioural changes that can be observed and measured. The principles in Thorndike Theory [37] such as Law of Readiness (pupils readiness to learn), Law of Exercise (the importance of practice and repetition) and Law of Effect (the impact or effect which is obtained by pupils when doing an action) are taken into consideration. Additionally, the principle of reinforcement in Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory [38] also applied together. Meanwhile, the cognitivist learning theory based on Ref. [39] which emphasises information processing in the mind also included in this module. Ausubel [39] emphasises meaningful learning and the use of advance organiser in the

In addition, contextual approach based on constructivist theory that stimulates a person's mind to find meaning in context by making meaningful and relevant relationship to their environment also applied. The learning materials used are readily available from the environment in which these marginalised children are already familiar with these materials. This can make it easier for the children and enhance further the process of understanding the learning that takes place where the children can process new knowledge in a way that is meaningful to them. The sequence of information presentation during the science T&L process is based on Needham's Five Phase Constructivist Learning Theory [40] that is able to create learning environment that stimulates and motivates marginalised pupils. Needham's Five Phase Constructivist Model [40] involves the orientation phase, eliciting ideas, restructuring

Apart from the learning theories above, the construction of the LOC module will also take into account the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), which aims to reduce the learning load experienced

the twenty-first century.

60 Science Education - Research and New Technologies

T&L process.

by the students so that the learning process can occur easily, simply, and smoothly. CLT emphasises on the role played by short-term memory and long-term memory in a learning process. The load in short-term memory should be considered and given attention so that it does not exceed the capacity or limitations that can be processed. Hence, all three effects in this theory, namely the Split-Attention Effect, Modality Effect and Redundancy Effect taken into account and considered during the development of the module.

The instructional design model used is based on the Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp Model (MRKK) [41]. This model is the basis for the development of the module that will be prepared by the researcher in this study. It has nine major elements arranged in an ovalshaped cycle and is not linear. This means that the instruction can start anywhere that is considered appropriate. The cycle has no starting point or ending point. The process of review and evaluation will take place on an on-going basis to improve instruction. The MRKK Model is shown in **Figure 1**.

Motivation is said to have a significant positive relationship with academic achievement [7, 12–14]. Such relationship leads to the conclusion that motivation can be used as a predictor of academic performance. When marginalised children go through the T&L process based on this module, it is believed that positive changes in the aspect of intrinsic motivation can be demonstrated. This will also simultaneously influence and have positive impact on academic achievement in science. The conceptual framework discussed can be visualised in **Figure 2**.

**Figure 1.** MRKK model.

**Figure 2.** Conceptual framework.
