**10. Acknowledgements**

This work is based upon research supported by the South African National Energy Research Institute (SANERI), the South African Research Chairs Initiative (SARChI) of the Department of Science and Technology, the Technology Innovation Agency (TIA) and the National Research Foundation (NRF). The financial assistance of these organizations is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to SANERI, SARChI, TIA or the NRF.

#### **11. References**


centrifugation. Promising ideas for harvesting techniques include concentration using sound waves and triggering of autoflocculation on command. Another attractive idea is direct product excretion, where algae secrete fuel molecules into the medium as they are produced, allowing continuous production and harvesting without cell disruption. The Cyanobacterium *Synechocystis* has recently been successfully modified to excrete fatty acids

The use of nutrients from waste sources (e.g. CO2 from flue-gas and nitrate and phosphate from wastewater) could help to reduce costs and energy input, as well as contributing to environmental remediation. Potential co-products include fine chemicals such as astaxanthin, B-carotene, omega-3 fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, neutraceuticals, therapeutic proteins, cosmetics, aquafeed and animal feed (Mata et al., 2010). Algae could also potentially be modified to synthesize other types of fuel e.g. ethanol, butanol, isopropanol and hydrocarbons (Radakovits et al., 2010) or downstream processing of algae could be modified to process the entire biomass to energy containing fuels through thermal

This work is based upon research supported by the South African National Energy Research Institute (SANERI), the South African Research Chairs Initiative (SARChI) of the Department of Science and Technology, the Technology Innovation Agency (TIA) and the National Research Foundation (NRF). The financial assistance of these organizations is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to SANERI, SARChI, TIA or the NRF.

An, J-Y, Sim, S-J, Lee JS & Kim BW. (2003). Hydrocarbon production from secondarily

Bailey, J & Ollis, D. (1977). *Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals*. McGraw-Hill, New York Barsanti, L & Gualtieri, P. (2006). *Algae: Anatomy, Biochemisty and Biotechnology*. CRC Press,

Becker, EW. (1994). *Microalgae: Biotechnology and Microbiology*. Cambridge University Press,

Ben-Amotz, A. (1995). New Mode of *Dunaliella* Biotechnology: Two-Phase Growth for B-

Benemann, J, Koopman, B, Weissman, J, Eisenberg, D & Gobell R. (1980). Development of

Bernhardt, H & Clasen, J. (1994). Investigations into the Flocculation Mechanisms of Small

Bitton, G, Fox, JL & Strickland, HG. (1975). Removal of Algae from Florida Lakes by Magnetic Filtration. *Applied and Environmental Microbiol*ogy, 30(6):905-908 Borowitzka, MA. (1992). Algal Biotechnology Products and Processes - Matching Science

Microalgae Wastewater Treatment and Harvesting Technologies in California. In *Algae Biomass: Production and Use*. Edited by Shelef, G & Soeder, C. pp. 457-495 .

Algal Cells. *Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology – AQUA,* 43(5): 222-232

Carotene Productio. *Journal of Applied Phycology,* 7(1):65-68

and Economics. *Journal of Applied Phycology*, 4:267-279

treated piggery wastewater by the green alga *Botryococcus braunii*. *Journal of Applied* 

(Liu, 2011).

processes.

**10. Acknowledgements** 

**11. References** 

*Phycology*, 15(2-3): 185-191

Cambridge

Elsevier, Amsterdam

Taylor and Francis Group, Florida

Anderson, RA. (2005). *Algal Culturing Techniques*. Elsevier, London


Advantages and Challenges of Microalgae as a Source of Oil for Biodiesel 199

Lv, J, Cheng, L, Xu, X, Zhang, L & Chen, H. (2010). Enhanced Lipid Production of *Chlorella* 

Mata, TM, Martins, AA & Caetano, NS. (2010). Microalgae for Biodiesel Production and Other Applications: A Review. *Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,* 14(1):217-232 Melis, A. (2009). Solar Energy Conversion Efficiencies in Photosynthesis: Minimizing the Chlorophyll Antennae to Maximize Efficiency. *Plant Science,* 177(4):272-280 Miao, X & Wu, Q. (2006). Biodiesel Production from Heterotrophic Microalgal Oil.

Mittelbach, M & Remschmidt, C. (2004). *Biodiesel - The Comprehensive Handbook*. Martin

Mohn, FH. (1980). Experiences and Strategies in the Recovery of Biomass from Mass

Molina Grima, E, Belarbi, E, Acien Fernandez, FG, Robles Medina, A & Chisti, Y. (2003).

Nakajima, Y, Tsuzuki, M &Ueda, R. (2001). Improved Productivity by Reduction of the

Nedbal, L, Tichy,V, Xiong, F & Grobbelaar, JU. (1996). Microscopic Green Algae and

Oswald, WJ & Golueke, C. (1960). Biological Transformation of Solar Energy. *Advanced* 

Petrusevski, B, Bolier, G, van Breemen, A & Alaerts, GJ. (1995). Tangential Flow Filtration: A Method to Concentrate Freshwater Algae. *Water Research,* 29:1419-1424 Piorreck, M, Baasch, K & Pohl, P. (1984). Biomass Production, Total Protein, Chlorophylls,

Pulz, O. (2001). Photobioreactors: Production Systems for Phototrophic Microorganisms.

Pushparaj, B, Pelosi, E, Torzillo, G & Materassi, R. (1993). Microbial Biomass Recovery using

Radakovits, R, Jinkerson, RE, Darzins, A & Posewitz, MC. (2010). Genetic Engineering of Algae for Enhanced Biofuel Production. *Eukaryotic Cell,* 9(4):486-501 Ramos, MJ, Fernandez, CM, Casas, A, Rodriguez, L & Perez, A. (2009) Influence of Fatty

Regan, DL & Gartside, G. (1983). *Liquid Fuels from Microalgae in Australia*. CSIRO, Melbourne Richardson, C. 2011. *Investigating the role of reactor design to maximise the environmental benefit* 

Richmond, A. (2004). *Microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycology*. Blackwell Science,

Rodolfi, L, Chini Zittelli, G, Bassi, N, Padovani, G, Biondi, N, Bonini, G & Tredici, MR.

a Synthetic Cationic Polymer. *Bioresource Technology*, 43(1):59-62

*of algal oil for biodiesel.* Master's thesis. University of Cape Town.

Cultures of Microalgae. In *Algae biomass: Production and Use*. Edited by Shelef, G &

Recovery of Microalgal Biomass and Metabolites: Process Options and Economics.

Content of Light-Harvesting Pigment in *Chlamydomonas perigranulata*. *Journal of* 

Cyanobacteria in High-Frequency Intermittent Light. *Journal of Applied Phycology,*

Lipids and Fatty Acids of Freshwater Green and Blue-Green Algae Under Different

Acid Composition of Raw Materials on Biodiesel Properties. *Bioresource Technology*,

(2009). Microalgae for Oil: Strain Selection, Induction of Lipid Synthesis and Outdoor Mass Cultivation in a Low-Cost Photobioreactor. *Biotechnology and* 

101(17):6797-804.

Mittelbach

8(4-5):325-333

100(1):261-268

*Bioengineering*, 102(1):100-112

Oxford

*Bioresource Technology*, 97(6):841-846

Soeder, C. pp. 547-571. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Nitrogen Regimes. *Phytochemistry,* 23(2):207-216

*Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology*, 57(3):287-293

*Biotechnology Advances,* 20(7-8):491-515

*Applied Phycology,* 13(2):95-101

*Applied Microbiology*, 2:223-262

*vulgaris* by Adjustment of Cultivation Conditions. *Bioresource Technology*,


Gudin, C & Therpenier, C. (1986). Bioconversion of Solar Energy into Organic Chemicals by

Harun, R, Singh, M, Forde, GM & Danquah, MK. (2010). Bioprocess Engineering of

Henderson, R, Parsons, SA & Jefferson, B. (2008). The Impact of Algal Properties and Pre-Oxidation on Solid/Liquid Separation of Algae. *Water Research*, 42:1827-1845 Hodaifa, G, Martínez, M & Sánchez, S. (2008). Use of industrial wastewater from olive-oil

Hsieh, C & Wu, W. (2009). Cultivation of Microalgae for Oil Production with a Cultivation Strategy of Urea Limitation. *Bioresource Technology*, 100(17):3921-3926 Huntley, ME & Redalje, DG. (2006). CO2 Mitigation and Renewable Oil from Photosynthetic

Illman, A, Scragg, AH & Shales, SW. (2000). Increase in *Chlorella* Strains Calorific Values when Grown in Low Nitrogen Medium. *Enzyme MicrobialTechnology*, 27(8):631-635 Lee, SJ, Kim, S, Kim, J, Kwon, G, Yoon, B & Oh, H. (1998). Effects of Harvesting Method and

Jameson, GJ. (1999). Hydrophobicity and Floc Density in Induced-Air Flotation for Water

Jarvis, P, Buckingham, P, Holden, B & Jefferson, B. (2009). Low Energy Ballasted Flotation.

Knuckey, R, Brown, M, Robert, R & Frampton, D. (2006). Production of Microalgal

Lardon, L, HeÌ lias, A, Sialve, B, Steyer, JP & Bernard, O. (2009). Life-Cycle Assessment of

Lee, AK, Lewis, DM & Ashman, PJ. (2008). Microbial Flocculation, a Potentially Low-Cost

Li, Y, Han, D, Hu, G, Dauvillee, D, Sommerfeld, M, Ball, S & Hu, Q. (2010). Chlamydomonas

Li, Y, Horsman, M, Wang, B, Wu, N & Lan, CQ. (2008). Effects of Nitrogen Sources on Cell

Liu, X, Sheng, J & Curtiss, R. (2011). Fatty Acid Production in Genetically Modified

Liu, Z, Wang, G & Zhou, B. (2008). Effect of Iron on Growth and Lipid Accumulation in

Livne, A & Sukenik, A. (1992). Lipid Synthesis and Abundance of Acetyl CoA Carboxylase

Accumulates Triacylglycerol. *Metabolic Engineering*, 12(4):387-91

*Chlorella vulgaris. Bioresource Technology,* 99(11):4717-22

Microalgae to Produce a Variety of Consumer Products. *Renewable and Sustainable* 

extraction for biomass production of *Scenedesmus obliquus*. *Bioresource Technology*,

Microbes: A New Appraisal. *Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change,* 

Growth Stage on the Flocculation of the Green Alga *Botryococcus braunii*. *Letters in* 

Treatment. *Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and engineering aspects,* 151:269-

Concentrates by Flocculation and their Assessment as Aquaculture Feeds.

Biodiesel Production from Microalgae. *Environmental science & technology*,

Harvesting Technique for Marine Microalgae for the Production of Biodiesel.

Starchless Mutant Defective in ADP-Glucose Pyrophosphorylase Hyper-

Growth and Lipid Accumulation of Green Alga Neochloris Oleoabundans. *Applied* 

Cyanobacteria. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of* 

in *Isochrysis galbana* (Prymnesiophyceae) Following Nitrogen Starvation. *Plant and* 

Microalgae. *Advanced Biotechnology Processes,* 6:73-110

*Energy Reviews* 14(3):1037-1047

*Applied Microbiology*, 27(1):14-18

*Water Research*, 43:3427-3434

43(17):6475-6481

*Aquaculture Engineering*, 35(3):300-313

*Journal of Applied Phycology*, 21(5):559-567

*microbiology and biotechnology,* 81(4):629-36

*America,* 108(17):6899-904

*Cell Physiology*, 33(8):1175-1181

99(5):1111-1117

12(4):573-608


**10** 

László Kótai et al.

*Hungary* 

*Hungarian Academy of Sciences,* 

**An Integrated Waste-Free Biomass Utilization System for an Increased** 

**Productivity of Biofuel and Bioenergy** 

*Institute of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Chemical Research Center,* 

The increase in production and utilization of biomass and other renewable sources of energy are important challenges of the energy industry. It generates, however, demands for ecologically and economically acceptable production systems. Here we report an integrated system of known and new technologies developed for biomass conversion to biofuels. This includes classical and biobutanol based new biodiesels, biogas and electricity production, and an agricultural production system involving fertilization with the ash of the biomass power plants. Basically, three types of agricultural production system are needed for the

C – plants for conversion of sugar derivatives to price alcohols, mainly butanol as a diesel

Depending on the climate, the soil type, the agricultural experiences, and the type of the plants (A,B,C), the produced biomass materials can fulfill more than one requirement as it can be seen in Fig. 1. Depending on the constituents of the biomass (cellulose, starch, lignin, oil, proteins), the energy production can be performed via direct combustion or, after digestion in biogas systems, by using the biogas. The biomass power plants, biogas combustion plants/engines produce hot water, steam and electricity. In plants type B soybean, rape, sunflower or likes are pressed to obtain the oil, while the pressing cake can be used as optimal raw material for biogas plants due to its high protein content, while the

János Szépvölgyi1,6, János Bozi1, István Gács1, Szabolcs Bálint2, Ágnes Gömöry2, András Angyal3,

*2 Institute of Structural Chemistry, Chemical Research Center, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary,* 

*6 Research Institute of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Pannonia, Hungary.* 

agricultural segment of the integrated system, namely:

A – plants for combustion in biomass power plants (energy grass) B – plants for production of vegetable oils for biodiesel production

János Balogh4, Zhibin Li5, Moutong Chen5, Chen Wang5 and Baiquan Chen5 *1 Institute of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Chemical Research Center,* 

*Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary,* 

*3 Axial-Chem Ltd., Hungary, 4 Kemobil Co., Hungary, 5 China New Energy Co., China,* 

**1. Introduction** 

fuel source

