**4.2. Dorsal frontal plane spinal angles**

**4. Results**

**4.1. Frontal plane values**

parameters can be seen in **Tables 4** and **5**.

*4.1.1. Mean distances between key anatomical landmarks in male and female subjects*

**Label Anatomical point** AL Left acromion processes AR Right acromion process

8 Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders

ICL Left iliac crest ICR Right iliac crest

C2 2nd cervical vertebra CA Anterior cervical vertebra VP Vertebra prominens TA Anterior thoracic vertebra T12 12th thoracic vertebra LA Anterior lumbar vertebra

SA Sacral point

**Table 1.** Key to standing back anatomical landmarks measured.

SL Left inferior angle of scapulae SR Right inferior angle of scapulae

PSL Left posterior superior iliac spine PSR Right posterior superior iliac spine

In the frontal plane, the mean distances between key anatomical landmarks can be seen in **Table 2**. The only statistically significant differences found between the two sides of the back in females were the distances between the acromion and the inferior scapular angle; with the right side distance (AR‐SR) being significantly smaller than the left side distance AL‐SL as seen in **Figure 2**. The other statistically significant difference found was between the inferior angle of the scapula and the apical thoracic vertebrae. For this parameter the right side dis‐ tance (TA‐SR) was significantly greater than the left sided value (TA‐SL). No other significant differences in the distances between key anatomical landmarks between the left and right sides of the back were found. Further no significant differences were found for all key ana‐ tomical landmark distances in male subjects between the two sides of the back. The mean female and male distances and standard deviations on the left and right sides of the back can be seen in **Tables 2** and **3**. The back landmarks positions and representation of key anatomical landmarks on a mannequin are presented in **Figures 3** and **4**. Normative values of analysed

The mean frontal plane angles values showed that overall healthy young adults have rela‐ tively straight spines. The mean thoracic curvature value was *+*2.38° and the mean lumber curve was *+*1.65°.

**Figure 2.** Back landmarks identified with self‐adhesive marker.

**Figure 3.** Representation of key anatomical landmarks on a mannequin, with a description below.

**1.** AL is higher than AR in the frontal plane

**Figure 2.** Back landmarks identified with self‐adhesive marker.

10 Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders

**Figure 3.** Representation of key anatomical landmarks on a mannequin, with a description below.


**Figure 4.** Frontal plane lateral asymmetry value for one female subject [surface equivalent to Cobb angle].


**Table 3.** Differences in height levels between the two sides of the back in males and females.

**Mean spinal distances between spinal anatomical landmarks in** 


**Mean values and SD in mm**

**Table 4.** Normative values for the mean spinal distances between spinal anatomical landmarks in the frontal plane for female and male subjects.


**Table 5.** Female and male normative values and mean differences between the left and right side of the back in the horizontal plan.

#### **4.3. Horizontal plane values (rotation)**

The left inferior angle of the scapula in females was rotated forward in comparison to the right shoulder. No other statistically significant differences at the acromium, iliac crests or PSIS were found (see **Table 5**).

#### **4.4. Sagittal plane values for female and male subjects**

The mean thoracic kyphosis angle was 29.37 *+* 3.94° and the mean lumbar lordosis angle was ‐37.7.
