**4. Expansion of higher education in Turkey**

and affiliated units, and linking institutions and their functioning with legal regulations in line with the aims determined by the university reform, which was established with the law number 4936. With this law, universities were organized in a structural unity. A new institution named "Inter‐University Council" was formed for the managerial dimension of this unity [26]. With this law, the definition of universities was revised. The revised version pointed out that univer‐ sities should have science and management autonomy. At the same time, attention was paid to the process of scientific processes such as research and examination [31]. Universities gained

With the change of government in 1950, the structure of the Turkish universities adopting the Continental European model underwent a significant change. The new government, which attached greater importance to the free market economy, believed that an American University model would meet the human power need of a growing economy. Hence, the gov‐ ernment focused on spreading the university system across the country [29]. In this direction, after 1950 s, there have been significant developments in higher education in accordance with the social demand. The most important of these developments has been the dissemination of

Third Period – 1973 Reform: In 1973, the issue of reform in education came to the agenda again and the universities law numbered 1750 was put into practice [33]. A new and positive provision brought by the law number 1750 was the establishment of a "Higher Education Council" that was developed in order to conduct necessary investigations, researches and evaluations in order to direct higher education and to provide coordination among higher education institutions [28]. Apart from this, the academic, administrative, and financial struc‐

Fourth Period – 1982 University Reform: Significant developments were witnessed in higher education institutions in Turkey between 1946 and 1981. However, lack of coordination and cooperation among higher education institutions and problems in planning and supervision during this period caused the development in higher education institutions to fall behind the expectations of the society from universities. In addition, the political, social and eco‐ nomic problems that emerged between 1960 and 1980 further increased the deterioration in higher education. As a result, higher education institutions faced management and financial resource problems. For this reason, a radical reform at the end of the seventies became inevi‐ table, and at the end of this process, the Higher Education Law Number 2547 was adopted on November 6, 1981, in order to plan, coordinate and supervise higher education in Turkey. Some of the articles of Higher Education Law No. 2547 were amended after a short time (20 April 1982), and the authority of the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) established in accordance with this law was expanded. YÖK was redefined as a constitutional institution in order to direct the important activities of higher education institutions such as regulation,

In the years prior to the 1981 university reform, the Turkish higher education system con‐ sisted of five types of institutions: universities, academies affiliated with the Ministry of National Education, two‐year vocational colleges and conservatories mostly affiliated with the Ministry of National Education, Annual education institutes, and Common Institution

ture introduced by law number 4936 in 1946 was preserved by this law [29].

autonomy in financial, scientific, and managerial terms in this period.

colleges and universities to regional centers [32].

152 Global Voices in Higher Education

supervision, teaching, and research [29].

Higher education in Turkey is regarded as necessary to gain access to certain occupational fields, possess social status, and acquire the ability to realize oneself individually [35]. For this reason, in parallel with the developments around the world, the expansion of higher education in Turkey has gained momentum since the 1980 s, and the number of students and institutions in higher education has increased every year [2, 36, 37].

**Table 1** shows the student numbers in higher education in Turkey from 1985 to 2015.

The number of total higher education students, which was 2914 in 1923 (Turkey's population was approximately 13 million people), the date of the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, increased to 346,476 in 1977–1978 (Turkey's population was 41.02 million people). In the fol‐ lowing years, this number decreased steadily to 237,369 in 1980–1981 (Turkey's population was 44.73 million people) [29]. As seen in **Table 1**, from this date onwards, the total number


\* Associate and undergraduate students are included in the number of secondary education students. Graduate students include postgraduate, doctoral and medical specialist students.

\*\*Total number of students in distance and open education; these programs consist of associate, undergraduate and graduate students.

Source: Gürüz [29] and ÖSYM [43].

**Table 1.** Number of students in higher education in Turkey (1985–2015).

of students continuously increased to 1,503,981 in 1999–2000 (Turkey's population was 67.80  million people), 1,557,217 in 2009–2010 (Turkey's population was 72.56 million people), and 6,062,886 in 2015 (Turkey's population was 78.74 million people). The total number of students for the year 2015 is 6,062,886. Of these students, 5,615,293 are in state universities and 447,593 are in foundation universities. Of the students, 3,366,658 are male and 2,786,228 are females. According to 2015 data, 3,200,540 students are studying in structured programs. The total num‐ ber of students in open education is 2,803,064, and the number of students studying in distance education programs is 59,282.

In line with the increasing number of students in Turkey, the number of institutions in higher education has also increased, especially since 1992. There are currently 23 state and two high‐tech institutes, established during the period of 1992–1994 and 41 state and 21 foundation universi‐ ties, established during the period of 2006–2009; these increases also accelerated the increase in the number of students. In addition to state universities, the number of foundation universi‐ ties has also started to increase rapidly since 1996, and with the 50 universities established in 1996–2010 period, the total number of foundation universities has reached 54. As of 2008, univer‐ sities were established in all major cities. In 2015, the number of institutions in higher education reached 193, of which 109 were state, 76 were foundation universities, and 8 were foundation vocational high schools [2, 38].

### **5. Supply inadequacy in higher education**

The rate of formal higher education enrollment in Turkey increased from 5.6% in 1980 to 9.4% in 1990, to 17.9% in 2000 and to 35.6% in 2010 and to 39.5% in 2015 [2, 38, 39]. The most important indicator of the inability of the schooling rate to reach the desired level in higher education is the number of students who have applied and placed in the university for years. **Table 2** lists the number of students who applied for and entered the university during the period between 1980 and 2015.

The numbers in **Table 2** show that 32.5% of those who applied to universities in 1985, 30.4% in 1995, 37.3% in 2005, and 46.2% in 2015 have gained access to these universities. Turkey, experi‐ encing a rapid population growth from 1960 to 1990 s, has experienced a moderate rate of popu‐ lation growth since the beginning of 2000. According to TUIK data, the annual rate of population growth declined to 13 in a thousand in 2010. It is estimated that the rate of population growth will fall to 7.7 in a thousand by 2025. In Turkey, where the young population is higher compared to other countries in Europe, the school‐age population (5–24 years of age) is expected to show a slight change toward 2025 by decreasing from 34.5 to 29.5% of the total population [40]. The age population in higher education is expected to be 5.064 million in 2020 and 5.077 million in 2025.

According to Tanrıkulu [36], if the historically continuing tendencies regarding the financing, the number of students, and teaching staff in higher education continue and if there is no policy intervention, the demand for higher education of young people in Turkey will not be met in 2025. Tanrıkulu's research predicted that the rate of organized schooling, which is the most important indicator of access to higher education [36], would reach 53.7% in 2025, and Turkey will continue to lag behind developed countries. It is estimated that the rate of settle‐ ment of formal education, which shows the demand level of higher education supply, will reach only 38.7% in 2025. These indicators show that the demand for higher education, which cannot be met in Turkey today, will continue to exist in 2025 as well.

Moving from statistics for higher education, it will be correct to say that there is still an important supply‐demand imbalance regarding the level of higher education in Turkey. The demand for higher education tends to continue due to the following factors [41]:

• Transition rates from primary education to secondary education continue to rise.

of students continuously increased to 1,503,981 in 1999–2000 (Turkey's population was 67.80  million people), 1,557,217 in 2009–2010 (Turkey's population was 72.56 million people), and 6,062,886 in 2015 (Turkey's population was 78.74 million people). The total number of students for the year 2015 is 6,062,886. Of these students, 5,615,293 are in state universities and 447,593 are in foundation universities. Of the students, 3,366,658 are male and 2,786,228 are females. According to 2015 data, 3,200,540 students are studying in structured programs. The total num‐ ber of students in open education is 2,803,064, and the number of students studying in distance

Associate and undergraduate students are included in the number of secondary education students. Graduate students

\*\*Total number of students in distance and open education; these programs consist of associate, undergraduate and

**education total\***

1984–1985 45.642 287.087 19.156 351.885 65.456 417.341 1989–1990 62.671 353.869 40.665 457.205 228.295 685.500 1994–1995 127.922 502.083 66.979 696.984 477.315 1.174.299 1999–2000 218.099 713.259 84.054 1.015.452 488.569 1.503.981 2004–2005 402.404 871.091 137.265 1.410.760 695.591 2.106.351 2009–2010 613.077 1.152.265 206.775 1.972.117 1.557.217 3.529334 2014–2015 896.031 1.897.692 406.817 3.200.540 2.862.346 6.062.886

**Open education and distance education total\*\*** **Total number of registered students**

In line with the increasing number of students in Turkey, the number of institutions in higher education has also increased, especially since 1992. There are currently 23 state and two high‐tech institutes, established during the period of 1992–1994 and 41 state and 21 foundation universi‐ ties, established during the period of 2006–2009; these increases also accelerated the increase in the number of students. In addition to state universities, the number of foundation universi‐ ties has also started to increase rapidly since 1996, and with the 50 universities established in 1996–2010 period, the total number of foundation universities has reached 54. As of 2008, univer‐ sities were established in all major cities. In 2015, the number of institutions in higher education reached 193, of which 109 were state, 76 were foundation universities, and 8 were foundation

The rate of formal higher education enrollment in Turkey increased from 5.6% in 1980 to 9.4% in 1990, to 17.9% in 2000 and to 35.6% in 2010 and to 39.5% in 2015 [2, 38, 39]. The most important indicator of the inability of the schooling rate to reach the desired level in higher

education programs is 59,282.

**Year Associate degree**

154 Global Voices in Higher Education

\*

graduate students.

Source: Gürüz [29] and ÖSYM [43].

**Undergraduate Graduate Formal** 

include postgraduate, doctoral and medical specialist students.

**Table 1.** Number of students in higher education in Turkey (1985–2015).

vocational high schools [2, 38].

**5. Supply inadequacy in higher education**


• Schooling rates and number of graduates in secondary education continue to increase.

**Table 2.** The number of students who applied to university entrance exam in Turkey and succeeded (1980–2015).

Source: ÖSYM [43].

