**2. History and general structure of higher education system in Turkey**

and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD), the number of students receiving higher education in the world is increasing rapidly. In the last 20–25 years, the expansion and promotion of higher educa‐ tion have become political goals in both developed and developing countries. Numerical data also indicate that efforts to reach these goals have resulted in considerable success. Worldwide, the number of higher education students, which was 13 million in 1960 (0.43% of the world population), reached 82 million in 1995 (1.43% of the world population), and 137 million in 2005 (2.11% of the world population). This number exceeded 152.5 million in 2007 (2.27% of the world population). The number of students in higher education is dou‐ bling every 15 years on a global basis. It is predicted that this number will reach 200 million

Increased demand and enrolment rates in the higher education system do not indicate that all segments of society are equally able to benefit from higher education. In many countries, there is a huge difference between higher education participation rates of different social and cultural groups. Despite various projects and policies of governments, institutions and other political entities, there is still inequality in access to higher education in many countries [3–5]. The studies on higher education have revealed the existence of material and cultural inequali‐ ties and hierarchies. Researchers have explored the role of education in the production of dominant cultures and classes and its role in maintaining social and economic inequalities [6–11]. The inequality that exists in the beginning and continuing stages of higher education has been examined by many researchers starting from the 1960 s until today [3, 5, 12–21]. These studies mainly aim to reveal the effects of social stratification on higher education. The research results show that socioeconomic and sociocultural factors, especially the factors such as the income status, education level of the parents, and the living area, are determinants of the higher education attendance and continuation for young adults in many countries. The research results show that the difference between the entrance rates of individuals com‐ ing from different social classes is increasing gradually, and the problems arising from these social differences are getting deeper. Higher classes are even more represented in higher edu‐

As in many countries, higher education access and the following processes are experienced similarly in Turkey. In this article, the problem of access, which is still faced in Turkey despite the rapid expansion of the system of higher education in recent years, is evaluated on the basis of social equality. In this respect, the problem of social inequality experienced during the process of access to higher education is described with a deeper viewpoint. With the theo‐ retical framework of social justice, the study focuses primarily on the general structure of the higher education system in Turkey and the current point reached by the expansion of higher education. The goal of this study is to show the effect of the determinants of higher educa‐ tion access. However, when access to higher education is considered, it is not be correct to regard the problem as only coming from the university. Because the right to have access to higher education requires a discussion beyond the problems arising from the supply‐demand imbalance, the benefiters of higher education and the effects of socioeconomic background

students in 2020 [1, 2].

150 Global Voices in Higher Education

cation than they have been in the past [22–24].

characteristics on this process are examined.

With the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923, there has been rapid development in the field of higher education as in every other area such as economy, agriculture, human rights, politics, etc. [25]. The first radical changes to the higher education system in the Republic era were made with the 1933 university reform. Later, attempts were made to reform with the laws of 1946 and 1973. The last radical change in Turkey's higher education system has come with the Law No. 2547 issued in 1981. The last radical change in the higher education system in Turkey has been put into practice with the Law Number 2547 issued in 1981 [26, 27]. In line with these reforms, the developments experienced in the field of higher education in Turkey have been summarized in four periods below.

First Period – 1933 Reform: Before the foundation of the Turkish Republic, Darülfünun was the institution that was accepted as a university in the Ottoman Empire period. Shortly after the proclamation of the Republic, in 1924, this institution bearing the name of Darülfünun‐u Osmani was named Istanbul Darülfünun with the Law Number 493. The Faculties of Medicine, Law, Theology and Science affiliated to Istanbul Darülfünun were founded, and the university was transformed into a "Supplementary Budget" administration. As a result, practitioners took an important step toward the goal of making universities independent organizations [26]. However, Istanbul Darülfünun, which was taken over from the Ottoman Empire and considered as the main higher education institution of the country, was not able to show the development expected by the Turkish society, as the society expected to witness innovations in educational practices. As a result, the necessity of a comprehensive reform toward the university began to be discussed despite the interest shown between 1923 and 1932 [28, 29].

In this direction, the 1930s were the years when major breakthroughs began in higher educa‐ tion in Turkey. During this process, the most important of these developments in higher edu‐ cation was the 1933 university reform [28]. In 1933, Professor Albert Malche, who was invited from Switzerland to renovate Darülfünun, prepared a report about the university. The report contained statements on Darülfünun's structure and functioning. The report stated that Darülfünun did not play a sufficient role in the settlement of the Turkish Revolution, opposed or resisted reforms, did not have a supervisory unit, did not conduct scientific studies, and worked in isolation from society. Based on these reasons, in the same year, Darülfünun was closed with the Law Number 2252 and reopened with the name of "Istanbul University" in November 1933 [26]. The laws and regulations envisaging fundamental changes in the administration of Istanbul University, the first university of the Republic of Turkey, have entered into force since this date, and the "university" statement in Turkish legislation was mentioned in the law 2252 for the first time [28].

Second Period – 1946 University Reform: The year 1946 was a turning point for Turkey in terms of higher education. In 1946, the elections were held in Turkey through a multiparty system from a one‐party system, and the university reform was also carried out with the new law, num‐ ber 4936 [30]. In 1946, universities were given a new and advanced status by linking universities and affiliated units, and linking institutions and their functioning with legal regulations in line with the aims determined by the university reform, which was established with the law number 4936. With this law, universities were organized in a structural unity. A new institution named "Inter‐University Council" was formed for the managerial dimension of this unity [26]. With this law, the definition of universities was revised. The revised version pointed out that univer‐ sities should have science and management autonomy. At the same time, attention was paid to the process of scientific processes such as research and examination [31]. Universities gained autonomy in financial, scientific, and managerial terms in this period.

With the change of government in 1950, the structure of the Turkish universities adopting the Continental European model underwent a significant change. The new government, which attached greater importance to the free market economy, believed that an American University model would meet the human power need of a growing economy. Hence, the gov‐ ernment focused on spreading the university system across the country [29]. In this direction, after 1950 s, there have been significant developments in higher education in accordance with the social demand. The most important of these developments has been the dissemination of colleges and universities to regional centers [32].

Third Period – 1973 Reform: In 1973, the issue of reform in education came to the agenda again and the universities law numbered 1750 was put into practice [33]. A new and positive provision brought by the law number 1750 was the establishment of a "Higher Education Council" that was developed in order to conduct necessary investigations, researches and evaluations in order to direct higher education and to provide coordination among higher education institutions [28]. Apart from this, the academic, administrative, and financial struc‐ ture introduced by law number 4936 in 1946 was preserved by this law [29].

Fourth Period – 1982 University Reform: Significant developments were witnessed in higher education institutions in Turkey between 1946 and 1981. However, lack of coordination and cooperation among higher education institutions and problems in planning and supervision during this period caused the development in higher education institutions to fall behind the expectations of the society from universities. In addition, the political, social and eco‐ nomic problems that emerged between 1960 and 1980 further increased the deterioration in higher education. As a result, higher education institutions faced management and financial resource problems. For this reason, a radical reform at the end of the seventies became inevi‐ table, and at the end of this process, the Higher Education Law Number 2547 was adopted on November 6, 1981, in order to plan, coordinate and supervise higher education in Turkey. Some of the articles of Higher Education Law No. 2547 were amended after a short time (20 April 1982), and the authority of the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) established in accordance with this law was expanded. YÖK was redefined as a constitutional institution in order to direct the important activities of higher education institutions such as regulation, supervision, teaching, and research [29].

In the years prior to the 1981 university reform, the Turkish higher education system con‐ sisted of five types of institutions: universities, academies affiliated with the Ministry of National Education, two‐year vocational colleges and conservatories mostly affiliated with the Ministry of National Education, Annual education institutes, and Common Institution of Higher Education (YAYKUR). With this law, all the higher education institutions in the country have been united under the Higher Education Council (YÖK). Academies have been transformed into universities, educational institutes to education faculties, and conservatories and vocational colleges have been linked to universities. Also, non‐profit foundations that aim to establish higher education institutions have been permitted.
