**3. Internet of Things (IoT)**

### **3.1. Definitions**

The Internet of Things, also shortly known as IoT, is a term consisting of two words: the first word "Internet," which is "a network of networks and a global system of interconnected computer networks that use TCP/IP as a standard Internet protocol (IP) to connect millions of users and multiple private, public, academic, business, and government networks" [7]. The second word "Things" consists of any real-world object such as home appliances, clothes, etc. or living things such as plants, animals, and people [7]. The term "Internet of Things" was invented by Kevin Ashton, Executive Director of the Auto-ID Center in MIT, in 1999 and its definition varied among academicians and researchers [7]. The best definition of IoT would be according to Ref. [7]: "An open and comprehensive network of intelligent objects that have the capacity to auto-organize, share information, data and resources, reacting and acting in face of situations and changes in the environment" [7]. IoT aims at providing the vision of "enabling anytime, anywhere connectivity for anything and not only anyone by providing unique identity to each and every object" [7]. In the deployed IoT networks, sensors are attached to physical objects and keep track of their data, to allow their tracking on the Internet [7].

There exist many aliases for the IoT concept; these include "*Internet of Objects,"* "*web of things,"* "*connected devices,"* and "*technology omnipotent,"* "*omniscient,"* "*omnipresent,"* "*web of things,"* and "*embedded intelligence."* IoT should not be confused with other terms such as ubiquitous computing where "technology becomes virtually invisible in our lives" [7], pervasive computing in which "virtually every object has processing power with wireless or wired connections to a global network" [7], cyber physical systems, which "helps bringing the real and virtual worlds together" [7], machine-to-machine interaction in which "devices are communicating end to end" [7], human–computer interaction, which "concerns the design of interaction between people and computers" [7], and ambient intelligence, which is "a developing technology that will make our lives responsive and environment sensitive" [7].

#### **3.2. IoT structure**

The IoT is a global network connecting things through numerous technologies such as RFID and barcodes to name a few [8]. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has structured the IoT into the following four dimensions: (1) tagging things, (2) feeling things, (3) shrinking things, and (4) thinking things [8]. In *tagging things*, RFID tags are used to automatically identify and track the attached object. In *feeling things*, sensors are used to collect data from the physical environment such as temperature, pressure, etc. [8]. In *shrinking things*, nanotechnology is used for tiny things: for example, "the use of nanosensors to monitor water quality" [8]. In *thinking things*, the smart things need, in addition to communication, to process information, make self-maintenance, and make independent decisions; this vision changes the way of information communication from human-human to thing-thing [8]. The structure of IoT is better illustrated in the following **Figure 1** [9].

### **3.3. IoT technologies**

### *3.3.1. Radio-frequency identification (RFID)*

RFID is a wireless identification technology that uses radio waves to identify an object or a person [7]. The first use of RFID was during the second world war to identify friend or foe aircrafts in 1948. The technology was later on founded at the Auto-ID center in MIT in 1999 [7]. The RFID systems consist basically of three elements: the *RFID Tag* serves to uniquely identify the attached object and carries data about it, the *RFID Reader* is the equipment used to power

**Figure 1.** IoT structure in four dimensions and example technologies.

the tag, and read/write data to the tag [7]. The data read by the RFID reader from the RFID tags in its vicinity need to be processed then by a software system, known as the RFID middleware, which is the third component of an RFID system [10]. The *RFID middleware* serves to manage readers, filter, format, and process raw RFID data captured by the tags and send the processed data to the various interested backend applications [10, 11]. There exist three different versions of RFID tags depending on the power supply: *passive tags, active tags*, and *semipassive* [10]. Tags can be also classified based on their type of memory, for example, *read-only, read-write*, or *writeonce and read-many*. RFID tags use the ISM (industrial, scientific, or medical) frequency ranges and have three types of frequencies: low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), ultra high frequency (UHF), and microwave frequency [10]. RFID technology is cost effective, is considered very important in IoT networks for helping with tracking and identification of objects, and is used in a very broad range of application areas [10, 7].

#### *3.3.2. Electronic product code (EPC)*

etc. or living things such as plants, animals, and people [7]. The term "Internet of Things" was invented by Kevin Ashton, Executive Director of the Auto-ID Center in MIT, in 1999 and its definition varied among academicians and researchers [7]. The best definition of IoT would be according to Ref. [7]: "An open and comprehensive network of intelligent objects that have the capacity to auto-organize, share information, data and resources, reacting and acting in face of situations and changes in the environment" [7]. IoT aims at providing the vision of "enabling anytime, anywhere connectivity for anything and not only anyone by providing unique identity to each and every object" [7]. In the deployed IoT networks, sensors are attached to physical objects and keep track of their data, to allow their tracking on

There exist many aliases for the IoT concept; these include "*Internet of Objects,"* "*web of things,"* "*connected devices,"* and "*technology omnipotent,"* "*omniscient,"* "*omnipresent,"* "*web of things,"* and "*embedded intelligence."* IoT should not be confused with other terms such as ubiquitous computing where "technology becomes virtually invisible in our lives" [7], pervasive computing in which "virtually every object has processing power with wireless or wired connections to a global network" [7], cyber physical systems, which "helps bringing the real and virtual worlds together" [7], machine-to-machine interaction in which "devices are communicating end to end" [7], human–computer interaction, which "concerns the design of interaction between people and computers" [7], and ambient intelligence, which is "a developing

The IoT is a global network connecting things through numerous technologies such as RFID and barcodes to name a few [8]. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has structured the IoT into the following four dimensions: (1) tagging things, (2) feeling things, (3) shrinking things, and (4) thinking things [8]. In *tagging things*, RFID tags are used to automatically identify and track the attached object. In *feeling things*, sensors are used to collect data from the physical environment such as temperature, pressure, etc. [8]. In *shrinking things*, nanotechnology is used for tiny things: for example, "the use of nanosensors to monitor water quality" [8]. In *thinking things*, the smart things need, in addition to communication, to process information, make self-maintenance, and make independent decisions; this vision changes the way of information communication from human-human to thing-thing [8]. The

RFID is a wireless identification technology that uses radio waves to identify an object or a person [7]. The first use of RFID was during the second world war to identify friend or foe aircrafts in 1948. The technology was later on founded at the Auto-ID center in MIT in 1999 [7]. The RFID systems consist basically of three elements: the *RFID Tag* serves to uniquely identify the attached object and carries data about it, the *RFID Reader* is the equipment used to power

technology that will make our lives responsive and environment sensitive" [7].

structure of IoT is better illustrated in the following **Figure 1** [9].

the Internet [7].

140 Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective

**3.2. IoT structure**

**3.3. IoT technologies**

*3.3.1. Radio-frequency identification (RFID)*

Developed by the AutoID center in 1999 in MIT, the EPC code (64/98 bits) can store information about the unique serial number of a product, its specifications, and manufacturer's details [7]. The EPC has four components which are "object naming service (ONS)," "EPC discovery service (EPCDS)," "EPC information services (EPCIS)," and "EPC security services (EPCSS)" [7]. The EPCglobal Network [7] was created by the EPCglobal Organization to share EPC data and is a framework consisting of the ID System; EPC tags and readers; EPC middleware, which takes care of basic data formatting; EPC Information Services, which enable exchange of information between partners; and Discovery Services, which enable users to get and search for EPC data [12]. The EPC was basically designed to be stored on an RFID tag to identify a specific item and its associated data such as origination point and date of production [12].
