**2. Smartphones**

somehow, anytime, anywhere on the planet (e.g., a milk carton sending sensor and identification information to a radio-frequency identification (RFID) reader when the temperature is getting higher than a threshold or when the milk carton is moved to a hot place) [1]. IoT means "connecting anyone, anything, anytime, anyplace, any service and any network" [1]. The concept of IoT has been extended by Cisco to Internet of Everything (IoE) to include in addition to things (machine-to-machine (M2M)), people (technology-assisted people-to-people (P2P)) and processes (machine-to-people (M2P)) interactions [2]. Cisco [2] defines Internet of Everything (IoE) as "the intelligent connection of people, process, data and things" [2], englobing interactions and communications generated by users while using a variety of networked devices (e.g., if a person forgot if s/he left the oven on at home, s/he wouldn't have to run back home to check it as s/he could just use a specific application and do it remotely using her/his smartphone) [2]. The proliferation of mobile connectivity and the decreasing prices of sensors and processors are encouraging the rapid growth of the IoT and IoE. Smart devices, for example, smartphones, smartwatches, PDAs, phablets, and tablets, will be the primary interaction tools used by people in a connected environment including cars, homes, and workplaces. Gartner expects in [3] that "the number of connected things and devices to rise to 25 billion by 2020 while other more aggressive estimates put the figure at 50 billion" [3]. "For this to be realized we need to have devices that are not only smart but should be able to access the Internet without being connected to a physical local area network (LAN) or wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) network, should have an independent power source (e.g. battery), and should have the ability to sense the physical environment and send context information seamlessly" [3]. In today's world of emerging technologies, this could be made a reality: RFID, Bluetooth, 3G, 4G, 5G, wireless sensor networks, etc., along with long-lasting batteries, all bundled in one

138 Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective

inexpensive, small, light, and portable device, which is the smartphone.

to pick it up.

target basically the areas of privacy and security.

Equipped with the aforementioned technologies stated above, the smartphone gathers context data about the user (e.g., geolocation, temperature, health conditions, etc.) and interacts seamlessly with various devices using different types of connections such as Bluetooth, nearfield communications (NFC), Wi-Fi, etc. Therefore, the smartphone can be considered as the user's ultimate device for IoT and IoE interactions and control. Big data, mobility, and cloud services are the principal parts of IoE concept, and using the smartphones everywhere is helping the IoE movement forward. Many services can be done in real time using the cloud and smartphones, for example, we can use our smartphone to order items online quickly, use an application to see if a specific store has an item in stock, or even better check how big is the queue in this store, order an item, then let customer services know that you are on your way

In this chapter, we will give an overview about the Smartphones' enabling technologies for the Internet of Things (IoT) and Internet of Everything (IoE), such as RFID, NFC, optical tags and quick response codes, Bluetooth, etc. We will also discuss the different application areas of IoT and IoE through the use of smartphones interconnected to other devices and show how the smartphone behaves in a cloud environment using different offered services. Finally, we will state the future opportunities and challenges of IoT and IoE applications. Some of the opportunities that will be discussed include context and ubiquitous services. Challenges will A cell phone is a small device that can be used to make phone calls and send text messages on the go, adding the word "smart" to a phone can be confusing, aren't all phones smart? [4] A smart phone is sometimes called cell phone, because it can make calls but not vice versa [4]. A smartphone can be considered a miniature computer that has a virtual store of many applications such as games, different browsers, maps, emails, image editors, and that help to turn it into a device that is smarter than a regular cell phone [4]. Authors in Ref. [5] define a smartphone as "a next generation, multifunctional cell phone that provides voice communication and text messaging capabilities and facilitates data processing as well as enhanced wireless connectivity" [5]. According to Ref. [5], a smartphone could be considered a combination of "a powerful cell phone" [5] and a "wireless-enabled PDA" [5].

A smartphone has many additional features compared to a regular cell phone such as a color LCD screen, wireless capabilities, that is Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, infrared, etc., a large memory and a specialized operating system (OS) with an offer of many downloadable applications [5]. The emerging new technologies stated above available in smartphones along with the different new applications existing in the market, made of the smartphone a personal device that is not always on, but is always somewhere on us providing a ubiquitous and pervasive computing environment full of seamless services and applications that has most changed our lives [6]. As stated by Romero J. in [6], the smartphone helps users to get the required information whenever needed and to stay connected any time and at any given location [6].

The difference between a smartphone and a cell phone is mainly due to advances in three areas, which are hardware, that is, high-resolution screens, keyboards, cameras, processors, sensors, software, that is, operating systems and various supported applications, and network infrastructure, that is, 3G and 4G networks, and an increasing wireless bandwidth that allows the applications to offload data storage and processing to the cloud [6]. Equipped with different sensors, the smartphone world is considered different: for example, using the smartphone's accelerometers, basic health indicators can be followed, and using the GPS, traffic patterns could be monitored [6]. Many applications for augmented reality were also developed allowing, for example, to point your phone at a restaurant and see customer reviews about it. As stated in Ref. [6], smartphones are considered to become a "sixth sense" for the user, allowing a variety of functionalities.
