**3. Spatial biogeographical pattern**

The geographic ranges of species evolve under limited environmental conditions creating a spatial pattern. Broad-ranging species perceive fewer boundaries than species with restricted geographic ranges, and they can shift their ranges relatively more easily under changing environmental conditions.

Spatial boundaries are affected by natural biotic and abiotic factors and anthropogenic disturbation which enhance each other's effect through interactions. Extreme changes in these factors and in the inherent traits of boundaries can lead to extinctions.
