**2.2. Results**

*2.1.2. Quality of pasta*

**Table 1.** Description of Mixolab II. phases.

258 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

*2.1.3. Antioxidant capacity*

grains per m2

System.

A mixture of tested wheat varieties – einkorn wheat, emmer wheat, spelt wheat and bread wheat (the SW Kadrilj cultivar) – was milled into semolina and flour. The semolina was used to make pasta and the selected baking properties of the flour were determined. A reference method was used for the determination of moisture content of flour; the Falling Number method according to Hagberg-Perten was used, as well. The amount of nitrogen in the flour was measured according to Kjeldahl; the sedimentation index was calculated on the basis of Zeleny's test, and the wet gluten quantity and quality were determined with the Glutomatic

Time for C1 (min) The time evolution of the dough. The stronger the flour, the longer the time

C2 Measured attenuation of protein due to mechanical work and temperature

Amplitude (Nm) The elasticity of the dough. The higher the value, the greater the flexibility of flour Stability (min) Resistance against kneaded dough. The longer the duration, the more the flour is

evolution (time to reach C1)

considered stronger

C3 Measures the gelling starch

Guideline β (C3–C4) Speed starch gelatinisation

C4 It measures the stability of the hot gel

Guideline α (C1–C2) Attenuation rate of protein in warming

Guideline γ (C5–C4) The rate of enzymatic degradation

C5 Measured starch retrogradation in cooling phase

Semolina pasta was prepared in the pasta machine MPF2.5, and subsequently, a cooking test was performed. The cooking test focused on the determination of the boiling properties, binding and swelling capacity as well as the amount of sediment. The sensory evaluation of the

The used varieties came from the Gene Bank of the Crop Research Institute in Prague-Ruzyne. In the precise, 3-year field experiments in 2010, 2011 and 2012, four varieties of wheat einkorn *T*. *monococcum* L., eight varieties of emmer (*T*. *dicoccum* Schuebl [Schrank]), seven varieties of spelt (*T*. *spelta* L.), four varieties of landraces of bread wheat (*T*. *aestivum* L.) and three varieties

Varieties were sown on the organic certified research area of the University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic. The seeding rate was adjusted for a density of 350 germinable

. The crop stands were treated in compliance with the European legislation (the

of spring wheat (*T*. *aestivum* L.) as control (SW Kadrilj, Vanek, Jara) were used.

cooked pasta samples was carried out by a group of 10 evaluators.

#### *2.2.1. Baking quality and rheological properties*

Part of our work focuses on finding any differences in the baking quality between the tested varieties. It is also aimed at evaluating correlations between the baking quality parameters determined by common methods and in every single stage of Mixolab II. **Table 2** shows the tested varieties and their average values do not differ statistically from each other in the amplitude, stability, C2–C5, Gamma directive and Falling Number (the Mixolab II. stages are explained in **Table 2**). On the other side of the coin, there were statistically significant differences in C1 stage, Alpha and Beta directives, protein content, wet gluten, gluten index and SDS test. Statistically, significant differences and correlations existed between the following stages. C1 stage had a positive correlation with gluten index and dough stability. According to **Table 2**, a control variety of *T*. *aestivum* L. was different from the other varieties in C1 stage, which was confirmed by a high gluten index value and more stable dough as well. A positive correlation existed between protein content and C4 + C5 stages, wet gluten content and Gamma directive. *T*. *macha* Dekapr. and Menabde contained the highest amount of proteins. Wet gluten had a negative correlation with C1 stage. If dough contains more wet gluten, it does not need to be worked so hard mechanically [16]. A positive correlation existed between wet gluten content and protein content. On the other hand, higher gluten index value enhanced dough to develop and had a negative correlation with protein content and wet gluten content. *T*. *aestivum* L. attained the highest gluten index values. SDS test had a negative correlation with Alpha directive, which relates to a starch grain size and resistance –


Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statically significantly different at a significance level *P* ≥ 0.05.

**Table 2.** Average values of tracked characteristic on Mixolab II. machine and basic parameters of baking quality.

the bigger and the better quality the grains are (prime ones), the more they swell and the less resistant they are to higher temperatures [10].

Statistically non-significant differences and correlations existed in the following stages. C2–C2 stage had a positive correlation with C3–C5 stages and Beta and Gamma directive and Falling Number. This indicates that the baking technology must be adapted to its properties. C3 – the so-called amylase peak – indicates a different composition of starch and size fractions of starch grains [10]. Samples originating from Vienna research locality contained a higher amount of small starch grains (second ones) which are bound tightly to the protein matrix, and they gelatinise in higher temperatures. On the contrary, samples originating from the Ceske Budejovice research locality contained a higher amount of good-quality big starch grains (prime ones) which gelatinise in lower temperatures. A positive correlation existed with C4 and C5, Falling Number and Beta and Gamma directives. C4 – less stable dough – needs to be baked longer at lower temperature. They do not need to be worked so hard mechanically [16]. This parameter had a strong correlation with C2. In C5, starch gets cooler, starch structure changes and starch gets harder. Retrogradation had a positive correlation with Falling Number. For amplitude, stability and Gamma directive, see **Table 2**. Falling Number had a strong correlation with stability, C2–C5 stages, Beta and Gamma directives and protein content. It is one of the most significant features determining flour baking quality [10].

*Triticum macha* Dekapr. and Menabde: there were significant differences in the protein-weakening stage (C2) (see **Figure 1**). These were caused by an increasing temperature and mechanical processing of dough. Large differences between two of our localities existed since the starch gelatinisation stage (C3). Samples originating from Vienna research locality attained the amylase peak at the same stage as samples of the control common wheat. Values, enzymatic activity and stability were lower in Ceske Budejovice. Such differences were kept until C5 stage – retrogradation – solidification. *Triticum spelta* L: There were enormous differences since C2 stage as well. Since C3 stage, samples originating from Vienna research locality attained the amylase peak. Those samples from Vienna kept the same or similar test results in C4 stage too.

Rheological and Technological Quality of Minor Wheat Species and Common Wheat http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/67229 261

**Figure 1.** Rheological properties of control variety of *Triticum aestivum* L. - SW Kadrilj

the bigger and the better quality the grains are (prime ones), the more they swell and the less

Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statically significantly different at a significance

**Table 2.** Average values of tracked characteristic on Mixolab II. machine and basic parameters of baking quality.

**Species C1 Amplitude Stability C2 C4 C5 Alpha** *T*. *macha* 3.08a 0.09a 7.8a 0.36a 1.1a 1.8a −0.08<sup>a</sup> *T*. *spelta* 4.45a 0.07a 8.9a 0.39a 1.2a 1.9a −0.09ab *T*. *aestivum* 6.69b 0.07a 9.8a 0.44a 1.3a 2.0a −0.10<sup>b</sup>

*T*. *macha* 0.45a −0.05<sup>a</sup> 15.2b 36.07b 55.4a 42.75a 526a *T*. *spelta* 0.63b −0.07<sup>a</sup> 14.99a 36.9a 56.0a 43.08a 425a *T*. *aestivum* 0.65ab −0.07<sup>a</sup> 13.1a 19.3a 96.8b 49.40b 463a

**Species Beta Gamma Protein content Wet gluten GI SDS Falling Number**

Statistically non-significant differences and correlations existed in the following stages. C2–C2 stage had a positive correlation with C3–C5 stages and Beta and Gamma directive and Falling Number. This indicates that the baking technology must be adapted to its properties. C3 – the so-called amylase peak – indicates a different composition of starch and size fractions of starch grains [10]. Samples originating from Vienna research locality contained a higher amount of small starch grains (second ones) which are bound tightly to the protein matrix, and they gelatinise in higher temperatures. On the contrary, samples originating from the Ceske Budejovice research locality contained a higher amount of good-quality big starch grains (prime ones) which gelatinise in lower temperatures. A positive correlation existed with C4 and C5, Falling Number and Beta and Gamma directives. C4 – less stable dough – needs to be baked longer at lower temperature. They do not need to be worked so hard mechanically [16]. This parameter had a strong correlation with C2. In C5, starch gets cooler, starch structure changes and starch gets harder. Retrogradation had a positive correlation with Falling Number. For amplitude, stability and Gamma directive, see **Table 2**. Falling Number had a strong correlation with stability, C2–C5 stages, Beta and Gamma directives and protein content. It is one of the most

*Triticum macha* Dekapr. and Menabde: there were significant differences in the protein-weakening stage (C2) (see **Figure 1**). These were caused by an increasing temperature and mechanical processing of dough. Large differences between two of our localities existed since the starch gelatinisation stage (C3). Samples originating from Vienna research locality attained the amylase peak at the same stage as samples of the control common wheat. Values, enzymatic activity and stability were lower in Ceske Budejovice. Such differences were kept until C5 stage – retrogradation – solidification. *Triticum spelta* L: There were enormous differences since C2 stage as well. Since C3 stage, samples originating from Vienna research locality attained the amylase peak. Those samples from Vienna kept the same or similar test results in C4 stage too.

resistant they are to higher temperatures [10].

260 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

level *P* ≥ 0.05.

significant features determining flour baking quality [10].

There were large differences in stability between samples originating from Ceske Budejovice locality. In the last C5 stage, spelt wheat varieties attained higher average values than *T*. *macha* varieties. *T*. *aestivum* L. (control variety) – SW Kadrilj: larger differences between common wheat varieties arose during the test, since C3 stage (see **Figure 2**). These were the largest differences during the enzymatic degradation (C4 stage). It meant a very different enzymatic activity in every single sample. It was reflected in the retrogradation of starch as well (C5).

Such differences between Vienna and Ceske Budejovice research samples were caused by different conditions in every research locality (climate, weather changes, soil quality, agrotechnology and quality of harvested material and post-harvest arrangements). There are

**Figure 2.** Rheological properties of control variety of *Triticum macha* Dekapr and Menabde

more precipitations and irregular rains in Ceske Budejovice. Rain occurs during the harvest period too. Water percentage in dry matter is a significant factor influencing Falling Number and behaviour of proteins in grains. On the other side of the coin, there are minimum precipitations in Vienna, and almost no rain occurs during the harvest period. However, there is a good-quality soil in Vienna and the total amount of nutrients in the soil is balanced (**Figure 3**).

#### *2.2.1.1. Quality of bread*

The results of determination of baking quality are summarised in **Table 3**. It is evident that the lowest protein content was measured in bread wheat flour. This fact is also confirmed

Rheological and Technological Quality of Minor Wheat Species and Common Wheat http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/67229 263

**Figure 3.** Rheological properties of *Triticum spelta* L. varieties.

more precipitations and irregular rains in Ceske Budejovice. Rain occurs during the harvest period too. Water percentage in dry matter is a significant factor influencing Falling Number and behaviour of proteins in grains. On the other side of the coin, there are minimum precipitations in Vienna, and almost no rain occurs during the harvest period. However, there is a good-quality soil in Vienna and the total amount of nutrients in the soil is balanced

**Figure 2.** Rheological properties of control variety of *Triticum macha* Dekapr and Menabde

The results of determination of baking quality are summarised in **Table 3**. It is evident that the lowest protein content was measured in bread wheat flour. This fact is also confirmed

(**Figure 3**).

*2.2.1.1. Quality of bread*

262 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

by the classification in a statistically different group (*P* < 0.05). Similarly, the lowest protein content was detected in white spelt flour. The observed result is consistent with the data published in the literature, where the protein content is normally referred above the limit


Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statistically significantly different at a significance level *P* ≥ 0.05.

**Table 3.** Selected parameters of baking quality (mean of two replications).

of 15%. The amount of wet gluten in the samples was in optimum quantity excluding white bread wheat flour that showed a statistically significant difference from white spelt flour. The values resulting from the Zeleny's test were generally low. Only bread wheat reached higher values. Low values of sedimentation are general problems of hulled wheat, which are due to the genetic background to some extent. The gluten index was determined to assess the gluten quality. As expected, the highest amount of gluten was found in bread wheat flour (also confirmed by Tukey's HSD test). However, the value of gluten index in whole-wheat bread flour was surprisingly low. A partial explanation was found based on the correlation analysis (**Table 4**), because the flour had low Zeleny's values. The correlation between these values and the values of gluten index was statistically significant (r = 0.89). Flour of both wheat varieties showed high values of the Falling Number – an indicator of damage to the starch grains due to the pre-harvest sprouting. The values are very high (exceed the standard). Such a high Falling Number may have negative effects on loaf volume, as well as the sensory evaluation of bread crumb.


**Table 4.** The results of correlation analysis (mean of a`ll flour kinds).

The most objective parameter of the baking quality is a determination of the loaf volume. In the present case, a modified methodology was used, and hence the values are for guidance only. Whole-wheat bread showed the highest values. Conversely, the lowest values were found in whole-wheat spelt flour. The results do not fully correspond with the values regarding the gluten index and Zeleny's test (**Table 3**). Correlation analysis results (**Table 4**) indicate a negative correlation (r = −0.69) between the bread volume and protein content. A possible explanation is the fact that spelt is generally higher in protein, but it is of lower baking quality than bread wheat (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 4.** The result of the baking test. A cross-section of bread, in order from left to right: a bread of whole-wheat flour, finely ground flour, whole-wheat spelt flour, finely ground flour, bread wheat flour and spelt flour.

Respondents rated the bread made of whole-wheat, finely ground flour that is the best within the sensory evaluation. The main reason was its high volume. Eight out of 10 respondents described this bread visually appealing. Taste, of course, is a very important indicator of the quality of bread. For all breads, the taste was evaluated as pleasant and less intense. In overall assessment, the bread made of whole-wheat, finely ground flour and bread wheat flour received the highest rating. On the contrary, spelt bread gained only an average rating in the overall evaluation.

#### *2.2.1.2. Quality of pasta*

of 15%. The amount of wet gluten in the samples was in optimum quantity excluding white bread wheat flour that showed a statistically significant difference from white spelt flour. The values resulting from the Zeleny's test were generally low. Only bread wheat reached higher values. Low values of sedimentation are general problems of hulled wheat, which are due to the genetic background to some extent. The gluten index was determined to assess the gluten quality. As expected, the highest amount of gluten was found in bread wheat flour (also confirmed by Tukey's HSD test). However, the value of gluten index in whole-wheat bread flour was surprisingly low. A partial explanation was found based on the correlation analysis (**Table 4**), because the flour had low Zeleny's values. The correlation between these values and the values of gluten index was statistically significant (r = 0.89). Flour of both wheat varieties showed high values of the Falling Number – an indicator of damage to the starch grains due to the pre-harvest sprouting. The values are very high (exceed the standard). Such a high Falling Number may have negative effects on loaf volume, as well as the sensory evaluation

Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statistically significantly different at a

**Zeleny's test (mL)**

Spelt – whole grain flour 12.77a 10.0a 57a 40.7ab 441b 1500a Spelt – white flour 14.93c 11.0a 55a 42.4b 560d 1725c

Bread wheat – white flour 12.70a 14.0b 83b 30.8a 496c 1610b

**Parameter Mean ± SD 1 2 3 4 5**

(4) 38.5 ± 5.2 0.11ns −0.88ns −0.89\*

1756.3 ± 280.9 −0.69\* −0.34ns −0.42ns 0.25ns −0.44ns

Falling Number (s) (5) 475.8 ± 62.3 0.92\* 0.42ns 0.24ns −0.04ns

**Gluten index**

9.98b 10.0a 52a 40.4ab 406a 2190d

**Wet gluten content (%)** **Falling Number (s)** **Bread volume (cm3 )**

of bread crumb.

Protein content

Wet gluten content

Bread volume (cm3 )

(%)

(%)

Note: \*

**Kind of flour Protein content** 

264 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

Bread wheat – whole

significance level *P* ≥ 0.05.

grain flour

**(%)**

**Table 3.** Selected parameters of baking quality (mean of two replications).

(1) 12.6 ± 1.9

Gluten index (3) 62.0 ± 14.0 0.12ns 0.89\*

**Table 4.** The results of correlation analysis (mean of a`ll flour kinds).

Zeleny's test (mL) (2) 11.3 ± 1.8 0.23ns

*P* < 0.05; ns, non-significant.

The resulting values of baking properties of flour, which may also affect the quality of pasta, were analysed using the correlation analysis. **Tables 5** and **6** show the results of Tukey's HSD test at a level of significance (*P* ≥ 0.05). The tables also present the assessment of cooked pasta.


Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statistically significantly different at a significance level *P* ≥ 0.05.

**Table 5.** Selected parameters of baking quality of different wheat species.


Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statistically significantly different at a significance level *P* ≥ 0.05.

**Table 6.** Selected parameters of quality of different wheat species.

According to CSN 46 1100-2 (the Czech Republic's standard quality), an amount of N-substances in wheat for food use should reach 10.8–13.7%, which corresponds with the sample of bread wheat flour. The fact that hulled wheat is higher in protein has been confirmed within this study. The tested wheat varieties contained 16% of N-substances. Generally, the sedimentation index was low in hulled wheat samples. It may be therefore stated that these varieties are not, in contrast to bread wheat, suitable for baking purpose. On the other hand, these values do not affect the quality of pasta to a great extent. By contrast, gluten index and the amount of sediment have an impact on it. In this case, negative correlation indicates that increased gluten index decreases an amount of sediment with 99.9% probability, when cooking pasta. Gluten index of einkorn wheat is very low, which consequently resulted in the relatively large amount of sediment. The interesting information shown by this statistical method is the dependence of wet gluten on the amount of water bound by pasta during boiling. The amount of water absorbed by pasta thus increases due to the higher wet gluten content together with the weight of pasta. Spelt showed the highest values of wet gluten and thereby the highest binding; conversely, the lowest amounts were found in bread wheat. The Falling Number method did not prove any evidence showing a connection with the quality of pasta.

The sensory evaluation included tasting and filling out a questionnaire. Colour, surface (smooth, rough and floury), edges (sharp and rough), texture (compact and cracked) and firmness (strong, fragile, crumbly and translucent) of uncooked pasta had been evaluated. In consequence, colour, hardness (undercooked, al dente and overcooked), shape (appropriate and deviation of shape), flavour (excellent, good, fair and poor with foreign taste), odour (pleasant and unpleasant) and surface (sticky, slightly sticky and dry) of cooked pasta had been evaluated. Based on the data gained from the questionnaires, it may be assumed that the pasta production of hulled wheat was assessed positively by the respondents on the whole (**Figure 5**).

#### *2.2.2. Antioxidant activity of different wheat species*

Whole grain phytochemicals have an antioxidant activity, the ability to scavenge free radicals that may oxidise biologically relevant molecules [17]. Due to this, whole-wheat foods could

**Figure 5.** Differences in pasta colour.

According to CSN 46 1100-2 (the Czech Republic's standard quality), an amount of N-substances in wheat for food use should reach 10.8–13.7%, which corresponds with the sample of bread wheat flour. The fact that hulled wheat is higher in protein has been confirmed within this study. The tested wheat varieties contained 16% of N-substances. Generally, the sedimentation index was low in hulled wheat samples. It may be therefore stated that these varieties are not, in contrast to bread wheat, suitable for baking purpose. On the other hand, these values do not affect the quality of pasta to a great extent. By contrast, gluten index and the amount of sediment have an impact on it. In this case, negative correlation indicates that increased gluten index decreases an amount of sediment with 99.9% probability, when cooking pasta. Gluten index of einkorn wheat is very low, which consequently resulted in the relatively large amount of sediment. The interesting information shown by this statistical method is the dependence of wet gluten on the amount of water bound by pasta during boiling. The amount of water absorbed by pasta thus increases due to the higher wet gluten content together with the weight of pasta. Spelt showed the highest values of wet gluten and thereby the highest binding; conversely, the lowest amounts were found in bread wheat. The Falling Number method did not prove any evidence showing a

11c 95b 2.20a 80.0a 94.5b 95b

Note: Values marked with the same letter are, based on Tukey's HSD test, statistically significantly different at a

**Swelling capacity**

Einkorn 13a 105a 2.48a 180c 120.5c 105a Emmer 10b 100c 2.28a 110b 102a 100c Spelt 13a 108a 2.41a 79.5a 105.0a 108a

**Sediment Increase of** 

**volume**

**Increase of weight**

The sensory evaluation included tasting and filling out a questionnaire. Colour, surface (smooth, rough and floury), edges (sharp and rough), texture (compact and cracked) and firmness (strong, fragile, crumbly and translucent) of uncooked pasta had been evaluated. In consequence, colour, hardness (undercooked, al dente and overcooked), shape (appropriate and deviation of shape), flavour (excellent, good, fair and poor with foreign taste), odour (pleasant and unpleasant) and surface (sticky, slightly sticky and dry) of cooked pasta had been evaluated. Based on the data gained from the questionnaires, it may be assumed that the pasta production of hulled wheat was assessed positively by the respondents on the

Whole grain phytochemicals have an antioxidant activity, the ability to scavenge free radicals that may oxidise biologically relevant molecules [17]. Due to this, whole-wheat foods could

connection with the quality of pasta.

**Species Firmness Binding** 

266 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

SW Kadrilj – bread wheat

significance level *P* ≥ 0.05.

**capacity**

**Table 6.** Selected parameters of quality of different wheat species.

*2.2.2. Antioxidant activity of different wheat species*

whole (**Figure 5**).

contribute to the health benefits of people such as reducing the risk of heart disease, diabetes type 2, cancer, etc. In the present study, there were highly significant differences (p < 0.05) among 26 varieties for antioxidant activity (**Figure 6** and **Table 7**).

Mean antioxidant activity among varieties ranged from 225.45 mg Trolox/kg DW to 400.83 mg Trolox/kg DW. This demonstrates a broad range of antioxidant content in wheat species. There were eight groups in which the means were not significantly different from one

**Figure 6.** Antioxidant activity content of wheat varieties. Values expressed as mg Trolox/kg DM. D11 – Weisser Sommer; D12 – May-Emmer; D13 – *T*. *dicoccum*; D14 – *T*. *dicoccum*; D17 – *T*. *dicoccum*; D18 – *T*. *dicoccum*; D19 – *T*. *dicoccum*; J1 – *T.*; J2 – *T*. *monococcum*; J4 – *T*. *monococcum;* J6 – *T*. *monococcum*; P1 – *T*. *aestivum*; P2 – *T*. *aestivum*; P3 – *T*. *aestivum*; P4 – *T*. *aestivum*; SP1 – *T*. *spelta*; SP2 – *T*. *spelta*; SP3 – *T*. *spelta*; SP6 – *T*. *spelta*; SP7 – *T*. *spelta*; SP8 – *T*. *spelta*; SP9 – *T*. *spelta*; SW – SW Kadrilj.


Values marked with different small letters are significantly different at *P* ≤ 0.05.

\* Emmer varieties.

\*\*Einkorn varieties.

\*\*\*Landrace of *T*. *aestivum*.

\*\*\*\*Spelt varieties.

**Table 7.** Content of antioxidant activity in different wheat grains.

another. Having 400.83 mg Trolox/kg DW, D11 variety belonged to the lead group and was significantly different from all other varieties except P3, D12, P2, P4 and JARA. In contrast, the varieties containing the lowest content of antioxidant were SP6, SP9, J1, SP3, SP2 and SP1 with 266.57 mg Trolox/kg DW, 248.82 mg Trolox/kg DW, 247.42 mg Trolox/kg DW, 232.63 mg Trolox/kg DW, 226.55 mg Trolox/kg DW and 225.45 mg Trolox/kg DW, respectively.

The findings of Lachman et al. [14] showed that the antioxidant activity content of seven varieties ranged between 134.0 and 197.5 mg Trolox/kg DW. In this study, our results are approximately two times higher than these ones. This means that the varieties in our experiment are potential for breeding new wheat varieties, as well as essential sources of functional food ingredients.

It is known that antioxidant activity content can be influenced by stress factors of the weather conditions during the vegetation period and genotype effects. Comparing the data of four species collected from 2010 to 2012 (**Figure 7**) show that there is a decrease in the mean of antioxidant during the 3-year period by 23.26 mg Trolox/kg DW. These differences are, however, not statistically significant.

The cultivated diploid (einkorn), tetraploid (durum wheat), hexaploid (bread wheat) and other varieties possess antioxidant activity due to their content of hydrophilic (phenolics, selenium) and lipophilic (carotenoids, tocopherols) antioxidants (**Figure 8**) [18].

**Figure 7.** Antioxidant activity in 26 varieties harvested in 2010, 2011 and 2012.

another. Having 400.83 mg Trolox/kg DW, D11 variety belonged to the lead group and was significantly different from all other varieties except P3, D12, P2, P4 and JARA. In contrast, the varieties containing the lowest content of antioxidant were SP6, SP9, J1, SP3, SP2 and SP1 with 266.57 mg Trolox/kg DW, 248.82 mg Trolox/kg DW, 247.42 mg Trolox/kg DW, 232.63 mg

The findings of Lachman et al. [14] showed that the antioxidant activity content of seven varieties ranged between 134.0 and 197.5 mg Trolox/kg DW. In this study, our results are approximately two times higher than these ones. This means that the varieties in our experiment are potential for breeding new wheat varieties, as well as essential sources of functional food ingredients.

It is known that antioxidant activity content can be influenced by stress factors of the weather conditions during the vegetation period and genotype effects. Comparing the data of four species collected from 2010 to 2012 (**Figure 7**) show that there is a decrease in the mean of antioxidant during the 3-year period by 23.26 mg Trolox/kg DW. These differences are, however,

The cultivated diploid (einkorn), tetraploid (durum wheat), hexaploid (bread wheat) and other varieties possess antioxidant activity due to their content of hydrophilic (phenolics,

selenium) and lipophilic (carotenoids, tocopherols) antioxidants (**Figure 8**) [18].

Trolox/kg DW, 226.55 mg Trolox/kg DW and 225.45 mg Trolox/kg DW, respectively.

**Variety D11\* D12\* D13\* D14\* D17\* D18\***

Variety D19\* RUDICO\* J1\*\* J2\*\* J4\*\* J6\*\*

Variety P1\*\*\* P2\*\*\* P3\*\*\* P4\*\*\* SP1\*\*\*\* SP2\*\*\*\*

Variety SP3\*\*\*\* SP6\*\*\*\* SP7\*\*\*\* SP8\*\*\*\* SP9\*\*\*\* JARA

400.83a 364.15ab 341.60bc 288.36e–g 304.56c–f 351.62b

339.92bc 332.90b–d 247.42gh 306.16c–f 293.23df 327.73b–e

345.88bc 362.25ab 365.26ab 360.95ab 225.45h 226.55h

232.63h 265.56f–h 280.63fg 281.10fg 248.82gh 357.36ab

not statistically significant.

AOA (mg Trolox/kg DM)

AOA (mg Trolox/kg DM)

AOA (mg Trolox/kg DM)

AOA (mg Trolox/kg DM)

AOA (mg Trolox/kg DM)

Emmer varieties. \*\*Einkorn varieties. \*\*\*Landrace of *T*. *aestivum*. \*\*\*\*Spelt varieties.

\*

Variety SW VÁNEK

268 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

336.98b–d 353.70b

**Table 7.** Content of antioxidant activity in different wheat grains.

Values marked with different small letters are significantly different at *P* ≤ 0.05.

**Figure 8.** Content of antioxidants in wheat grains from the harvests 2010, 2011 and 2012.

Analysing ANOVA, Tukey's HSD revealed statistically significant differences between tetraploid and diploid as well as tetraploid and hexaploid. The mean antioxidant of tetraploid from 2010 to 2012 (340.49 ± 39.11 mg Trolox/kg DW) was higher than the value of diploid and hexaploid (293.64 ± 34.82 mg Trolox/kg DW) and (303.08 mg Trolox/kg DW), respectively. Our results are different from those of Lachman et al. [14]. While antioxidant values in our findings increase from diploid (einkorn) to tetraploid, the reverse is true for Lachman's results. This is because our experiment used 26 varieties in 3 years compared to seven varieties in 2 years.

**Figure 9.** Antioxidant activity values of four species.

**Figure 9** illustrates the differences of four varieties. *T*. *aestivum* and emmer wheat shared the highest value with 354.44 ± 24.97 mg Trolox/kg DW) and 340.49 ± 39.11 mg Trolox/kg DW, respectively, followed by *T*. *monococcum* (293.64 ± 34.82 mg Trolox/kg DW). Having 251.54 ± 29.60 mg Trolox/kg DW, *T*. *spelta* had the lowest value in total of four species (*P* < 0.05).

#### **2.3. Conclusions**

Compared to samples originating from Ceske Budejovice, samples originating from Vienna attained higher and more balanced values in all the stages of Mixolab II. testing. SW Kadrilj was the only common wheat variety that attained a similar protein weakening speed when heated and worked mechanically (C2). There were enormous differences between *Triticum macha* Dekapr. and Menabde and *Triticum spelta* L. Baking technology must be adapted to the requirements of these two wheat species; dough must be worked more sensitively. In spite of this fact, these species can be used for baking purposes.

The working hypothesis, i.e. the use of spelt, einkorn and emmer wheat is technically feasible within the pasta production, was confirmed based on the testing. All wheat varieties are high in protein. Boiling time is not significantly different and pasta swells to the extent close to the pasta commonly available on the market. The taste of evaluated pasta was not assessed negatively, and the consumers, who are used to consuming more whole grain products, could feel the distinctive flavour of products made of einkorn and emmer wheat and spelt, which generally fades fast during milling from pasta made of white durum wheat or bread wheat flour.

Wheat contains huge essential antioxidants such as dietary fibre, tocopherols, tocotrienols, etc. The consumption of wheat is associated with reducing risk of chronic diseases including type 2 diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular disease. In this study, the content antioxidant activity of 26 varieties of whole wheat is reported. Antioxidant activity was ranged from 225.45 mg Trolox/kg DW to 400.83 mg Trolox/kg DW. The antioxidant activity values were significantly different among varieties, ploidy level and wheat accessions.

The general conclusion is that hulled wheat species had a high protein content and wet gluten content. Einkorn and emmer were not suitable for 'classical' baking processing. But there is potential for other products such as wheat rice (einkorn) or pasta (emmer). Spelt will be possible to be used in 'classical' baking industry. The best solution will be the use of spelt wheat grain mixed with bread wheat grain. Also, this study showed a genotypical variation in the antioxidant activity of einkorn, emmer, spelta and *T*. *aestivum*.
