**4. Future directions: translational genomics**

The wheat genome is very complex as it is a polyploid species consisted of three diploid progenitor genomes. Recent advances in genome sequencing technologies have accelerated efforts to complete genomes of many crop species, which has opened the door for discovery and knowledge of the genetic basis of a number of important agronomic traits, with the final



**Species**

**Trait** Flowering

Early

At1g28380 At5g44040

HM133570

43.85

XM\_015777033

37.49

KJ711537

43.1

KP202720.1

42.53

26 Wheat Improvement, Management and Utilization

KR706151

42.43

XM\_015770121

36.86

KX161741.1

44.78

EU241899.1

41.78

flowering

Late

At1g01580 At1g04400

AB476614.1

43.88

XM\_015756636

36.72

EU331897.1

44.13

XM\_015787003

38.04

KJ711539.1

43.16

flowering

Growth

Dwarf/small

At5g19530 At1g02730 At4g10180

Growth

At4g01690 At1g65260

Stems

Waxy

At1g09560 At1g02205

> Fasciation

At1g64670

AJ567377.2 AK354338.1 AK356998.1

> Short petiole

> At4g10180

At3g03860

Twisted

At4g27060

petiole

Leaves Abnormal

At3g16830 At1g61940

shape

AK353983.1

37.12

GQ389628.1

EF190873.1

JX828333.1

58.57

AY831792.1

JX878122.1

58.41

56.52

58.4

EU189093.1

54.23

58.62

DQ457416.2

54.2

AK360706.1

36.39

AY585350.1

54.03

M11336.1

55.81

59.25

57.95

EU981914.2

60.39

60.29

FJ501983.1

59.64

EU981913.1

59.82

AK360068.1

58.91

FJ487949.1

58.86

KU376267.1

58.98

AK366020.1

58.91

FJ487950.1

58.98

KU376264.1

58.75

defective

KT247893.1

42.47 At1g02910 JF965395.1

EU331690.1

43.14

AY747605.1

43.1

KR816810.1 KT750252.1 AY244509.2

42.79

42.97

42.82

42.96

AY750996.1

42

AB630963.1

43.05

AY747606.1

43.1

**Locus**

**Locus**

**Identity**

**Locus**

**Identity**

**Locus**

**Identity**

**Locus**

**Identity**

**Arabidopsis**

**Barley**

**Rice**

**Wheat**

**Maize**

**Table 1.** Comparative analysis of yield-related genes in Arabidopsis, wheat, barley, and maize. aim of crop improvement and production. Moreover, the completion of sequences has enabled assessment of translational genomics which is an effective way for researchers and breeders to transfer knowledge of genetic and genomic information among related species, such as rice and wheat [110]. The translational genomics tool is known as 'model to crop' translation that can be contributed to the implementation of genetic and genomics in crop species [111]. There are three well-characterized model grass species rice [112, 113], *Brachypodium* [114], and barley [115], which can be used to accelerate the application of translational genomics among the Poaceae family. The large amount of insufficient knowledge such as biological processes that are controlled by genes can be filled from well-studied species through translational biology approach [110]. In translational genomics, comparative genomics studies can take advantage from available genomes and can provide information on the extrapolation of knowledge of gene functions among species [110]. Genome sequences are currently available for wheat, but information QTL mapping as compared to other model grass species have been less reported. Comparative analysis based on the candidate gene approach (CGA) is known as the most powerful tool for exchange information among species. We conducted a brief comparative analysis of yield-related genes in Arabidopsis, barley, rice, wheat, and maize. The 37 Arabidopsis genes controlling flowering, growth, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, have been used to investigate homologous sequences in the barley, rice, wheat, and maize genomes using BLAST [116]. Using the detected homologs among the grass species, we found a number of homologous sequences with the sequence identity values ranging between 36.39 and 60.39 based on MUSCLE v3.51 [117] (**Table 1**).

The release of genomic sequence of wheat [11], barley [115], and maize [118], provides a new opportunity for translational genomics. Since comparative genomics focuses on comparing genomes among plant species looking for similarities and differences of DNA sequence, protein sequence, and gene orders, information from well-studied and analyzed species can be applied for less studied crops to improve a specific target trait, which can be implemented in crop breeding and improvement. For example, genome-wide comparative analysis of floweringrelated genes in Arabidopsis, wheat, and barley has revealed that there are 900 and 275 putative orthologs in wheat and barley, respectively [119]. In addition, they showed many orthologous genes having similar expression profiles in different tissues of wheat and barley based on their *in silico* expression analyses. Such a work will help researchers to investigate candidate genes controlling the time of flowering in rice and barley which can be incorporated into molecular breeding for early flowering in wheat and barley in short-season cropping region [119].
