**Bacteriophages as Contaminants and Indicator**

54 Bacteriophages

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**4** 

*Canada* 

**Bacteriophages as Surrogates for the Fate and** 

Less than 1% of the world's fresh water accessible for direct human uses is found in lakes, rivers, reservoirs and those underground sources that are shallow enough to be tapped at an affordable cost. Only this amount is regularly renewed by rain and snowfall, and is

More than a billion people have limited access to safe drinking water; over 2 million die each year from water-related diarrhea, which is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in less economically developed countries (UNICEF and WHO, 2009). In more economically developed countries, increasing demands on water resources raise concerns about sustainable provision of safe drinking water. In 2008, supply and protection of water resources was identified as the top strategic priority of North American water professionals (Runge and Mann, 2008). This is not surprising given the rapidly expanding competition for existing water supplies from industrial, agricultural and municipal development, as well as the vital needs to protect human health and ecosystem functions. The challenge of sustaining supply is further exacerbated by changes in water quality and availability as a direct or indirect result of population growth, urban sprawl, climate change, water pollution, increasing occurrence of natural disasters, and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem

Most of the world population depends on groundwater for their supplies. Due to the proximity of groundwater to sources of microbial contamination, the increasing occurrence of extreme climate events and the lack of adequate disinfection, groundwater is responsible for a large percentage of the waterborne outbreaks of disease worldwide (WHO, 2004; 2011). For example, between 1999 and 2000, 72% of drinking water outbreaks of disease were associated with groundwater. Although the number of groundwater-associated disease outbreaks associated in the United States decreased during 2001–02, the proportion of outbreaks associated with groundwater increased to 92% from 87% (Tufenkji and Emelko, 2011). As a result of such outbreaks and the economic implications of waterborne illness, stricter water quality regulations to protect public health have been implemented in many countries. Significant examples of such regulations include the Surface Water Treatment Rules (SWTR -1989a; 2002) and the Ground Water Rule (2006) by the U.S. Environmental

therefore available on a sustainable basis (Berger, 2003).

**1. Introduction** 

disturbance.

**Transport of Pathogens in Source Water and** 

 **in Drinking Water Treatment Processes** 

*Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo,* 

Maria M.F. Mesquita and Monica B. Emelko
