**2. Effect of endemic/native Chilean plants on the functional activity of honeybee products**

Honey has been recognized for many centuries as a healthy food, because of its positive effects such as healing [14], anti-inflammatory [15], antibacterial [16–20], and antioxidant [20–24] properties; and prebiotic capacity [24–28]. Meanwhile, the pollen has also been recognized by health claims. Scientific studies have been shown that bee pollen acts as an anti-anemic, tonic and restorative, hormonal and intestinal regulator, vasoprotector, hepatoprotective and detoxifying agent, and antioxidant and antibacterial [29, 30]. All these properties vary with the botanical and geographical origin (**Table 1**).

underway to meet the needs of today's consumers. New analytical methods are being used with known foods to demonstrate properties they always had, but properties that had not been properly tested because of technological limitations; new foods or derived food com-

The diversity of food we know is derived from the biodiversity of plant and animal species we know. However, there are still many plant species which have not been explored or whose potential is just beginning to come to light. Many of these plants have been used by aboriginal groups around the world since ancient times. These species, which only grow in specific geographic locations (endemism), are rarely objects of scientific study or for industrial or

Chile is one of the top five hotspots of plant biodiversity on the planet; here it is possible to find new food and food-derived resources of interesting compounds in the poorly explored flora. In addition, the biodiversity of plant species found in Chile have a high degree of endemism, indicating that they do not grow elsewhere. Leaves, stems, roots, or fruits can be sources of antioxidants and/or antibacterial compounds. Among the plant species with potential are the non-fruiting tree specimens such as quillay and ulmo; within fruit tree species, we may find maqui, murta, calafate, and others that are less known. All these products have high contents of polyphenolics, which have high antioxidant and antibacterial properties.

Polyphenolics are secondary metabolites from plants that have been associated with several healthy benefits such as the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular, inflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases [1–3]; they are also associated with bioactive properties such as antiox-

Each phenolic/flavonoid compound has different antioxidant/antibacterial potency depending on its action mechanism. Phenolic compounds alter the permeability of bacterial cell membranes, which may result in the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, the inhibition of active transport, and the loss of pool metabolites due to cytoplasmic membrane damage [8, 9]. Other authors explain the antibacterial activity of phenolics by the presence of more number of hydroxyl groups that may form hydrogen bonds with enzymes, altering their metabolism and also the lipid solubility and the degree of steric hindrance [10, 11]. In the case of flavonoids, antibacterial activity has been associated with its capacity to form complex bonds with proteins through non-specific forces such as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects, as well as by covalent bond formation. Thus, it may inactivate microbial adhesins, enzymes, and cell envelope transport proteins. Lipophilic flavonoids may also disrupt

**2. Effect of endemic/native Chilean plants on the functional activity of**

Honey has been recognized for many centuries as a healthy food, because of its positive effects such as healing [14], anti-inflammatory [15], antibacterial [16–20], and antioxidant [20–24]

pounds are also being found.

132 Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization

idant and antibacterial properties [4–7].

microbial membranes [12, 13].

**honeybee products**

commercial scaling.



**Table 1.** Different polyphenolic compounds found in honeys with several botanical origins.

#### **2.1. Honeys**

Chilean honey has shown biological activity against bacteria and fungi. *Pseudomonas aerugi‐ nosa*, *Escherichia coli*, *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Streptococcus pneumoniae*, and *Vibrio cholerae* have been inhibited by hydroalcoholic extracts derived from honey [49, 50]. Meanwhile, *Candida albicans* has also shown sensitivity to Chilean honey. Chilean honey even has higher antimicrobial activity than Manuka honey, which has a standard antioxidant and antimicrobial activity potential [51]. The antimicrobial activity of honey is probably the result of the total number of active compounds and not the presence of any one of them (i.e., phenolics and flavonoids). This activity may be the result of synergism between flavonoids and phenolic compounds or between phenolic compounds and terpenes. Some phenolic compounds and flavonoids are present only in certain unifloral honeys. These results have allowed for the identification and certification of these honeys. References [48, 52, 53] identified chlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, syringic, p-coumaric, vanillic and salicylic acids, naringenin, quercetin and kaempferol in the unifloral honey of Quillay (*Quillaja saponaria*). In the same report, [52] found p-coumaric, ferulic, and salicylic acids in the endemic unifloral honey of Ulmo (*Eucryphia cordifolia*). Pinobanksin and kaempferol are typically identified in Chilean honeys.

Other more recent Chilean honeys currently being studied are Avellano honey (*Gevuina avellana* Molina), Tiaca honey (*Caldcluvia paniculata* (Cav.) D. Don), and Corontillo honey (*Escallonia pulverulenta*), which have shown antibacterial and antioxidant properties [50].

#### **2.2. Bee pollen**

**Honey Phenolic compound References**

apigenin, isohamnetin. quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether, pinocembrin, quercetin 7,3′-dimethyl

Eucalyptus Quercentin, luteolin, myricetin [45] Lotus Quercentin, luteolin, myricetin [45]

vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, ferrulic acid, p-coumaric acid, rosmarinic acid,

Robinia Myricetin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, chrysin, galangin [47]

Chilean honey has shown biological activity against bacteria and fungi. *Pseudomonas aerugi‐ nosa*, *Escherichia coli*, *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Streptococcus pneumoniae*, and *Vibrio cholerae* have been inhibited by hydroalcoholic extracts derived from honey [49, 50]. Meanwhile, *Candida albicans* has also shown sensitivity to Chilean honey. Chilean honey even has higher antimicrobial activity than Manuka honey, which has a standard antioxidant and antimicrobial activity potential [51]. The antimicrobial activity of honey is probably the result of the total number of active compounds and not the presence of any one of them (i.e., phenolics and flavonoids). This activity may be the result of synergism between flavonoids and phenolic compounds or between phenolic compounds and terpenes. Some phenolic compounds and flavonoids are present only in certain unifloral honeys. These results have allowed for the identification and certification of these honeys. References [48, 52, 53] identified chlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, syringic, p-coumaric, vanillic and salicylic acids, naringenin, quercetin and kaempferol in the unifloral honey of Quillay (*Quillaja saponaria*). In the same report, [52] found p-coumaric, ferulic, and salicylic acids in the endemic unifloral honey of Ulmo (*Eucryphia*

*cordifolia*). Pinobanksin and kaempferol are typically identified in Chilean honeys.

[44]

[40]

[45]

[46]

[41]

[48]

[49]

Acacia Abscisic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, p-coumaric, Ferulic, trans-cinnamic acids. Vanillin,

pinobanksin, apigenin, kaempherol, pinocembrin, crysina, acacetin

ether, quercetin 3,7-dimethylether, chrysin, galangin, tectochrysin

ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, chrysin, galangin

vanillic and salicylic acids. Naringenin, quercetin, kaempferol

Ulmo p-coumaric, ferulic, chlorogenic, caffeic, sinapic, syringic and salicylic acid

**Table 1.** Different polyphenolic compounds found in honeys with several botanical origins.

Rosemary Pinobanksin, quercetin, luteolin, 8-methoxykaempferol, kaempferol,

134 Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization

Buckwheat 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid,

Sage Myricetin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, isorhamnetin, chrysin, galangin, abscisic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid

Eucalyptus Myricetin, tricetin, quercertin, luteolin, quercertin-3-methyl ether, kaempferol, pinobanksin, chrysin, pinocembrin

Quillay Chlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, syringic, p-coumaric,

Kaempferol luteolin

**2.1. Honeys**

Bee pollen provides important ingredients to the human diet, such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, and other components in lesser amount such as minerals. Carbohydrates are mainly polysaccharides such as starch and sugars and represent between 13 and 55 g per 100 g of sample. With regard to protein content, bee pollen provides all essential amino acids to the human diet and their percentages vary between 10 and 40% of the test sample [55–63]. Referring to fats, a study reveals that 3% of the total lipids are free fatty acids and about half of them are omega-3 unsaturated oleic, linoleic (omega-6), and linolenic acids (omega-3) [55]. With reference to the mineral content, bee pollen contains potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, and selenium in amounts that satisfy the daily recommended intake per person [64].


**Table 2.** Main antioxidant parameters and pigments presented in bee pollen from different resources.

Several reports demonstrate the health benefits of bee pollen. Scientific studies have shown that bee pollen acts as an anti-anemic, tonic and restorative, hormone regulator, intestinal regulator, vasoprotector, and hepatoprotective, detoxifying, and antioxidant agent [28, 29, 65]. However, very few studies have identified the phenolic compounds of Chilean bee pollen. The information on bee pollen production for food applications and some reports concerning their antimicrobial and antioxidant activity [54, 66, 67].

Phenolic acids, flavonoids, and pigments such as β-carotene are mainly responsible for the healthy properties such as antioxidant and antibacterial properties exhibited by bee pollen [68–70]. The phenolic acids and flavonoid glycosides are present in the nectar of flowers visited by bees, which are hydrolyzed and transferred to bee pollen. The number and variety of phenolic acids and flavonoids are highly variable, since beekeepers mix bee pollen with different botanical origins from different plant species [22, 71]. A major flavonoid found in bee pollen is rutin [72]. The main group of pigments that compose bee pollen are carotenoids, especially β-carotene, whose concentration also depends on the botanical origin of the sample [63]. The β-carotene content is about 17% of total carotenoids. In some cases, it may contain 20 times less carotenoids that some foods [73]. In Chilean bee pollen, the carotenoid content varies with the botanical origin (**Table 2**).

The type and concentration of the polyphenolic compound influence the antibacterial and antioxidant activity exhibited by bee pollen. The most important polyphenolic compounds related to these activities are vanillic acid, protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, hesperidin, rutin, kaempferol, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, and isorhamnetin [70]. Bee pollen rich in these compounds has shown activity against specific pathogens such as *S. aur‐ eus*, which causes skin infections; *E. coli*, which causes diarrhea [67, 77], *Streptococcus pyogenes*, which causes acute bacterial pharyngitis [78], *P. aeruginosa*, which produces tissue damage and affects the immune system [79] and *S. pyogenes*, which causes skin wounds [16]. Another important study demonstrated the inhibition activity against *Salmonella* spp., as shown **Figure 1** [66].

**Figure 1.** Antibacterial activity of Chilean multiflora bee pollen hydrophilic extracts evaluated by inhibition zone diameter against *Salmonella typhimurium* and *Salmonella enteriditis*. Tetracycline (T), ampicillin (A) and chloramphenicol (Cl) were used as controls.
