**Author details**

Polly Soo Xi Yap1 , Yang Shun Kai<sup>2</sup> , Kok Song Lai<sup>3</sup> and Swee Hua Erin Lim<sup>4</sup> \* Shun Kai Yang<sup>2</sup> , Kok Song Lai<sup>3</sup> and Swee Hua Erin Lim<sup>4</sup> \*

\*Address all correspondence to: erinlimsh@gmail.com

1 School of Postgraduate Studies and Research, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

2 School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

3 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

4 Perdana University‐Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (PU‐RCSI), Perdana University, Selangor, Malaysia

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The exploitation of EOs has shed new light on antimicrobial therapeutics research and also the resurgence in the use of herbal medicine worldwide. Although possibilities of combination therapy appear to be extensive, the mode of interaction between two antimicrobials is extremely crucial. One of the challenges encountered in the *in vitro* study on a particular antibiotic is that despite proven synergism, it does not guarantee the success of the clinical use of the therapeutic agent. A major issue to be addressed is the pharmacology aspects of the membrane active properties of the EOs as a candidate therapeutic agent and their precise condition of use. Thus, in line with *in vitro* susceptibility testing, *in vivo* experiments are needed in tandem to provide sufficient supporting evidence to serve as a basis for new antimicrobials

**Figure 5.** Scanning electron micrographs of *E. coli* J53 R1 after (a) peppermint, (b) lavender, and (c) cinnamon bark

The exploitation of EOs has shed new light on antimicrobial therapeutics research and also the resurgence in the use of herbal medicine worldwide. Although possibilities of combination therapy appear to be extensive, the mode of interaction between two antimicrobials is extremely crucial. One of the challenges encountered in the *in vitro* study on a particular antibiotic is that despite proven synergism, it does not guarantee the success of the clinical use of the therapeutic agent. A major issue to be addressed is the pharmacology aspects of the membrane active properties of the EOs as a candidate therapeutic agent and their precise condition of use. Thus, in line with *in vitro* susceptibility testing, *in vivo* experiments are needed in tandem to provide sufficient supporting evidence to serve as a basis for new antimicrobials

In view of current efforts in developing alternative strategies by combining antibiotics with other compounds (antibiotic or nonantibiotic) —following the encouraging paradigm in Augmentin, this approach needs to be intensified. Besides inhibiting the effector molecules such as β‐lactamase or DNA replication, supplementary compounds that interfere with regulatory mechanisms such as virulence genes or cell physiology have shown great potential. Furthermore, targeting nonessential bacterial pathways is also an alternative and very possible strategy employed to reduce the risk of developing resistance. Ultimately, just because bacteria can evolve in various ways to resist antibiotics at the rate that is insurmountable by new antibiotic development, it would be imperative for medical researchers to employ multiple strategies in the combat of antibiotic resistance. There is no single "magic bullet" to adequately address the phenomenon of multidrug resistance

This study was funded by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia, under the grant number FRGS/1/2011/SKK/IMU/03/3.

The bacterial strains were a kind gift from Dr George A. Jacoby.

In view of current efforts in developing alternative strategies by combining antibiotics with other compounds (antibiotic or nonantibiotic) —following the encouraging paradigm in Augmentin, this approach needs to be intensified. Besides inhibiting the effector molecules such as β‐lactamase or DNA replication, supplementary compounds that interfere with regulatory mechanisms such as virulence genes or cell physiology have shown great potential. Furthermore, targeting nonessential bacterial pathways is also an alternative and very possible strategy employed to reduce the risk of developing resistance. Ultimately, just because bacteria can evolve in various ways to resist antibiotics at the rate that is insurmountable by new antibiotic development, it would be imperative for medical researchers to employ multiple strategies in the combat of antibiotic resistance. There is no single "magic bullet" to adequately address the phenomenon of multidrug resistance evolution.

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**Section 4**

**E. coli as a Model in Physiology and Cell Biology**

**E. coli as a Model in Physiology and Cell Biology**

**Chapter 16**

**Horizontal Gene Transfer and the Diversity of**

Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains are normal flora of human gastrointestinal tract. The evo‐ lution encoded by horizontally-transferred genetic (HGT) elements has been perceived in several species. E. coli strains have acquired virulence potential factors by attainment of particular loci through HGT, transposons or phages. The heterogeneous nature of these strains is because of HGT through mobile genetic elements. These genetic exchanges that

A diverse enterobacterial species of E. coli is classified into (i) commensal nonpathogenic, (ii) intestinal and (iii) extraintestinal pathogenic strains. This is related to the presence or absence of regions which are associated with certain pathotypes. The genetic information belongs to the flexible E. coli genome and it has been horizontally acquired by plasmids, bacteriophages and genomic islands. The rapid evolution of E. coli variants results from the genomic regions, contribute to frequently rearrangements, excision and transfer as well as acquisition of additional genome thus resulting to the creation of new (pathogenic)

HGT is a key step in the evolution of bacterial pathogens. This study is focused on determining the common virulence factors as a signature at the genetic level to use for

**Keywords:** *Escherichia coli* (*E. coli*), horizontal gene transfer (HGT), pathogenicity islands

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Maryam Javadi, Saeid Bouzari and Mana Oloomi

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

occur in bacteria provide the genetic diversity.

classification, diversity and evolution of E. coli.

(PAIs), evolution, bacteriophages

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68307

*Escherichia coli*

**Abstract**

variants.
