**6. Antibiotic resistance requires a coordinated response**

Antibiotic use in animals has led to the emergence of resistant bacteria, and sometimes these resistant bacteria can be transferred from animals to humans by direct contact or by handling and/or consuming contaminated food.

*S. aureus* were obtained. The fractions showed a diverse chemical structure and molecular

Antibiotic Resistance among *Escherichia coli*: Isolates and Novel Approaches to the Control of *E. coli* Infections

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In another study [67], *Paenibacillus polymyxa* was isolated as an endophyte from *Prunus* spp. in the same environment (Brazilian tropical savannah) as *S. tubercidicus*. This study reported the isolation of potent bioactivity of small molecules (<403 Da), against *E. coli* and. *S. aureus*. The previous author with collaborators [68] conducted studies highlighting conditions for production and characterization of these bioactive substances isolated from *P. polymyxa* RNC-D. Recently, a new group [69, 70] showed as well that endophytes isolated from *Miconia albicans*

According to these data, the bioprospection of endophytes consists in a promising and unexplored reserve for phytochemical agents. Thus, there is a great opportunity to find new anti-

Nanotechnology is the technology that deals with materials and products at the nanoscale. It is able to provide more effective solutions to some of the biotechnology issues, such as the development of drugs, due to the reduction of the proportion between contact surfaces and volume of materials, optimizing their action and consequently reduces the consumption of

Mesoporous nanostructures, as FDU-12 silica, have high specific surface area, mesoporous large volume, diameter, and adjustable pore surface properties that can be directed to the desired needs. They also have a great importance in catalysis processes, adsorption separation of large molecules, sensors, photonics, optical, drug release or drug, acoustic, nanoreac-

Lignin, besides being the second vegetal macromolecule found naturally in abundance, can functionalized mesoporous nanostructures, as it has in its structure phenolic and carboxylic groups. These groups are still capable of reducing metal to form nanoparticles and they also

Metallic nanoparticles have different functions, like the following: (i) the marking of a particular stretch of DNA; (ii) the increase in resistance of metals and in the case of nanoparticles linked to silver; (iii) the antimicrobial action (both against Gram-negative bacteria, which have a thin layer of peptidoglycan and against Gram-positive, whose layer is thicker); and (iv) fungicide, which makes these particles a special nanostructured material to be incorporated

However, there are no general consensuses about the mechanisms that can explain the action of silver nanoparticles in the inhibition of microbial growth. Some researchers claim that silver

tors, nanotechnology with advanced integrated systems, among others [71].

weight, suggesting the presence of new bioactive compounds.

had that potential to inhibit *E. coli* and other pathogens.

**7. Nanotechnology in health sciences**

have the advantage coat of the silver nanoparticles.

**8. Nanoparticles linked to silver**

into the control of such pathogens [72, 73].

microbial substances [64, 65].

substances and products.

High levels of resistance were observed for tetracycline as well as intermediate resistance against tetracycline, amikacin, and gentamicin. Gentamicin was the most effective out of these antibiotics [61]. Some authors [62] have showed high rates of tetracycline resistance in strains of enteric *E. coli*. Preventing resistant infections provides the greatest opportunity to limit resistance. Strategies to prevent and control resistant bacteria vary by the pathogen and the setting in which the infection is acquired. Infections were diagnosed in 188 patients from a single healthcare institution [63]. The medical costs for antibiotic resistant infections were estimated between \$13.35 and \$18.75 million dollars. In United States, antibiotic resistance is also an economic burden on the healthcare system, in other words, resistant infections cost more to treat.

Unfortunately, infections caused by antibiotic resistant bacteria are an everyday occurrence in healthcare settings. In United States, an effort of the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) contributes to minimize the impact of resistance. NARMS consists in a lab-based system for surveillance. This system is presented in all 50 states and detects resistance in pathogens that are commonly transmitted from animals to humans or through food, such as *Salmonella, Campylobacter*, and *E. coli*. Outbreaks caused by resistant bacteria can occur in community settings where people are concentrated, such as athletic teams, childcare centers, and prisons, or in healthcare settings, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, and ambulatory care facilities. Because the impact of resistance is extensive, activities may be done. The action plan could focus on: (i) reducing inappropriate antimicrobial use; (ii) reducing the spread of antimicrobial resistant microorganisms in institutions, communities, and agriculture; (iii) encouraging the development of new antiinfective products, vaccines, and adjunct therapies; and (iv) supporting basic research on antimicrobial resistance.

Another interesting goal to the process used to inhibit pathogens is linked to ancient knowledge. Many plant products are known to be able to inhibit the growth of several pathogens [64]. These compounds are used by plants in defense mechanisms such as predation by herbivores, insects, and microbial infections.

On the other hand, some studies [65] have shown that microorganisms living in intimate interaction with the host plant without causing any apparent disease symptoms produce most of these compounds. These microorganisms are defined as endophytes [65].

Some studies [65] recently showed that the phytochemicals produced by endophytes have revolutionized the use of these microorganisms as a source of bioactive compounds in recent years [65]. Among the great diversity of the different biomes, many plants stand out for its medicinal properties.

*Streptomyces tubercidicus* can produce tubercidin. Scientists working with a strain isolated from the Brazilian tropical savannah tree (*Solanum lycocarpum* St. Hill), named this strain (RND-C) [66]. In this study, different fractions with strong antimicrobial activity against *E. coli* and *S. aureus* were obtained. The fractions showed a diverse chemical structure and molecular weight, suggesting the presence of new bioactive compounds.

In another study [67], *Paenibacillus polymyxa* was isolated as an endophyte from *Prunus* spp. in the same environment (Brazilian tropical savannah) as *S. tubercidicus*. This study reported the isolation of potent bioactivity of small molecules (<403 Da), against *E. coli* and. *S. aureus*. The previous author with collaborators [68] conducted studies highlighting conditions for production and characterization of these bioactive substances isolated from *P. polymyxa* RNC-D. Recently, a new group [69, 70] showed as well that endophytes isolated from *Miconia albicans* had that potential to inhibit *E. coli* and other pathogens.

According to these data, the bioprospection of endophytes consists in a promising and unexplored reserve for phytochemical agents. Thus, there is a great opportunity to find new antimicrobial substances [64, 65].
