**6. Some models that have TKS as its core**

Ikujiro Nonaka, Japanese organizational theorist, in contextualizing the creation of knowledge in an organizational environment, understood that the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge was the main dynamic generator of knowledge. He conceptualized tacit knowledge as something difficult to visualize and express, particularly in regards to the actions and experiences of the individual, as well as emotions, values, or ideals. His model gives emphasis to personal interaction, where the key is in the sharing of knowledge [8].

Sveiby [68] introduces his model dealing with visible and invisible knowledge structures. He details among the intangible goods (assets), the competence of employees, customer relationships, brands, management mode, knowledge, and experience. He defines some organizations as 'organizations of knowledge,' featuring its employees as 'knowledge workers.' In these organizations, intangible assets have more value than its tangible ones, knowledge gains value when it is shared and those that take action in the TKS process end up having an increase in their stock of knowledge through interaction.

Leonard and Sensiper [74] highlighted that collaborators' individual and collective expertise is the source of innovation and a competitive base for most organizations They suggested three applications to the tacit knowledge to leverage the innovation (problem solving, problem finding, prediction, and anticipation future occurrences). They stressed that creative ideas "do not arise spontaneously from the air," but they are originated by a mental process by social interactions where the tacit knowledge are sorted, grouped, matched, and melted. Still, they emphasized that new solutions are rarely constructed in an isolated fashion and that cooperative productions are essential to organizational development.

Choo [101] states that the construction of knowledge is achieved when one recognizes the synergistic relationship between tacit and explicit knowledge, and organizations need to learn how to convert tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, becoming capable of promoting innovation and the development of new products. For Choo [101], there are four ways of converting knowledge: through a process of socialization (tacit knowledge into tacit), in other words, allowing the acquisition of tacit knowledge through the sharing of experiences; through externalization (tacit knowledge into explicit) a process in which tacit knowledge is translated into explicit concepts through the use of metaphors, analogies, and models; by combination (what is the word that the author used? Combination, blending, mixing, mixture, matching, hybrid… choose whichever is original) (explicit knowledge into explicit), a process that builds explicit knowledge through the gathering of explicit knowledge from various sources; through internalization (explicit knowledge into tacit) a process in which the experiences acquired in other ways of building knowledge are internalized by the individual in the form of mental models or common work routines.

Davenport and Prusak [51] stressed the importance for knowledge-based organizations to adopt sharing as one of the essential elements. They alerted to the fact that the existence of large numbers of individual tacit knowledge does not necessarily lead the organization to use this knowledge. The importance of organizations turning their attention to the spontaneous and unstructured sharing of knowledge strengthens and encourages the emergence of social movements in favor of TKS. Regarding the inherent informality of sharing, they stressed that conversations around water coolers or in restaurants are sharing opportunities and to designate these moments as a 'waste of time,' is part of an outdated theory on the nature of work. They stress, however, that it would not be a sensible attitude to wait around the breakroom for an answer to a specific knowledge, but, they reaffirm that 'spontaneous meetings of minds' (unstructured transfers) have demonstrated a capacity to generate new ideas or solve old problems unexpectedly. In the culture of knowledge transfer, the authors pointed out, some friction can slow or even block the communication flow:

• Lack of mutual trust;

**6. Some models that have TKS as its core**

Spiral structure [8]

**Key points relating to TKS References** Communities of practices (CoP) [100, 108] Competitive advantage [99] Crucial [54, 65]

14 Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications

Difficulty relating to TKS [12, 88, 110–112]

Learning [37, 82–84, 88]

Management practices [95] Motivation [98] Organization intelligence [107] Organizational deterioration, performance [67, 97] Organizational wisdom [36, 90] Other words to TKS [106, 109] Prevention of errors [93, 94] Sharing as essence of TK [83, 90–92]

Firms value [81, 106] Indicator to TKS [12, 68, 113] Individual property [27, 90] Informality [3, 51, 67, 89] Innovation [13, 86, 87, 101–105] Interactive action, socialization [19, 48, 51, 84, 96, 114]

Ikujiro Nonaka, Japanese organizational theorist, in contextualizing the creation of knowledge in an organizational environment, understood that the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge was the main dynamic generator of knowledge. He conceptualized tacit knowledge as something difficult to visualize and express, particularly in regards to the actions and experiences of the individual, as well as emotions, values, or ideals. His model gives emphasis

Sveiby [68] introduces his model dealing with visible and invisible knowledge structures. He details among the intangible goods (assets), the competence of employees, customer relationships, brands, management mode, knowledge, and experience. He defines some organizations as 'organizations of knowledge,' featuring its employees as 'knowledge workers.'

to personal interaction, where the key is in the sharing of knowledge [8].

**Table 3.** Summary table of the literature and key points relating to tacit knowledge sharing (TKS).

• Lack of time and of places to meet;


Miranda and Simeão's model [108] proposes the existence of elements, not so discernible (such as, technological communication systems), but of high value for the transfer of knowledge, such as, "a set of knowledge and practices"; the practice of "Granting specific know-how," or the sharing of "how-to-do". The authors point out to the irrevocability of human interaction in the transfer of tacit knowledge, setting up an 'extensive model of communication.' They argue that in TKS, the process occurs in an interpersonal way, developing increasingly complex structures, such as communities of practice and invisible colleges.

Tonet and Paz [106] consider the knowledge sharing process as composed of four phases: initiation, which are actions that seek to identify and analyze the needs of knowledge, the existing opportunities to employ different or new knowledge, and the tracking of sources where this knowledge can be found; implementation, actions that seek to promote integration between sources and recipients of knowledge; support, actions that seek to create opportunities to exercise shared knowledge and that promote the guidance of its practice with the objective of assimilating knowledge and the development of the necessary skills for a proficient use; and incorporation, actions aimed at making that shared knowledge can flow freely among those who should use it.
