**4. Sharing the intangible**

Knowledge is the core element of an emerging production model whose most important process is learning [2]. Through this, it is granted by the use of a sensory organ, the description, calculation or verifiable prediction of any entity, fact, thing or reality [5]. Knowledge consists of a "set of ideas and principles that a person acquires through study, observation, or experience and that can be an integral part of one's abilities" [44] and in this sense, it is related to the cognitive processes where assimilation, association, construction, and deconstruction of concepts occur [45].

Kofman [46] sees knowledge as a product of itself, that is, by acting in the search of results, each stage adds more knowledge, as the spiral spinning of "eternal" growth proposed by Nonaka and Takeuchi [8], taking into account all types of processes, including the most basic, such as, hunting, fishing, farming, and weaving [47].

In the framework of organizations, authors have emphasized the knowledge of the individual, tacit, since Taylor's [48] work in the early twentieth century. This interest is intensified

<sup>2</sup> The approach (I) Industrial/(O) Organizational refers to a business model valued by Porter [33] in his work: Competitive Strategy, where, to ensure a good performance, the organization should resemble the structure of an industry using one of the following strategies: leadership by cost (selling cheap); leadership by distinction (doing something different); or leadership by focus (focuses on meeting specific segments and markets). Later, Porter [37] through another work, Competitive Advantage, analyzes the introduction of concepts already flagged by RVB, such as the importance of internal skills and human expertise as critical to the good performance of the essential activities of the organization. 3 The literature uses the binomial as "Resources & Capabilities".

when there is a perception of the transition of wealth from that of natural resources to another, provided by brainpower [49], as well as the diversity of concepts and applications within and outside academia4 [50].

contribution [35]. For Bierly et al. [36], such theory almost superseded the traditional view

This RBV theory associates the performance of the organization to the combination of two

with knowledge, already showing an early interest in tacit knowledge. This theory seeks to explain and predict why some organizations are able to sustain a competitive advantage and

Considering knowledge as a usable resource in order to improve efficiency and organizational effectiveness [39], RBV appears as a precursor to a new theory, the 'knowledge-based view (KBV)' where this asset, knowledge, is regarded as the most strategically important of the resources in a company [40] and the organization as a vehicle, for creation, sharing, stor-

Kogut and Zander [42], oriented by the KBV, associate organizational growth with knowledge sharing, defining firms as social communities specialized in the fast and efficient transfer of knowledge, especially knowledge that represent know-how, i.e., tacit knowledge [43].

If we live in a society or knowledge era, where tacit knowledge is seen as strategic in the business field and public organizations, what has the literature offered to conceptualize it?

Knowledge is the core element of an emerging production model whose most important process is learning [2]. Through this, it is granted by the use of a sensory organ, the description, calculation or verifiable prediction of any entity, fact, thing or reality [5]. Knowledge consists of a "set of ideas and principles that a person acquires through study, observation, or experience and that can be an integral part of one's abilities" [44] and in this sense, it is related to the cognitive processes where assimilation, association, construction, and deconstruction of

Kofman [46] sees knowledge as a product of itself, that is, by acting in the search of results, each stage adds more knowledge, as the spiral spinning of "eternal" growth proposed by Nonaka and Takeuchi [8], taking into account all types of processes, including the most basic,

In the framework of organizations, authors have emphasized the knowledge of the individual, tacit, since Taylor's [48] work in the early twentieth century. This interest is intensified

The approach (I) Industrial/(O) Organizational refers to a business model valued by Porter [33] in his work: Competitive Strategy, where, to ensure a good performance, the organization should resemble the structure of an industry using one of the following strategies: leadership by cost (selling cheap); leadership by distinction (doing something different); or leadership by focus (focuses on meeting specific segments and markets). Later, Porter [37] through another work, Competitive Advantage, analyzes the introduction of concepts already flagged by RVB, such as the importance of internal

skills and human expertise as critical to the good performance of the essential activities of the organization.

dealt by Porter 10 years earlier [38].

it highlights skills and expertise in dealing

related to industrial organizations (I/O approach)<sup>2</sup>

elements, Resources and Capabilities (R & C),3

8 Knowledge Management Strategies and Applications

age, and implementation of this source [41].

such as, hunting, fishing, farming, and weaving [47].

The literature uses the binomial as "Resources & Capabilities".

achieve better financial returns.

**4. Sharing the intangible**

concepts occur [45].

2

3

For Davenport and Prusak [51], tacit knowledge "is a fluid mixture of condensed experience, values, and insight,5 experimented […] originates and is applied in the minds of connoisseurs."

Tacit knowledge, or that which accumulates in the mind of the individual in the form of ideas and experiences [53], has been on the agenda, in some way or the other, in the last 40 years [54]. It presents itself as a knowledge that escapes the formality and materiality; therefore, not captured in licenses and patents [55]. It is an attribute of those who know what they are doing and better understand the needs to be met, as a skilled craftsman whose knowledge is highly personal and deeply rooted in his experiences, values, and emotions [56]. It is of a highly personal nature [57–59], better shared through conversation [60], and with a more pronounced fluidity in informal environments [61].

Alavi and Leidner [62] understand it as something rooted in the actions and experiences of individuals and categorized it as cognitive (mental maps, beliefs, paradigms and viewpoints) and technical (know-how, skills) that allows for thinking and examining a problem and its solutions by a variety of perspectives [63]. Others treat tacit knowledge as "things that originate in someone's brain: electronic programming, trademark, and marketing force" [64]. Lemos and Jóia [65] translate it as a direct result of experiences, reflections, and dialogue.

Most of the organizational knowledge is tacit and includes intuition, perspectives, beliefs, and values [66]. It is estimated at 80% of the useful knowledge of an organization [67] and when not shared brings more problems or difficulties than useful results [33].

Although it seems like a minor issue for some managers, it must be observed that all the practical knowledge is, in almost all its extension, tacit [68] whose most common application is to solve problems [56]. According to Martins et al. [69], these sets of "tacit knowledge" remain scattered throughout the organization and arise from the professional practical activity.

Tacit knowledge is dynamic, nonquantitative, inherent to the practice, and know-how of people [70]. As a brand of organizational knowledge, it is something created in a complex interaction between people [71].

This intangible asset whose origin is directly related to the creative agents of organizations generates economic value [72] and can lead them to competitive advantages [73].

Leonard and Sensiper [74] linked tacit knowledge to innovation, when the capacity of the human mind (worker's expertise) creates new products, services, and processes. Other authors associate it to organizational performance [56, 75–78].

<sup>4</sup> Study conducted taking into account the period between 1958 and 2002, mapped out 149 different meanings for tacit knowledge, among them, skills, know-how, communities of practice (CoP), best practice and mental models.

<sup>5</sup> Insight is the result of a mental process of analyzing complex situations or problems, featuring accurate and deep understanding of them [52].

Tacit knowledge is like an intangible mental product, susceptible to sharing and in constant reformulation, comprised of abstract elements (ideas, reasonings, know-how, skills, allegories, models, constructs, insights, experiences, memories, sounds, images, smell, taste, touch, etc.) capable of generating new knowledge and innovative practices.

Considering the existence of this "available" asset, one must also note the importance of its sharing, given that this dynamic has its own peculiarities, such as that tacit knowledge is best shared through conversation [60], has a more noticeable fluidity in informal settings [61], and, in some organizations, its flow is neglected [79, 80].


**Table 2** below summarizes key concepts from this section and cited authors.

**Table 2.** Summary table of the literature and key points relating to tacit knowledge (TK).
