6. Conclusion

In this report, we have showed how demographic, socioeconomic, and behavioral characteristics influence the occurrence of AO in adults. Figure 1 depicts the mainly associated factors of AO in men and in women. Among women, the population group who is the most affected by AO, a higher prevalence is observed in individuals living in LMIC, who are older, multiparous, and in the menopausal transition, belong to the poorest strata, and have lower educational level, while, among men, the risk of AO is positively associated with social position, particularly in LMIC. The characteristics of women's reproductive life are highlighted in the

Figure 1. Causal pathway of abdominal obesity according to gender.

figure, such as menarche, menopause, and parturition, because these risk factors only affect women. Regarding behavioral factors [eating frequency, sleep duration, physical activity, and smoking], gender differences are difficult to be detected due to the lack of studies investigating their association with AO according to sex. However, the current evidence suggests that men benefit more from consuming a greater number of meals a day and women are more affected by the harmful effects of physical inactivity.

Finally, this chapter showed the increasing prevalence of AO around the world, mainly in LMIC, and explored the associated factors. We also argued AO, despite biological conditions associated with behavior factors, should be examined as an important issue of gender inequality in health, possibly mediated by socioeconomic and behavioral differences between men and women.
