**1.7. Vaccination and prevention**

or congestive heart failure. Cerebellar hypoplasia has been rarely reported in dogs with utero infection. CPV‐2c shows almost the same clinical signs as CPV‐2a and CPV‐2b, such as anorexia, vomiting, acute gastroenteritis, and hemorrhagic diarrhea. However, CPV‐2c infection has been reported to be indicative of a more severe disease induced by this vari‐

The most common abnormalities found on the CBC are leukopenia, lymphopenia, and neutropenia. Some disease dogs develop anemia as a result of gastrointestinal blood loss. Electrolyte and coagulation abnormalities have been reported in dogs with parvoviral enteri‐ tis. The diagnosis of CPV‐2 infection has relied on probe‐based real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) [64–69], SYBR green‐based real‐time PCR [62, 70–72], conventional PCR [47, 68], electron microscopy [73], and methods provided as commercial kits [74]. CPV–2 antigens were found in crypt epithelium (**Figure 5**) or affected tissues such as spleen (**Figure 6**) using

**Figure 6.** Detection of canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV‐2) antigens in spleen using in situ hybridization. CPV‐2 immunolabeling is seen in lymphocyte (from Professor Ming‐Tang Chiou, Department of Veterinary Medicine, National

Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan).

ant [51, 63].

**1.6. Diagnosis**

10 Canine Medicine - Recent Topics and Advanced Research

in situ hybridization.

Immunization is the most effective method for the prevention of CPV‐2 enteritis. However, the initial immunization should be of concern regarding the interference of the MDA. The second concern is whether the currently available CPV‐2 vaccine provides adequate protec‐ tion against CPV‐2c infection. VP2 encodes a viral capsid protein that is the major struc‐ tural protein of CPV‐2 and is involved in the host‐immune response [75]. Therefore, a small number of mutations may result in increased pathogenicity [51]. Several studies have dem‐ onstrated the efficacy of the current CPV‐2 vaccine against CPV‐2c infection [76, 77]. By con‐ trast, some evidence suggests that dogs with the complete vaccination program still suffer from CPV‐2c [63]. Therefore, the efficacy of the current vaccine against prototype CPV‐2c and/or novel CPV‐2c variant remains to be evaluated, especially in regard to the amino acid substitutions observed in the novel CPV‐2c variant as compared to the prototype of CPV‐2c. Parvoviruses are extremely stable in the environment and can be transmitted via indirect contact, an important factor in their maintenance in populations. Several disinfectants had been reported that parvoviruses can be inactivated with a 1:30 dilution of household bleach, potassium peroxymonosulfate, and accelerated hydrogen peroxide. These disinfectants will also inactivate other viruses.
