**4. Case studies from Asia and Africa**

#### **4.1. Applications in rural road improvement projects with community initiatives in Myanmar**

#### *4.1.1. Application at flooding area*

#### *4.1.1.1. Site selection*

In Kayin State of Myanmar, following the recommendations of the Department of Rural Development, village Y was selected for a rural road improvement project. Through meetings with the leader and members of the community and a field survey, a 120‐m length of road prone to flooding, in which the maximum water level was more than 1 m above ground level, was identified for improvement. When flooded, the community must use small boats to gain access to schools, hospitals, and markets. Accidents have occurred, and two school‐age children were killed in past floods.

#### *4.1.1.2. Design*

To raise the road surface above the maximum water level, an embankment with a Do‐nou retaining wall was designed, as shown in **Figure 11**. The existing ground surface was pro‐ tected with single‐column Do‐nou layers filled with soil mixed with cement. The embank‐ ment was supported with double‐column Do‐nou layers, the inner filled with *in‐situ* soil and the outer with soil mixed cement. The *in‐situ* soil was judged appropriate for mixing with cement for use as filling material into Do‐nou bags and use as the embankment mate‐ rial. The column of Do‐nou layers was <1.5 m in height, and the slope ratio was rise of 1 over run of 0.5. Trials of the mixing ratio of cement and *in‐situ* soil identified an appropri‐ ate ratio of 1:10 by volume.

#### *4.1.1.3. Construction*

Construction was performed during the dry season, from March to April in 2014, with 49 villagers working 5–6 h/day. With these resources, the length of 120 m was completed, with an embankment and Do‐nou retaining wall (**Figure 12**).

Spot Improvement of Rural Roads Using a Local Resource‐Based Approach: Case Studies from Asia and Africa http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66109 103

**Figure 11.** Design of road embankment with Do‐nou retaining wall.

**•** Improving the most problematic road sections is only a partial solution;

organized to work together productively.

**4. Case studies from Asia and Africa**

*4.1.1. Application at flooding area*

children were killed in past floods.

ate ratio of 1:10 by volume.

embankment and Do‐nou retaining wall (**Figure 12**).

*4.1.1.3. Construction*

*4.1.1.1. Site selection*

*4.1.1.2. Design*

**Myanmar**

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**•** The community must be motivated to improve the roads by themselves and must be

**4.1. Applications in rural road improvement projects with community initiatives in**

In Kayin State of Myanmar, following the recommendations of the Department of Rural Development, village Y was selected for a rural road improvement project. Through meetings with the leader and members of the community and a field survey, a 120‐m length of road prone to flooding, in which the maximum water level was more than 1 m above ground level, was identified for improvement. When flooded, the community must use small boats to gain access to schools, hospitals, and markets. Accidents have occurred, and two school‐age

To raise the road surface above the maximum water level, an embankment with a Do‐nou retaining wall was designed, as shown in **Figure 11**. The existing ground surface was pro‐ tected with single‐column Do‐nou layers filled with soil mixed with cement. The embank‐ ment was supported with double‐column Do‐nou layers, the inner filled with *in‐situ* soil and the outer with soil mixed cement. The *in‐situ* soil was judged appropriate for mixing with cement for use as filling material into Do‐nou bags and use as the embankment mate‐ rial. The column of Do‐nou layers was <1.5 m in height, and the slope ratio was rise of 1 over run of 0.5. Trials of the mixing ratio of cement and *in‐situ* soil identified an appropri‐

Construction was performed during the dry season, from March to April in 2014, with 49 villagers working 5–6 h/day. With these resources, the length of 120 m was completed, with an

**Figure 12.** Construction of road embankment with Do‐nou retaining wall: (a) Before construction; (b) construction of the embankment with Do‐nou retaining wall; (c) after construction.

The cost of construction is summarized in **Table 2**. The largest element was the cost of cement, at 36.6% of the total, followed by the cost of Do‐nou bags, and the transportation of tools and materials. The labour fee was not concern of the community members, and thus, this sum was paid into the Community Fund after construction was completed.


**Table 2.** Cost of construction.

#### *4.1.1.4. Impact*

One year later, an assessment was made of the construction site during the rainy season. This assessment confirmed that conditions remained good, as shown in **Figure 13**. The inhabitants of village Y subsequently applied the Do‐nou retaining wall construction method to other sections of road, after the project ended. The work was initiated by the community leader, and the material and transportation costs were covered by the Community Fund.

Interviews with villagers revealed the following positive impacts of the project:


**Figure 13.** Road condition 1 year after the completion, during rainy season.

#### *4.1.2. Application at delta*

#### *4.1.2.1. Site selection*

*4.1.1.4. Impact*

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from class is decreased;

conducted;

project.

**•** Crops can be transported before spoiling;

One year later, an assessment was made of the construction site during the rainy season. This assessment confirmed that conditions remained good, as shown in **Figure 13**. The inhabitants of village Y subsequently applied the Do‐nou retaining wall construction method to other sections of road, after the project ended. The work was initiated by the community leader, and

**•** Students can attend schools from their home even during the rainy season, thus the absence

**•** The community knowledge of Do‐nou technology enables continuous maintenance to be

**•** The community has become better organized through the experience of working on the

the material and transportation costs were covered by the Community Fund.

**•** Patient can be transported to hospital more safely and quickly;

**Figure 13.** Road condition 1 year after the completion, during rainy season.

Interviews with villagers revealed the following positive impacts of the project:

**•** During the rainy season, boats are no longer needed to move around the village;

Ayeyarwady region of Myanmar is located at delta of the river. The sedimentary clay is prevailing. Following recommendations of a local NGO, village K in Ayeyarwady region was selected for a rural road improvement project. The people were used to construct their access roads by spreading the *in‐situ* clay dug out from the adjacent rice paddy. During rainy seasons, the surface becomes muddy so that even bikes and bicycles are not passable, while during the dry season, the road surface becomes firm but rough so the traffic has to pass slowly. Due to the inaccessibility of roads, during rainy seasons, children have to be absent from their classes. In order to enable the access to the neighbouring village all the year, a 1200‐m length of the existing road was targeted for improvement.

#### *4.1.2.2. Design*

Considering the current major traffic means in village K, that are bikes and bicycles, concrete pavement with 10 cm in thickness was constructed on the existing road surface as shown in **Figure 14**. In order to enable those traffic loads to go by each other, the two lanes with 60 cm in width were built. To protect the embankment from erosion caused by going up and down of the water level surrounding, Do‐nou filled with *in‐situ* clay were laid along the slope. Here, to address the vulnerability to ultraviolet light of Do‐nou bags, Do‐nou laid at 45° gradient was covered with the cohesive *in‐situ* clay soil. The vegetation occurs from the attached clay and the root spreads, which stabilize the slope without confinement effect generated from the bags.

**Figure 14.** Design of concrete pavement and Do‐nou retaining wall.

#### *4.1.2.3. Construction*

Construction was performed during the dry season, from January to May in 2014, with 20–50 villagers working 6 h/day. During the hottest season from March to May, the community managed to work at night, from 6 o'clock to midnight to avoid the heat (**Figure 15**). With these resources, the length of 1200 m was completed, with the concrete pavement and Do‐nou retaining wall.

The cost of construction is summarized in **Table 3**. The unit cost per m with the cross section as shown in **Figure 14** is USD 12.32. The largest element was the cost of gravel, at 27.7% of the total, followed by the cost of cement, and tools. The labour fee was paid for the skilful workers who assisted concrete pavement work. The community members participated in the road works have no concerns on their labour fee, thus this sum was paid into the Community Fund after construction was completed.

**Figure 15.** Construction at village K: (a) Covering Do‐nou with clay; (b) working at night; (c) bucket brigade for casting concrete.


**Table 3.** Cost of construction.

#### *4.1.2.4. Impact*

*4.1.2.3. Construction*

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retaining wall.

concrete.

**Table 3.** Cost of construction.

after construction was completed.

Construction was performed during the dry season, from January to May in 2014, with 20–50 villagers working 6 h/day. During the hottest season from March to May, the community managed to work at night, from 6 o'clock to midnight to avoid the heat (**Figure 15**). With these resources, the length of 1200 m was completed, with the concrete pavement and Do‐nou

The cost of construction is summarized in **Table 3**. The unit cost per m with the cross section as shown in **Figure 14** is USD 12.32. The largest element was the cost of gravel, at 27.7% of the total, followed by the cost of cement, and tools. The labour fee was paid for the skilful workers who assisted concrete pavement work. The community members participated in the road works have no concerns on their labour fee, thus this sum was paid into the Community Fund

**Figure 15.** Construction at village K: (a) Covering Do‐nou with clay; (b) working at night; (c) bucket brigade for casting

Labour fee for skilful worker 60 Person day 217.79 1.5 Supervisor: 4.10 USD/day Assistant: 3.28

Labour fee for participants 354.24 2.4 Sum amount agreed with the community,

USD/day

paid to the Community Funds

**Item Quantity Unit Cost (USD) % Note** Gravel 212.2 m3 4088.60 27.7 Sand 85.0 m3 401.80 2.7 Cement (50 kg) 845 Bag 3440.31 23.3 Do‐nou bags 18,000 Bag 1697.40 11.5 Tools – – 3309.18 22.4 Transportation – – 1031.64 7.0

Others – – 242.26 1.7 Total 14,783.22 100.0 From the assessment one year after the completion, it was confirmed that conditions remained good, as shown in **Figure 16**. The interviews with villagers revealed the following positive impacts of the project:


**Figure 16.** Road condition: (a) Before construction; (b) condition 1 year after the completion.

On the other hand, as negative impact, the concerns on the increase in traffic accidents were raised. The training on traffic safety and installing the safety facilities, such as sign boards and bump, should be included in the project.

#### **4.2. Construction of a vented ford in collaboration with the provincial/municipal government, community and NGOs**

#### *4.2.1. Vented ford construction site*

In Nueva Vizcaya Province of the Philippines, the people of village C had suffered from flooding at the intersection of the river and the access road into the town during rainy seasons. Some sections of the road from the town to the village had been gradually paved with concrete by the provincial government, but no intervention had been made at the intersection with the river.

A Japanese NGO had trained the people of village C on the cultivation and marketing of organic agricultural products for income generation. The project had been implemented in close collaboration with local NGOs and provincial/municipal governments. However, the access problem at the intersection had constrained the project, and improvement was beyond the resources of the local governments. Surveying and construction started after the NGO consulted with the authors to seek solutions to this problem.

#### *4.2.2. Vented ford design*

Following a field survey with the municipal engineers, a vented ford with concrete slabs 4.0  m wide and 30.0 m in length was proposed, as shown in **Figure 17**.

The structure followed the basic pattern in the LBT manual [5], with Do‐nou filled with soil and cement substituted for masonry. The objectives were to promote participation by all of the community members and to shorten the construction time. The ratio of cement to gravel was 20% by volume. Layers of Do‐nou were combined vertically with penetrating reinforcement bars. To bear the water pressure at the upstream side, the concrete was cast to form a 20‐cm‐ wide wall between Do‐nou columns serving form.

The reinforced concrete pipes were backfilled with river gravel and with Do‐nou filled with gravel. Concrete pavement was constructed in accordance with the specifications for provincial roads in the Philippines.

Due to the land use near the intersection, the axis of the vented ford could not be made vertical to the river flow, but had to be slanted as shown in **Figure 17a**.

**Figure 17.** Plain and cross‐sectional view of the vented ford: (a) Plain view; (b) longitudinal section view; (c) vertical cross‐sectional view.

#### *4.2.3. Collaboration with provincial/municipal government, community and NGOs*

Three‐way discussions were held between the local government, village C, and the authors' NGO to discuss the design and clarify the role of each through the facilitations of the local and the Japanese NGO. The roles were allocated as shown in **Table 4**, and **Figures 18** and **19**.


**Table 4.** Role and contribution of each party.

the resources of the local governments. Surveying and construction started after the NGO

Following a field survey with the municipal engineers, a vented ford with concrete slabs 4.0 

The structure followed the basic pattern in the LBT manual [5], with Do‐nou filled with soil and cement substituted for masonry. The objectives were to promote participation by all of the community members and to shorten the construction time. The ratio of cement to gravel was 20% by volume. Layers of Do‐nou were combined vertically with penetrating reinforcement bars. To bear the water pressure at the upstream side, the concrete was cast to form a 20‐cm‐

The reinforced concrete pipes were backfilled with river gravel and with Do‐nou filled with gravel. Concrete pavement was constructed in accordance with the specifications for provincial

Due to the land use near the intersection, the axis of the vented ford could not be made vertical

**Figure 17.** Plain and cross‐sectional view of the vented ford: (a) Plain view; (b) longitudinal section view; (c) vertical

consulted with the authors to seek solutions to this problem.

wide wall between Do‐nou columns serving form.

to the river flow, but had to be slanted as shown in **Figure 17a**.

m wide and 30.0 m in length was proposed, as shown in **Figure 17**.

*4.2.2. Vented ford design*

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roads in the Philippines.

cross‐sectional view.

**Figure 18.** Work items managed using equipment provided by local government: (a) Excavation of the cut‐off‐wall and foundation; (b) transit mixers and water pump during casting concrete; (c) compaction of base course with roller.

**Figure 19.** Work items managed by the community: (a) Leveling the concrete surface; (b) filling the gaps of RC pipes; (c) laying Do‐nou.

The cost details prepared by the authors' NGO are shown in **Table 5**. For 48 days between March and April 2015, 20–30 people worked for 8 h/day on the project.


**Table 5.** Cost of construction.

#### *4.2.4. Maintenance by local governments and communities*

In October of 2015, the area was hit by the strongest typhoon in 15 years. The vented ford overflowed, and sediment was deposited at the upstream side. After the typhoon passed, it was observed that, although the ford was partially damaged, its stability was not affected. To restore the ford's functionality, the provincial government sent an excavator for emergency removal of the sedimentation (**Figure 20**). The neighbouring community voluntarily assisted with the emergency work.

The structure was confirmed to be stable even after the flooding, and the local government and communities took ownership of the ford.

**Figure 20.** Vented ford affected by a typhoon and emergency work done by the provincial government: (a) Overflow‐ ing; (b) deposited sedimentation; (c) removing the sedimentation by the excavator of the provincial government for emergency.

#### *4.2.5. Impact*

**Item Quantity Unit Cost (USD) % Note**

Cement (40 kg) 1620 Bag 8527.68 30.0 Do‐nou bags 9300 Bag 3124.80 11.0

Tools – – 839.55 3.0

Total 28,428.24 100.0

*4.2.4. Maintenance by local governments and communities*

**Table 5.** Cost of construction.

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with the emergency work.

emergency.

communities took ownership of the ford.

RC pipe 70 pcs 3998.40 14.1 Inner diameter 0.9 m, thickness 0.1 m

RC bars 85 pcs 462.69 1.6 D10, D12, D16, 1 pcs = 6 m

Fuel 1354 Litre 947.12 3.3 For equipment and truck

Allowances 1380 Person day 7728.00 27.2 Minimum wage per day: USD 5.6 Lunch 1380 Person day 1545.60 5.4 USD 1.12 per person day

Gravel 217.00 m3 – – Provided by municipal government Stones 82.00 m3 – – For foundation, collected on site Transportation – – – – Two trucks with drivers, provided by

Equipment – – – – Excavator, loader, transit mixer, roller with

In October of 2015, the area was hit by the strongest typhoon in 15 years. The vented ford overflowed, and sediment was deposited at the upstream side. After the typhoon passed, it was observed that, although the ford was partially damaged, its stability was not affected. To restore the ford's functionality, the provincial government sent an excavator for emergency removal of the sedimentation (**Figure 20**). The neighbouring community voluntarily assisted

The structure was confirmed to be stable even after the flooding, and the local government and

**Figure 20.** Vented ford affected by a typhoon and emergency work done by the provincial government: (a) Overflow‐ ing; (b) deposited sedimentation; (c) removing the sedimentation by the excavator of the provincial government for

municipal government

operator, provided by municipal government

Gabion net 28 pcs 1254.40 4.4 1 m × 1 m × 2 m

The access to the local town from village C has been improved drastically (**Figure 21**). Recog‐ nizing the effectiveness of vented ford, the provincial government adopted the structure and applied the same construction method at a nearby intersection of the same river and a provincial road.

**Figure 21.** Conditions at the intersection with the river before and after construction: (a) Before the construction; (b) after the construction; (c) the conditions one year after the construction.

#### **4.3. Application to rural road improvement through capacity building of farmer/youth groups in Kenya**

#### *4.3.1. Rural road improvement and impact through capacity building of farmer and youth groups using Do‐nou technology*

Since 2008, Do‐nou technology has been used in Kenya for spot improvement using the local resource base. The approach has been transferred to 125 farmer and youth groups (**Figure 22**). Training and demonstration groups have been held, generally involving 25 members over 10– 15 days. These were organized at road sections identified as problematic by the group. Do‐nou technology has been used to build base courses, retaining walls at both the inlet and the outlet of culverts, and abutments of wooden bridges, as shown in **Figure 23**. In most cases, the drainage system was also improved.

**Figure 22.** Training/demonstration of spot improvement using Do‐nou technology: (a) Training at road side; (b) dem‐ onstration on Do‐nou technology.

**Figure 23.** Applications of Do‐nou technology during training/demonstrations with farmer groups: (a) Before construc‐ tion; (b) after the construction; (c) retaining wall at inlet of culvert; (d) Do‐nou abutment of wooden bridge.

The training/demonstration sessions helped the trainees and neighbouring communities appreciate the benefits gained from the road works, such as better access to schools and hospitals throughout the year, reduction in public transportation fares and reduced loss of agricultural product.

However, after the training was completed, the groups were unable to continue the road projects by themselves, due to difficulties in collecting the necessary materials, in particular, granular soil for use in the bags and wearing course.

Cooperation with and supports from other stakeholders was therefore necessary to enable the community initiatives to continue. Do‐nou technology and the concept of spot improvement using local resource‐based approach must be understood by stakeholders such as government institutes and private road construction clients.

#### *4.3.2. Dissemination of Do‐nou technology in Kenya*

**Figure 24** shows the progress of the dissemination of Do‐nou technology in Kenya.

Initially, to demonstrate improved access to markets of farmers, training and demonstrations were conducted with farmer groups on spot improvement using Do‐nou technology. These training sessions, and the outcome of the technology, were reported to local authorities and to the Ministry of Agriculture, which was keen to promote market‐oriented agriculture. How‐ ever, little support or cooperation was gained to enable the road work to be continued.

Spot Improvement of Rural Roads Using a Local Resource‐Based Approach: Case Studies from Asia and Africa http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66109 113


**Figure 24.** Progress of the dissemination of Do‐nou technology.

**Figure 23.** Applications of Do‐nou technology during training/demonstrations with farmer groups: (a) Before construc‐

The training/demonstration sessions helped the trainees and neighbouring communities appreciate the benefits gained from the road works, such as better access to schools and hospitals throughout the year, reduction in public transportation fares and reduced loss of

However, after the training was completed, the groups were unable to continue the road projects by themselves, due to difficulties in collecting the necessary materials, in particular,

Cooperation with and supports from other stakeholders was therefore necessary to enable the community initiatives to continue. Do‐nou technology and the concept of spot improvement using local resource‐based approach must be understood by stakeholders such as government

Initially, to demonstrate improved access to markets of farmers, training and demonstrations were conducted with farmer groups on spot improvement using Do‐nou technology. These training sessions, and the outcome of the technology, were reported to local authorities and to the Ministry of Agriculture, which was keen to promote market‐oriented agriculture. How‐ ever, little support or cooperation was gained to enable the road work to be continued.

**Figure 24** shows the progress of the dissemination of Do‐nou technology in Kenya.

tion; (b) after the construction; (c) retaining wall at inlet of culvert; (d) Do‐nou abutment of wooden bridge.

agricultural product.

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granular soil for use in the bags and wearing course.

institutes and private road construction clients.

*4.3.2. Dissemination of Do‐nou technology in Kenya*

Some of the farmer groups then established an association that undertook missions to improve rural access roads using their acquired knowledge of Do‐nou technology. It was considered advantageous for the association to negotiate with stakeholders to gain their support and cooperation. However, opportunities for collaboration were limited and ad hoc, because the association was not a qualified contractor.

However, Do‐nou technology was recognized by the Kenya Rural Road Authority following stakeholder meetings and field visits. The International Labour Organization funded a youth employment promotion project, in which youth groups were trained in Do‐nou technology for spot improvement of their residential area. Their representatives participated in the training at the Kisii Training Center (KTC), which is the public training institute for LBT, for a six‐week course on routine maintenance and business management. Ten of the 20 youth groups then established their own company, called Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs), and began work. With the certification provided by the training course at KTC, the three companies registered as qualified contractors, allowing them to bid for government projects and thus expanding their business opportunities. Contracts for access road construction and other building works were also secured from other sectors apart from road administrators, such as health centers, schools, and churches.

In order to address the issue of youth unemployment meaningfully, the Kenyan government launched the policy, "Access to Government Procurement Opportunities", in which 30% of all government contracts were to be earmarked for youth, women, and persons with disability, without requiring competitive bidding against established firms [10]. The policy helped the youth groups that had learned Do‐nou technology and joined the training course at KTC to further expand their businesses.

Do‐nou technology was also recognized in the Roads 2000 Strategic Plan 2013–2017 [11], and a training course in routine maintenance and Do‐nou technology was established in the KTC program.

In 2015, the Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (MOTI) allocated funds amounting to about USD 229,300 to train 120 youth members in the KTC course on routine maintenance and Do‐nou technology. By May of 2016, about 30% of the graduates from the course had either established their own companies or registered as qualified contractors. MOTI is now planning to adopt a specification for Do‐nou technology.

#### *4.3.3. Involving communities in road projects*

Based on the experience of capacity building in Kenya, four patterns for involving the local communities in road projects have been identified. These are summarized in **Figure 25**. Pattern A is the case of a conventional road project using LBT. Patterns B and C reflect the original


purpose of developing and transferring spot improvement using a local resource‐based approach, which was to provide access to communities excluded from conventional road projects executed by government institutes. Both patterns present challenges in the sustaina‐ bility of road projects undertaken by communities themselves. The cohesiveness and self‐ reliance of the groups is key in these patterns. Support and cooperation in the provision of materials help to make the community road projects sustainable and to ensure the continuing accessibility of the rural roads.

In Pattern D, a combination of government policies on youth employment and Do‐nou technology training forms the basis for helping youth launch businesses as contractors. Subsidization of the training fee (about USD 1500 per person) for a comprehensive training course on routine maintenance and business management is necessary. The commitment of those graduating from the course supports the establishment of MSEs and the registration of participants as contractor.
