**3. The status of food and nutrition security in South Africa (case study)**

South Africa (SA) is considered food secure at the national level, producing or importing enough dietary energy for the whole population (more than 3000 kcal/capita/day) [5]. The same cannot be said about households, especially those in rural areas. The majority of house‐ holds live in poverty with a limited variety of foods (mainly staples) available at home [8]. Although no national survey has been conducted to assess all the dimensions of food insecu‐ rity in South Africa, some surveys have included components of food insecurity.

A review of published studies indicates that food insecurity threatens 50–80% of South‐ African households, whereas the incidence of obesity is increasing to levels affecting more than half of South‐African adults. These statistics indicate the co‐existence between obesity and food insecurity, possibly even for the same individual.

In addition, SA is one of only 12 countries in the world in which mortality rates for children younger than 5 years have increased since 1990 [6]. Despite the relatively high per capita income, rates of childhood stunting in South Africa (although a middle‐ income country) are similar to low‐income countries in the region [7]. While some indicators show improvement, several conditions seem to have worsened over the past decade [6]. High incidence of stunting observed in children indicate a chronic deficiency in essential nutrients during the growing years, yet 25% of adolescents and 56% of the adult population were recorded as overweight or obese in 2013, indicating excessive intakes of energy with nearly 30% of all deaths attributed to non‐communicable diseases [6].

When populations modernize as a result of socio‐economic development, urbanization and acculturation as is observed in SA, it is characterized by changes in dietary patterns and nutrient intakes that increase the risk of the diet‐related non‐communicable diseases [9]. Non‐communi‐ cable diseases have emerged in Sub‐Saharan Africa at a faster rate and at a lower economic level than in industrialized countries before the battle against under‐nutrition could be won. Adverse changes in dietary patterns include increased consumption of foods from animal origin rich in total and saturated fat, decreased intakes of legumes and vegetables and increased intakes of energy‐dense, micro‐nutrient‐poor snack foods, convenience foods (often high in sodium), vegetable oils and sweetened carbonated beverages as well as added sugar, fats and oils dur‐ ing the preparation of food [10]. Although increases in fruit and meat consumption have been observed, the increased intake has not been sufficient to meet all micro‐nutrient needs [9].

The average household income of the poor in South Africa equips many households to pro‐ cure mainly low‐cost staple foods like maize‐meal porridge, with limited added variety. The five most commonly consumed foods include maize‐meal porridge, bread, sugar and tea supplemented with small amounts of milk [8]. Although this ability to procure enough food to maintain satiety of all family members might categorise them as being food secure, the nutritional limitations of such monotonous diets might have severe implications in terms of health, long‐term development and quality of life.

#### **3.1. Understanding the South African agriculture and food system**

#### *3.1.1. Food availability*

South Africa has an area coverage of nearly 122 million hectares. The area utilised for agricul‐ ture amounts to nearly 80%, distributed between permanent pastures for extensive grazing of animals (69%), arable land (10%) and permanent crops (0.34%). Of the arable land available, only 22% is high‐potential arable land, with the availability of water presenting the greatest constraint to the farming sector. The agricultural sector is also characterised by inequalities among different types of farmers, in particular between large commercial farmers and small subsistence farmers in the communal areas.

The food balance sheet for South Africa [5], indicates that the country produces enough food for local consumption for a wide selection of commodities, including maize, sorghum, other cereals, millet, potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar, pulses (excluding peas and beans), soya beans, sunflower oil, groundnuts, vegetables, fruits, bovine meat, animal fats, eggs, milk and fish. The sectors with the highest contributions to the gross value of agricultural production are (from highest) poultry, maize, cattle, deciduous and other fruit, milk, vegetables, eggs, citrus fruit, sugar cane and potatoes. The major agricultural export products (based on 2011/2012 export values) are citrus fruit, wine, maize and grapes [11].

The commodities in short supply to support recommended consumption (thus relying on imports) are reported by the FAO food balance sheets to include wheat, barley, oats, rice, rye, sweeteners, honey, beans, peas, tree nuts, vegetable oils, rape and mustard seed, soya bean oil, cottonseed, groundnut oil, poultry meat, pig meat, mutton and goat meat, butter, ghee, crustaceans, freshwater fish, molluscs, tea, coffee, cocoa beans, pimento, pepper and spices [5]. The major agricultural import products according to the national statistics include rice, wheat, poultry, palm oil and undenatured ethyl alcohol [11].

#### *3.1.2. Food affordability*

Despite significant development in the past 15 years, SA remains a country with a complex combination of developed and developing regions, in terms of its people, economy and infrastructure. The country has a consistently unequal economy where two‐thirds of the pop‐ ulations live under third world conditions, with the rest living under first world conditions [12]. According to the Development Indicators Mid‐term Review issued by the Presidency in 2006, 43.2% of the country's population lived in poverty. In 2004, 7.6% of the population was recorded to be living below the US\$1 per day, indicating extreme poverty [13].

With high‐unemployment rates, the reality is that one salary often carries an entire household. The poorest South Africans (30%) spend 31% of their total expenditure on food according to the latest Statistics South African Income and Expenditure Survey [14] and this population group is also the most vulnerable to food price increases.

With food price inflation being a global phenomenon, the price of staple foods has contin‐ ued to increase over the past 2 years at a relatively high rate. Yet, although the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) indicates that world food prices declined by 18.5% in 2015' Statistics South Africa (StatsSA) measured a 5% increase in the cost of its benchmark food bas‐ ket during 2015. The South African Reserve Bank (SARB) announced that food price inflation is expected to rise to 11% by the end of 2016. The rural poor is also more severely affected. In 2013, rural consumers payed \$0.37 more than their urban counterparts for the same food basket consisting of rice (2 kg), maize meal (5 kg), full cream‐long life milk (1000 ml), sunflower oil (750 ml) and a loaf of white bread (700 g) [15].

#### *3.1.3. Food access*

in total and saturated fat, decreased intakes of legumes and vegetables and increased intakes of energy‐dense, micro‐nutrient‐poor snack foods, convenience foods (often high in sodium), vegetable oils and sweetened carbonated beverages as well as added sugar, fats and oils dur‐ ing the preparation of food [10]. Although increases in fruit and meat consumption have been observed, the increased intake has not been sufficient to meet all micro‐nutrient needs [9].

The average household income of the poor in South Africa equips many households to pro‐ cure mainly low‐cost staple foods like maize‐meal porridge, with limited added variety. The five most commonly consumed foods include maize‐meal porridge, bread, sugar and tea supplemented with small amounts of milk [8]. Although this ability to procure enough food to maintain satiety of all family members might categorise them as being food secure, the nutritional limitations of such monotonous diets might have severe implications in terms of

South Africa has an area coverage of nearly 122 million hectares. The area utilised for agricul‐ ture amounts to nearly 80%, distributed between permanent pastures for extensive grazing of animals (69%), arable land (10%) and permanent crops (0.34%). Of the arable land available, only 22% is high‐potential arable land, with the availability of water presenting the greatest constraint to the farming sector. The agricultural sector is also characterised by inequalities among different types of farmers, in particular between large commercial farmers and small

The food balance sheet for South Africa [5], indicates that the country produces enough food for local consumption for a wide selection of commodities, including maize, sorghum, other cereals, millet, potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar, pulses (excluding peas and beans), soya beans, sunflower oil, groundnuts, vegetables, fruits, bovine meat, animal fats, eggs, milk and fish. The sectors with the highest contributions to the gross value of agricultural production are (from highest) poultry, maize, cattle, deciduous and other fruit, milk, vegetables, eggs, citrus fruit, sugar cane and potatoes. The major agricultural export products (based on 2011/2012

The commodities in short supply to support recommended consumption (thus relying on imports) are reported by the FAO food balance sheets to include wheat, barley, oats, rice, rye, sweeteners, honey, beans, peas, tree nuts, vegetable oils, rape and mustard seed, soya bean oil, cottonseed, groundnut oil, poultry meat, pig meat, mutton and goat meat, butter, ghee, crustaceans, freshwater fish, molluscs, tea, coffee, cocoa beans, pimento, pepper and spices [5]. The major agricultural import products according to the national statistics include

Despite significant development in the past 15 years, SA remains a country with a complex combination of developed and developing regions, in terms of its people, economy and

health, long‐term development and quality of life.

subsistence farmers in the communal areas.

export values) are citrus fruit, wine, maize and grapes [11].

rice, wheat, poultry, palm oil and undenatured ethyl alcohol [11].

*3.1.1. Food availability*

6 International Development

*3.1.2. Food affordability*

**3.1. Understanding the South African agriculture and food system**

Food retailing in South Africa is characterised by two distinct sectors: the formal food retail sector and the informal sector. The shop formats within the formal food retail sector include hypermarkets, supermarkets, superettes, convenience stores, urban counter stores, urban self‐ serve stores, rural counter stores and rural self‐serve stores. It is estimated that the formal food retail sector accounts for at least 60% of food retailing in South Africa.

The informal food retail sector includes informal markets, small retail stands, hawkers (street vendors), food vendors and spaza shops (informal stores found in rural areas and informal settlements in SA). These informal retailers play a significant role in the food security of the most vulnerable population groups in South Africa [16].

In terms of own production, a recent study on food security among poor households in the Limpopo province of South Africa found that in terms of food production, 57and 50% of households were involved in crop production and livestock production, respectively. The most popular crops were maize, mangoes, papaya, spinach, tomatoes, oranges, bananas and guavas. The most prominent livestock production activities focused on poultry, cattle and goats [17].

Although South Africa has the ability to meet national food requirements, large‐scale inequal‐ ity and poverty means that many households do not enjoy food security or adequate access to nutritious and safe food. Apart from poverty increasing vulnerability to hunger and food insecurity, many households do not have sufficient access to diverse or nutrient‐dense foods that will allow adequate nutrition. At the national level, South Africa is considered to be a food‐secure nation, yet stunting and micro‐nutrient deficiencies continue to co‐exist with a rising incidence of overweight and obesity and the associated consequences such as hyper‐ tension, cardiovascular disease and diabetes [18]. This high prevalence of under‐nutrition, micro‐nutrient deficiencies and over‐nutrition within a complex agriculture and food system presents a series of challenges which has significant implications for policies and programmes.
