**2. Conventional approach to rural road improvement and its limitations**

#### **2.1. Labour‐based technology (LBT) favours government institutions**

Since the 1970s, a number of projects have been conducted with the purpose of improving the capacities of local government institutions, enabling them to deliver rural infrastructure services effectively in developing countries [5]. Labour‐based technology (LBT) has been mainstreamed in these projects. The key to this approach is the use of locally available resources such as labour, tools, and light equipment, combined with good workmanship and high quality standards. The definition of LBT varies from one country to another. However, from the view point of the authors, the following definition of LBT accurately describes its real implementa‐ tions. LBT optimises the use of productive labour and complements the use of labour with the equipment that is essential to meet specified technical and engineering standards [6]. LBT is more appropriate for road projects that are executed by local government institutions, rather than those achieved through community initiatives.

#### *2.1.1. Design standards*

In LBT projects, unpaved roads are designed in accordance with the geometric and structural standards specified in the current design manual for low‐volume gravel roads, and these are prepared by local government institutions [7, 8]. To comply with these standards, it is necessary to procure specified materials such as gravel with an appropriate grain size contributions, plasticity, and CBR value. It is also necessary to use equipment that can meet the specified technical and engineering standards. Tractors, trucks, and compact rollers are needed for hauling gravel, watering, and compaction (**Figure 3**).

To make this equipment available, LBT requires contractors who are capable of owning, or at least operating and maintaining it, while the communities living along the road can find only employment as labours.

While such a design policy ensures that the roads selected for the projects are of high quality and meet the standards, the unit cost is increased. As a result, the length of the improved road that can be achieved is limited.

**Figure 3.** Road rehabilitation work in Timor Leste, using the equipment required for LBT.

#### *2.1.2. Basic rule for available road budget allocation*

services effectively in developing countries [5]. Labour‐based technology (LBT) has been mainstreamed in these projects. The key to this approach is the use of locally available resources such as labour, tools, and light equipment, combined with good workmanship and high quality standards. The definition of LBT varies from one country to another. However, from the view point of the authors, the following definition of LBT accurately describes its real implementa‐ tions. LBT optimises the use of productive labour and complements the use of labour with the equipment that is essential to meet specified technical and engineering standards [6]. LBT is more appropriate for road projects that are executed by local government institutions, rather

In LBT projects, unpaved roads are designed in accordance with the geometric and structural standards specified in the current design manual for low‐volume gravel roads, and these are prepared by local government institutions [7, 8]. To comply with these standards, it is necessary to procure specified materials such as gravel with an appropriate grain size contributions, plasticity, and CBR value. It is also necessary to use equipment that can meet the specified technical and engineering standards. Tractors, trucks, and compact rollers are needed for

To make this equipment available, LBT requires contractors who are capable of owning, or at least operating and maintaining it, while the communities living along the road can find only

While such a design policy ensures that the roads selected for the projects are of high quality and meet the standards, the unit cost is increased. As a result, the length of the improved road

than those achieved through community initiatives.

hauling gravel, watering, and compaction (**Figure 3**).

**Figure 3.** Road rehabilitation work in Timor Leste, using the equipment required for LBT.

*2.1.1. Design standards*

92 International Development

employment as labours.

that can be achieved is limited.

Any roadwork programme conducted by a local government institution has as its basic rule the protection of earlier investment. The available funds are therefore allocated firstly to routine maintenance, secondly to periodical maintenance and thirdly to rehabilitation [5]. In the case of a road on which some sections have fallen into total disrepair, it may be judged that there is no point in providing further maintenance. Instead, the appropriate approach would be to undertake extensive reconstruction or rehabilitation works before the road is once again included in the maintenance scheme.

On this basis, and due to the limited budgets available, badly degraded rural roads with lower traffic volumes may receive no intervention over long‐time periods (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 4.** Road condition and interventions over time.

#### **2.2. Limitations of the conventional approach**

In Kenya, where the LBT approach has been applied to rural road projects since the 1970s, 31% of classified roads and 72% of unclassified roads were evaluated as being in poor condition in surveys conducted between 2007 and 2009 [9]. It is claimed that the government needs urgent additional funding to restore the network to a maintainable condition. However, it is difficult to envisage the government allocating such additional funding, considering the history of LBT in Kenya. A new approach is therefore needed to improve Kenya's rural road network.

Spot improvement using a local resource‐based approach, which can be applied to road works through community initiatives, is considered be one of the measures that could be used to improve rural roads, in tandem with government road projects. In contrast with LBT, the proposed approach uses community initiatives to undertake practical road projects, thus improving access to markets and social services and accelerating development.
