**Meet the editor**

Aida Alvinius (PhD, Karlstad University, Sweden) is a lecturer and a researcher in sociology at the Department of Security, Strategy and Leadership, Swedish Defence University. She has published articles, chapters in books and research reports within the field of organization, collaboration gender studies and leadership, sociology of disasters and military sociology.

## Contents

#### **Preface XI**


Chapter 7 **Critical Revision of Leadership Styles in Management and Company Cases 115** Beatriz Peña-Acuña

#### **X** Contents

#### **Section 2 Leadership in Different Contexts 129**


## Preface

**Section 2 Leadership in Different Contexts 129**

**University Education 131**

Chapter 10 **Leadership in Non-Profit Organisations 167**

Kjeld H. Aij and Marion E. Veth

Chapter 13 **Leadership and Healthcare Services 233** Bilge Sözen Şahne and Sevgi Şar

Reem Nassar AL-Dossary

David A.L. Coldwell

**VI** Contents

Aelita Skarbalienė

**and Design 181** Esin Kasapoğlu

**Literature 207**

Chapter 14 **Leadership in Nursing 251**

Beste Gökçe Parsehyan

Chapter 8 **Ethical Leadership in Crisis Management: The Role of**

Chapter 9 **Development of Leadership Competencies During Studies at an Institution of Higher Education: Students' Opinion 151**

Chapter 11 **Industrial Leadership: Leading Within the Field of Construction**

Chapter 12 **Leadership Requirements for Successful Implementation of**

**Lean Management in Health Care: A Systematic Review of the**

Social and behavioral science has for decades studied and recognized leadership as a social exchange between leaders and followers. But the definition of leadership is actually not that simple. Leadership is rather complex, and as such it tends to lead to an increased interest within and across different disciplines. I will say that understanding leadership as a concept includes many approaches such as psychological, sociological and economical as well as po‐ litical, historical and cultural. Leadership skills, and abilities; leadership in organizations; political leadership; and shared, servant, developmental, ethical, authentic transactional and transformational leadership are just a few subjects that capture researchers' interests. The conclusion is that leadership is one of the most widely talked-about subjects but, at the same time, most elusive, challenged and diffuse to understand.

In a globalized environment, there are increasing demands on leaders to be more reflective, to improve their leadership skills and behavior and to take their responsibility for the em‐ ployees as well as for the organization. According to the abovementioned, this book is an attempt to provide theoretical and empirical framework to better understand leadership challenges in various contexts. Therefore, the contributions cover an array of themes that span from an individual level to an organizational and societal level.

In this book, two sections are presented: (1) "Leadership Skills and Behavior" and (2) "Lead‐ ership in Different Contexts." The first section based on individual level focuses on different leadership styles and abilities, and the other section provides theories to understand leader‐ ship in public administration, in industrial settings and in nonprofit organizations. Re‐ searchers from all over the world have provided theories, empirical illustrations, improvements and practical implications in order to add new understandings to existing knowledge of leadership research.

Finally, I hope this book will be used by leaders, researchers, practitioners, teachers and stu‐ dents in educational and practical settings to debate and raise the awareness of leadership as a challenge in different contexts.

> **Aida Alvinius** Department of Security, Strategy and Leadership Swedish Defence University Sweden

**Leadership Skills and Behavior**

**Provisional chapter**

## **Waking Up to the Power of Reflection to Unlock Transformation in People, Teams and Organizations Waking Up to the Power of Reflection to Unlock Transformation in People, Teams and Organizations**

Elaine Patterson Elaine Patterson Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64611

#### **Abstract**

In our busy and frenetic world, leaders face overwhelm. Never before has there been so much change on so many fronts, demanding attention, squeezing out critical reflective time and thinking space. This is time and space to develop the personal capacities to lead with greater clarity, humanity and wisdom in order for transformation to occur, to learn how to reflect on experience, to sense what is needed and to lean into the futures' emerging potential, instead of problem solving based on habitual thinking and yester‐ day's logic. This chapter will give reflection and reflective learning a rebranding, propel‐ ling it from dusty classrooms to become centre stage in a leader's toolkit, and will show how to apply the findings of the authors' important new research in the workplace. The new leadership process "Reflect to *Create!"* with its seven human capacities for inspiring, creating and leading transformational change in today's VUCA world is introduced. The four core conditions and four key practices to embed the approach are also introduced.

**Keywords:** leadership, reflection, reflective learning, creativity, innovation, transformation

## **1. The bigger picture**

#### **1.1. Leadership today**

Change and challenge is everywhere.

At no time in our human history has the human race faced so many changes on so many fronts. These seismic changes are challenging the very essence of who we are, how we think, how we relate and how we work. How leaders chose to live the questions as the waves of societal, economic, business, organizational, technological and ecological changes and uncer‐ tainty sweep through us, our families, our communities and our organizations will determine

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the fates and well‐being of many: shaping both our individual and collective ability to sink or swim in the tides of unceasing change and transformation.

Johansen [1] helpfully coined the acronym VUCA to describe today's world. VUCA is short‐ hand for volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity. While leaders have always worked in VUCA worlds what is new and different is the scale and intensity of the changes. It is this scale and intensity, which consigns predictive planning, yesterday's logic and linear thinking to the scrapheap.

Leaders everywhere have both a pivotal and a very privileged role and responsibility in creat‐ ing the conditions that will help themselves and others to reflect and innovate: to make sense and meaning of all that is happening to inform wise actions which are in service of both the personal and the collective well‐being.

#### **1.2. The loneliness of leadership**

A quick look at what the researchers are saying gives a feel for the scale of the challenges which leaders face whatever their role or place in the organization—both for themselves and within their organizations and communities. It also shows why leadership is lonely. The data also show that leaders and their teams face huge capability and capacity gaps to both survive and thrive in today's VUCA world.

As the data report:


and

• Where we are using 150% of our planet's capacity to sustain our current levels of con‐ sumption [10].

High profile scandals like the MP Business Expenses scandal in the United Kingdom in 2014, the Report on the Hillsborough Football Stadium Disaster (in 2016) [11], the NHS Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust Public Inquiry (in 2013) [12] or business failures like the Lehman Brothers in USA, or British Home Stores in 2016 are showing a malaise at the heart of corporate decision‐making. A report by? WHAT IF! in 2015 [13] reported that almost 72% of leaders admitted that their organization is too reliant on fading revenue streams, that 58% of teams were failing to lead for innovation, and that 28% of leaders believed that their current business model was not sustainable.

A recent IBM Global CEO Survey [14] noted that the great majority of CEOs expect that busi‐ ness complexity is going to increase and that more than half doubted their ability to manage it. Other studies [15] appear to consistently show that approximately only 5% of leaders in the West have the mental and emotional capacity needed to lead for transformation. This indi‐ cates that leading effectively for transformation in today's turbulent economic, political and social waters is beyond most leaders' experience and mental capacity.

#### **1.3. Scoping the research inquiry**

the fates and well‐being of many: shaping both our individual and collective ability to sink or

Johansen [1] helpfully coined the acronym VUCA to describe today's world. VUCA is short‐ hand for volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity. While leaders have always worked in VUCA worlds what is new and different is the scale and intensity of the changes. It is this scale and intensity, which consigns predictive planning, yesterday's logic and linear

Leaders everywhere have both a pivotal and a very privileged role and responsibility in creat‐ ing the conditions that will help themselves and others to reflect and innovate: to make sense and meaning of all that is happening to inform wise actions which are in service of both the

A quick look at what the researchers are saying gives a feel for the scale of the challenges which leaders face whatever their role or place in the organization—both for themselves and within their organizations and communities. It also shows why leadership is lonely. The data also show that leaders and their teams face huge capability and capacity gaps to both survive

• Only 15% of leaders sampled showed a consistent capacity to innovate and successfully

• Only 30% of CEOs are confident that they have the talent needed to grow their businesses [3].

• 13% of employees are actively engaged (and twice that number would actively sabotage

• Only 8–12% of those who attend formal training translate their new skills into measurable

• Constant distraction where people now check their cell phones almost 150 times a day with

• Where the poorest 40% of the world's population accounts for 5% of global income. The

• Where we are using 150% of our planet's capacity to sustain our current levels of con‐

• 75% of organizations report that they struggle with overwhelmed employees [7].

• 58% of new executives fail within 18 months of taking up post [5].

busy professionals focusing for only 7 minutes at a time [8].

richest 20% accounts for 75% of the world's income [9].

swim in the tides of unceasing change and transformation.

thinking to the scrapheap.

4 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

personal and the collective well‐being.

**1.2. The loneliness of leadership**

and thrive in today's VUCA world.

transform their organizations [2].

As the data report:

their employer) [4].

performance [6].

and

sumption [10].

Revans [16] had devised the equation that in times of change learning needs to be equal to or greater than the rate of change.

I knew from my own experiences as a leader in complex political environments the impor‐ tance and value of taking time out for reflection to create and to innovate: to find new ways around old problems. I also knew from my executive coaching practice that the pressures which require leaders to both capitalize on the potential and possibility held in the future, *whilst* also delivering on the day to day was requiring me and them to learn new post‐con‐ ventional leadership capacities and capabilities to work effectively with the unknown. I was aware these new capacities, while they may be natural, can also be counter‐intuitive and are not traditionally taught. I was also aware that conventional linear thinking, the accumulation of pure technical knowledge, theories or tools and yesterday's logic were no longer enough. For me, that learning to lead this way was necessarily a radical inner journey into every deep‐ ening self‐awareness and consciousness to perceive, sense and create anew. I therefore turned to the literature to study what was already available.

As I noted in my research [17], Schon [18]—building and developing on the work of others like Dewey [19], Lewin [20] and Piaget [21]—had *"highlighted the value of reflection and reflective learning practices to professional learning and development."* In my research [17], I noted "*that reflection could help professionals move beyond early technical competence to learn how to navigate the humanness, messiness, ambiguity and complexity of actual practice with clarity, courage and compassion."* As Schon [18] wrote:

*"In the varied topography of professional practice there is a high hard ground overlooking the swamp. On the high ground manageable problems lend themselves to solution through the application of research‐based theory & technique. The irony of this situation is that the problems of the high ground tend to be relatively unimportant to individuals and to society at large, however great their technical interest may be, while in the swamp lie the problems of greatest human concern. The practitioner*  *must choose. Shall he/she remain on the high ground where he/she can solve relatively unimportant problems according to prevailing standards or rigor or shall he descend into the swamp of important problems and non‐rigorous inquiry?" [18]*

Despite this pedigree, it still seemed that reflection was primarily confined to technical or clinical practice, for example, the legal, health, educational or therapeutic professions and much less in the leadership domain.

#### **1.4. Framing the research question**

My research study therefore sought to explore with a small sample of leaders their real‐life experience of reflection in the workplace.

The research question was:

*"What are leaders' experiences of reflection?"*

I wanted to explore how they defined reflection and reflective practices, what their processes for reflection were, what helped or hindered their reflection, what benefits their experiences had generated for them as well as what this might mean for the development of future leaders.

#### **1.5. Design of the research**

#### *1.5.1. Study participants*

Seven leaders working at executive director, board or equivalent volunteered to participate in the study. They came from a wide range of different organizations with very different train‐ ing, backgrounds, experiences and career trajectories. They were leaders who clearly saw themselves as leaders *and* who also saw themselves as engaging in some form of reflection.

#### *1.5.2. Data collection*


The interviews were transcribed and interrogated using Grounded Theory Methodology [23]. I chose Grounded Theory Methodology because it is a constructivist research methodology, which allows meaning to naturally emerge from the data.

#### *1.5.3. Data analysis*

*must choose. Shall he/she remain on the high ground where he/she can solve relatively unimportant problems according to prevailing standards or rigor or shall he descend into the swamp of important* 

Despite this pedigree, it still seemed that reflection was primarily confined to technical or clinical practice, for example, the legal, health, educational or therapeutic professions and

My research study therefore sought to explore with a small sample of leaders their real‐life

I wanted to explore how they defined reflection and reflective practices, what their processes for reflection were, what helped or hindered their reflection, what benefits their experiences had generated for them as well as what this might mean for the development of future leaders.

Seven leaders working at executive director, board or equivalent volunteered to participate in the study. They came from a wide range of different organizations with very different train‐ ing, backgrounds, experiences and career trajectories. They were leaders who clearly saw themselves as leaders *and* who also saw themselves as engaging in some form of reflection.

• Semi structured interviews were used to gather the data. The following questions were

The interviews were transcribed and interrogated using Grounded Theory Methodology [23]. I chose Grounded Theory Methodology because it is a constructivist research methodology,

*problems and non‐rigorous inquiry?" [18]*

much less in the leadership domain.

**1.4. Framing the research question**

The research question was:

6 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**1.5. Design of the research**

*1.5.1. Study participants*

*1.5.2. Data collection*

asked [22]:

• What is your definition of reflection?

• What triggers your processes of reflection?

• What – if any – were the benefits for you?

• What are your processes of reflection? (when, where and how?)

• What might your experiences mean for the development of future leaders?

• What helps and what hinders your processes of reflection?

which allows meaning to naturally emerge from the data.

experience of reflection in the workplace.

*"What are leaders' experiences of reflection?"*

Sixty‐one thousand words were transcribed and analyzed to create units of meaning or raw codes. On average about every eight words were grouped to create a new raw code, and 75% of these were coded in vivo to retain the richness of the data.

Alongside the creation of the raw codes, the simultaneous process of constant comparison enabled the grouping of the raw codes into different categories or families.

This process allowed meaning to emerge from the data and from which the meta‐concept of "Reflect to *Create"* finally and very naturally surfaced.

## **2. What the research said and what it means for leaders**

The findings from the research are now shared with a commentary about what these findings mean for leaders today.

The next section will offer the seven "Reflect to *Create"* leadership capacities with four core conditions and four core practices, which could make reflection mainstream as *the way* to learn, relate and work in any team or organization.

#### **2.1. Defining reflection for today**

What emerged from the data was that the leaders had experienced reflection as an intentional process of retreat, reflect and return. That this was a conversation with experience; as the participants said [22]:

```
"to stop the busyness and stand back",
```
*"finding space"*

and

*"taking time out to think"*

Reflection was defined from the data as [22]:

*"a different, particular and radical form of inquiry and thinking – which had a rigor and a process – and which enabled leaders to integrate their learning from their experiences and to develop new understandings to apply in the world."*

This flow of retreat, reflect and return enabled the leaders to journey through a process, which mapped against Schamer's Theory U model [10] for letting go, to sense and to presence in order to let come. It enabled leaders to stop habitual downloading and unconscious projec‐ tion. They could then become open and receptive to what is wanting to emerge. In quantum physics, this is the zero‐point field teaming with life, possibility and potential; it is from this deeply reflective space that new insights and choices can naturally emerge for wise action. This process is shown in **Figure 1**.

**Figure 1.** Reflections' flow process.

The leaders reported that they had developed their own questioning frameworks. But a generic format of questions for inquiry seemed to emerge which broadly included:

#### **Retreat**


#### **Reflect**


#### **Return**


One leader from the research [22] described it as:

*"a fluid process of sense making to make meaning ….. of making the unconscious conscious."*

#### Another said [22]:

*"to learn from experience – good or bad – and to put it into practice."*

#### As I wrote [22]:

*"Reflection was seen as a gateway into other lands; for BIGGER conversations within BIGGER landscapes of work and life, and which always impacted on the work. The depth and value of the process*  *appeared to depend on the extent to which all of their heart, mind, body and soulful intelligences rather than just the rational logical brain were engaged with the question"*

#### **2.2. When does "reflection" become "reflective practice"?**

As my research showed [22] *"reflection had become reflective practice when a consistent discipline of reflection had become established."* All seven leaders had evolved their own practices which worked for them and which were also developing and evolving all the time overtime as the benefits of their reflective practices became more and more apparent to them.

All felt that reflection was no longer just a tool but had now become an intrinsic part of who they were and their way of being and relating to the world. One leader said:

*"Reflection has become a very natural and obvious thing to do"* [22].

Another said:

The leaders reported that they had developed their own questioning frameworks. But a

generic format of questions for inquiry seemed to emerge which broadly included:

**iv.** What am I assuming and need to let go of in order to see afresh?

**i.** What am I sensing from my body and from the wider field?

**ii.** Am I being fully present to what is wanting to emerge?

**iv.** What new perspectives and possibilities are emerging?

*"to learn from experience – good or bad – and to put it into practice."*

**i.** What new choices for decision‐making and elegant action are now emerging?

*"a fluid process of sense making to make meaning ….. of making the unconscious conscious."*

*"Reflection was seen as a gateway into other lands; for BIGGER conversations within BIGGER landscapes of work and life, and which always impacted on the work. The depth and value of the process* 

**Retreat**

**Reflect**

**Return**

**i.** What is inviting me to stop?

**ii.** What my current reality?

**Figure 1.** Reflections' flow process.

8 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**iii.** What is my inquiry?

**iii.** What am I learning?

Another said [22]:

As I wrote [22]:

**ii.** How do these choices get tested?

One leader from the research [22] described it as:

*"My reflective processes of sense making and making sense is applied all the time now to everything that I do"* [22].

#### **2.3. The transformational benefits of reflection**

The leaders reported that reflection had served to support their personal development, growth and transformation as a person who is also a leader [17], which also had delivered material business benefits and outcomes.

The leaders reported that they saw that learning to lead was actually first and foremost a radical act of learning to know and lead themselves. They realized that by first learning how to connect with themselves, they could better connect with others and the world and dis‐ cover what was needed from them in their roles. This was experienced as a deep and pro‐ found alignment between "WHO you are" and "HOW you lead": an awareness of how a leader's inner world is expressed in their acts of leadership. This is because leadership is relational – it is all about the relationships that a leader creates – and means that leadership is fundamentally when the masks and trappings have been stripped away mentally – when a creative expression of self. This interrelationship is shown below **Figure 2**:

**Figure 2.** Relationships with self, other and the world.

#### As Bennis [24] writes:

*"Leadership is first being, then doing. Everything the leader does reflects what he or she is."*

#### Technical knowledge and expertise are important but not enough. As Murdoch [25] writes:

*"My experience is that operating alongside all of our professional trainings, our thinking, tools and models, is the personhood of the practitioner – our humanity matters, as does our maturity, our open‐ heartedness and our generosity of spirit."*

Owen [26] reinforces this point when he writes:

*"People cannot be molded to be the same. Becoming a leader (or people professional) is an individual process and fundamental to the process is 'learning'. However, the learning is not through 'training' alone, but through personal experience and learning from that experience. When learning from experience occurs, it involves looking inwards at who we are. It means a deep awareness of who we are and the sort of human being we want to become. Once we know this, it can be expressed in our relationships and actions at work"* [25].

Thinking of the quality offered leaders a potential challenge this assumptions, mindsets and pre‐existing frames of reference, which were no longer serving.

Six high‐level categories of benefits emerged for these leaders, which supported the deepening development of new capacities, capabilities and insights across a range of leadership competencies.

What appeared new was that the reported benefits included not only building self‐awareness and authenticity, which might be typically associated with reflection, but also how reflection helped the leaders to develop new capacities for working more creatively with emergence, possibility and the unknown. These were, as shown in **Figure 3**, to:


and


*"used stories of their successes to help illustrate how reflection had helped them restructure their businesses. For example: how their reflection had helped one leader set a new strategic direction for their organization in response to negative press; how two leaders had used reflection to steer a way through a merger and a change in company ownership. All of them had used reflection to develop a more powerfully authentic leadership presence, manage career moves, or to rebrand. Each of them attributed improvements in their wellbeing, resilience and work success to their reflective practices."*

The degree of benefit [22] from each act of reflection was

*"contextual depending on where each leader was in their own journey, their degree of engagement with the process, the depth of their exploration and the relative importance of the issue. But the benefits did*  *appear to be cumulative and mutually reinforcing, creating a new body of personal knowledge or narrative about themselves and their place in the world over time."*

**Figure 3.** Transformational benefits of reflection.

As one leader said:

*"reflection has helped me to grow all of who I am."*

Another said:

As Bennis [24] writes:

10 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

• think differently (25%) • create differently (20%)

• act differently (15%)

• feel differently (9%) As I reported [22] leaders

and

• be different (16%); relate differently (15%)

*wellbeing, resilience and work success to their reflective practices."* The degree of benefit [22] from each act of reflection was

*heartedness and our generosity of spirit."*

Owen [26] reinforces this point when he writes:

pre‐existing frames of reference, which were no longer serving.

possibility and the unknown. These were, as shown in **Figure 3**, to:

*"Leadership is first being, then doing. Everything the leader does reflects what he or she is."*

Technical knowledge and expertise are important but not enough. As Murdoch [25] writes:

*"My experience is that operating alongside all of our professional trainings, our thinking, tools and models, is the personhood of the practitioner – our humanity matters, as does our maturity, our open‐*

*"People cannot be molded to be the same. Becoming a leader (or people professional) is an individual process and fundamental to the process is 'learning'. However, the learning is not through 'training' alone, but through personal experience and learning from that experience. When learning from experience occurs, it involves looking inwards at who we are. It means a deep awareness of who we are and the sort of human being we want to become. Once we know this, it can be expressed in our relationships and actions at work"* [25].

Thinking of the quality offered leaders a potential challenge this assumptions, mindsets and

Six high‐level categories of benefits emerged for these leaders, which supported the deepening development of new capacities, capabilities and insights across a range of leadership competencies. What appeared new was that the reported benefits included not only building self‐awareness and authenticity, which might be typically associated with reflection, but also how reflection helped the leaders to develop new capacities for working more creatively with emergence,

*"used stories of their successes to help illustrate how reflection had helped them restructure their businesses. For example: how their reflection had helped one leader set a new strategic direction for their organization in response to negative press; how two leaders had used reflection to steer a way through a merger and a change in company ownership. All of them had used reflection to develop a more powerfully authentic leadership presence, manage career moves, or to rebrand. Each of them attributed improvements in their* 

*"contextual depending on where each leader was in their own journey, their degree of engagement with the process, the depth of their exploration and the relative importance of the issue. But the benefits did*  *"it has helped me to develop as a human being who is also a leader to do more, be more and contribute more."*

The leaders had all arrived at a point where they all felt a personal need and a corporate responsibility to continually challenge and develop themselves, from the inside out. In this way, they explored their gifts and their blocks (where they also had the greatest leverage for change) and expanded their self‐awareness and consciousness. This enabled each of them to develop the new insights and new capacities to lead well, because as Brown [27] states trans‐ formational leaders:

*"take the time to see into their own processes, to disclose their feelings and thinking, to be honest about themselves, their train of thought, their thinking, their reservations, their struggles…. With that courage the transformational leader invites all of the human talents of us all and the result is a new and necessary richness in our world of work, as sense of being at home, ourselves in the workplace…. And that starting point is their own reflection."*

Reflection had become a foundational way of being and relating. As one leader said from the research:

*"Reflection is foundational and fundamental to me living and working deliberately."*

#### **2.4. "Reflect to** *Create***"**

Defining reflection as an *Act of Creation*

#### My study concluded [17] that

*"at a meta level the overarching value of reflection was that it was an ACT of CREATION: that it could be a process for bringing forth something new into the world – be it an idea, a connection, a feeling, an act, a relationship, service, a product or a solution – instead of leader merely repeating past habits or patterns."*

The leaders saw reflection as a key enabler to leading well, as the gateway and the means for

*"aligning personal fulfillment and professional development" [22]*

As Einstein [28] said:

*"Problems cannot be solved from the consciousness which created them."*

As one leader said:

*"reflection was the gateway to possibilities."*

Another leader said that:

*"I know work in an emergent FUTURE domain which has its presence now."*

#### **2.5. Reflections' poor image**

When leaders described their own experiences of the benefits of reflection they said [22]:

*"that is was alive, fluid and full of movement";*

*"I love finding the 'aha' moment – it is a bit like a dopamine hit";*

*"I love to find the link between things";*

or

*"I really value having the personal space to think to carry be forward into the next phase."*

However, they were also aware that reflection was still more commonly seen as almost *"a dirty word"* and *"counter culture"* in business. It was often seen as *"something woolly"* and "*off‐ putting";* that it was *"dull and static";* and that it was their *"guilty secret" and a "guilty luxury, something I do in private away from the office."* Or as something which is associated with blame or failure when things do wrong. One leader said that the bosses of the organization had put *"comfy sofas around the building but people were scared to use them for fear of being seen as having lots of space time or not being seen as busy enough"* [22].

#### **2.6. The costs of not reflecting**

As Brown [27] states:

*"tinkering with the after effects of events has much less impact ……. And yet many people do just that. With their attention captured by events, their calendars jammed with activity, they are unable to place their attention at the level within themselves where real transformation can begin"* [27].

The research found that the costs attributable to not reflecting had potentially big personal and corporate implications [22]. These were quantified as:


and

My study concluded [17] that

12 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

As Einstein [28] said:

As one leader said:

or

Another leader said that:

**2.5. Reflections' poor image**

*"at a meta level the overarching value of reflection was that it was an ACT of CREATION: that it could be a process for bringing forth something new into the world – be it an idea, a connection, a feeling, an act, a relationship, service, a product or a solution – instead of leader merely repeating past habits or patterns."* The leaders saw reflection as a key enabler to leading well, as the gateway and the means for

*"aligning personal fulfillment and professional development" [22]*

*"reflection was the gateway to possibilities."*

*"that is was alive, fluid and full of movement";*

*lots of space time or not being seen as busy enough"* [22].

and corporate implications [22]. These were quantified as:

**2.6. The costs of not reflecting**

• a loss of understanding (22%)

• a loss of creativity (20%)

As Brown [27] states:

*"I love to find the link between things";*

*"I love finding the 'aha' moment – it is a bit like a dopamine hit";*

*"Problems cannot be solved from the consciousness which created them."*

*"I know work in an emergent FUTURE domain which has its presence now."*

When leaders described their own experiences of the benefits of reflection they said [22]:

*"I really value having the personal space to think to carry be forward into the next phase."*

However, they were also aware that reflection was still more commonly seen as almost *"a dirty word"* and *"counter culture"* in business. It was often seen as *"something woolly"* and "*off‐ putting";* that it was *"dull and static";* and that it was their *"guilty secret" and a "guilty luxury, something I do in private away from the office."* Or as something which is associated with blame or failure when things do wrong. One leader said that the bosses of the organization had put *"comfy sofas around the building but people were scared to use them for fear of being seen as having* 

*"tinkering with the after effects of events has much less impact ……. And yet many people do just that. With their attention captured by events, their calendars jammed with activity, they are unable to place* 

The research found that the costs attributable to not reflecting had potentially big personal

*their attention at the level within themselves where real transformation can begin"* [27].

• downstream a loss of productivity (6%).

This is shown below (**Figure 4**):

**Figure 4.** Costs of not reflecting.

#### **2.7. Other headlines from the research**

Other key findings have been published elsewhere [17], but to help to understand how to create the practices for a "Reflect to *Create"* leader, the key headlines are summarized below.

#### *2.7.1. Triggers for reflection*

The leaders reported that triggers for reflection were predominately from an embodied awareness of something that was new, surprising or troubling. Work issues nearly always returned to the personal.

#### *2.7.2. The "How" of reflection*

Reflection predominately took place on their own, sometimes in a facilitated conversa‐ tion with a thinking partner or coach or (and much less frequently) within a larger group. Reflective journaling was the most frequently used mode of reflecting.

#### *2.7.3. The "Where" of reflection*

The leaders reported that reflection predominately took place away from their workplaces because of the busyness of the office. But there was a sense that reflecting is also actually accessible to them anywhere at any time.

#### *2.7.4. What helps reflection?*

Reflection emerged as a personal choice. The leaders had chosen to make the time and space in their busy schedules to reflect and learn from experience because they understood its ben‐ efits. As the research discovered [22], other mechanisms like

*"a supportive organizational culture, being 'taught' the tools for reflection, the requirements of a course or training program to write learning logs, working with a thinking partner (like a coach or supervisor) or the support of others were seen as helpful but secondary to this very personal commitment."*

One said that

*"I learnt the value of having personal thinking space."*

Another said:

*"I learnt a framework for thinking which was new."*

All seven leaders also felt that their participation on either leadership or personal develop‐ ment courses had helped to remind them or fine‐tune their own reflective practices. They also felt that there was no one best way to "do" reflection: that this emerges as a result of personal experimentation, choice and preferences so as to:

*"remove its threat and mystique"* [22].

#### *2.7.5. What hinders reflection?*

The biggest factors inhibiting reflection was where their more senior leadership—and/or the leadership culture around them—did not invest in reflection, did not role model reflective learning or did not believe in the benefits of reflection. There were also worries about trust and safety, possible breaches of confidentiality and the personal and business risks of sharing personal vulnerabilities.

## **3. Reflection as a transformational way of being and leading**

Reflection has the potential to unlock creativity, innovation and transformation. Leaders can‐ not command people to be more reflective or creative, but they can create the conditions to liberate fresh thinking and innovation.

Ancient philosophers and thinkers have long understood the power of reflection, but in today's busyness, this powerfully transformative learning methodology has become over‐ looked. Kolb's [29] stage of reflective observation in the learning cycle is often ignored or short‐circuited as shown in **Figure 5**. But the good news is that human beings are all naturally reflective. Human beings we are natural storytellers and meaning makers.

This section takes the learning from the research and describes the HOW to make reflection come alive in the workplace by exploring:

• What are the qualities and behaviors which leaders need to role model in themselves and for others, which support reflection and reflective learning?


**Figure 5.** Kolb's learning cycle.

*2.7.4. What helps reflection?*

14 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

One said that

Another said:

Reflection emerged as a personal choice. The leaders had chosen to make the time and space in their busy schedules to reflect and learn from experience because they understood its ben‐

*"a supportive organizational culture, being 'taught' the tools for reflection, the requirements of a course or training program to write learning logs, working with a thinking partner (like a coach or supervisor) or the support of others were seen as helpful but secondary to this very personal commitment."*

All seven leaders also felt that their participation on either leadership or personal develop‐ ment courses had helped to remind them or fine‐tune their own reflective practices. They also felt that there was no one best way to "do" reflection: that this emerges as a result of personal

The biggest factors inhibiting reflection was where their more senior leadership—and/or the leadership culture around them—did not invest in reflection, did not role model reflective learning or did not believe in the benefits of reflection. There were also worries about trust and safety, possible breaches of confidentiality and the personal and business risks of sharing

Reflection has the potential to unlock creativity, innovation and transformation. Leaders can‐ not command people to be more reflective or creative, but they can create the conditions to

Ancient philosophers and thinkers have long understood the power of reflection, but in today's busyness, this powerfully transformative learning methodology has become over‐ looked. Kolb's [29] stage of reflective observation in the learning cycle is often ignored or short‐circuited as shown in **Figure 5**. But the good news is that human beings are all naturally

This section takes the learning from the research and describes the HOW to make reflection

• What are the qualities and behaviors which leaders need to role model in themselves and

**3. Reflection as a transformational way of being and leading**

reflective. Human beings we are natural storytellers and meaning makers.

for others, which support reflection and reflective learning?

efits. As the research discovered [22], other mechanisms like

*"I learnt the value of having personal thinking space."*

*"I learnt a framework for thinking which was new."*

experimentation, choice and preferences so as to:

*"remove its threat and mystique"* [22].

liberate fresh thinking and innovation.

come alive in the workplace by exploring:

*2.7.5. What hinders reflection?*

personal vulnerabilities.

These will be explored through the "Reflect to *Create"* 7Cs leadership capacities map, the four core conditions which facilitate and support reflective learning and the four core practices which underpin reflective practice.

#### **3.1. The "Reflect to** *Create***" 7C's leadership capacities map**

The 7Cs seek to define the seven foundational human capacities for leaders (and people prac‐ titioners everywhere) to lead and work well. These are the capacities, which are more likely to facilitate change and transformation.

The 7Cs have been developed through observed practice of delivering over 3,000 hours of executive coaching and supervision practice, through extensive reading, writing and research, and by applying and testing the findings of the research.

The 7Cs uniquely focus on the inside out vertical learning needed to develop the foundational human capacities for inspiring and leading deep change rather than just the more traditional focus on outside in horizontal learning for capability and competence development. Both are needed, but the emphasis needs to shift.

Capacity is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary [30] as:

#### *"the power of containing, receiving, experiencing or producing"*

It is the space and spaciousness that leaders can learn to create within themselves to side step ego, default behaviors, assumptions and narrow Preconceived mindsets. Because it is these which fearfully want to maintain the status quo, seek control and impose rapid fire solutions. Capacity complements capability, which the OED defines as:

*"the power of action, of acting."*

The 7C's map therefore focuses on the being of the leader in order to complement, inform and shape their doing. Capacities shape the source and being of the leader and are the energy, which shapes how their capabilities are enacted. Because "WHO you are is HOW you lead" (**Figure 6**).

The 7Cs are Care, Curiosity, Courage, Compassion, Connection, Contemplation and Creativity**©** and are shown in **Figure 7**.

Each of the 7Cs is defined and described in turn and will be illustrated by a few core questions to bring each capacity alive.

#### *Capacity 1: Care*

Caring is at the heart of being and at the heart of our humanity. Passion is overrated and can‐ not always be sustained. What, who and how we care defines us.

Caring (and taking care) with people, issues, choices and decisions is a fundamental expres‐ sion of our deeper purpose, meaning, values and integrity in action. It also shows up in how we are experienced by others.

Caring sets the compass for authentic, ethical and compassionate leadership. Leadership is rela‐ tional. Leading is about relationships. Leaders earn trust; it is not given. As Cashman [31] writes:

*"Leadership is not simply something we do. It comes from somewhere inside us. Leadership is a process, an intimate expression of who we are. It is our being in action."*

Core questions to explore this capacity are:


#### *Capacity 2: Curiosity*

Curiosity drives inquiry, questioning and learning. Curiosity keeps leaders open and recep‐ tive. The human brain loves questions. Curiosity keeps leaders awake, alerts to their blind spots, avoids complacency, questions the status quo and drives creativity and innovation.

Waking Up to the Power of Reflection to Unlock Transformation in People, Teams and Organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64611 17

**Figure 6.** Difference between horizontal learning for knowledge and capability development and vertical learning for personal capacities for transformation.

**Figure 7.** 7Cs "Reflect to Create" leadership capacities map©.

Capacity is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary [30] as:

*"the power of containing, receiving, experiencing or producing"*

Capacity complements capability, which the OED defines as:

not always be sustained. What, who and how we care defines us.

*an intimate expression of who we are. It is our being in action."*

Core questions to explore this capacity are:

*"the power of action, of acting."*

Creativity**©** and are shown in **Figure 7**.

you lead" (**Figure 6**).

16 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

*Capacity 1: Care*

to bring each capacity alive.

we are experienced by others.

**a.** What do you care about?

**d.** Is this decision ethical?

*Capacity 2: Curiosity*

**b.** Why do you choose to lead?

**c.** Do you care enough about this?

It is the space and spaciousness that leaders can learn to create within themselves to side step ego, default behaviors, assumptions and narrow Preconceived mindsets. Because it is these which fearfully want to maintain the status quo, seek control and impose rapid fire solutions.

The 7C's map therefore focuses on the being of the leader in order to complement, inform and shape their doing. Capacities shape the source and being of the leader and are the energy, which shapes how their capabilities are enacted. Because "WHO you are is HOW

The 7Cs are Care, Curiosity, Courage, Compassion, Connection, Contemplation and

Each of the 7Cs is defined and described in turn and will be illustrated by a few core questions

Caring is at the heart of being and at the heart of our humanity. Passion is overrated and can‐

Caring (and taking care) with people, issues, choices and decisions is a fundamental expres‐ sion of our deeper purpose, meaning, values and integrity in action. It also shows up in how

Caring sets the compass for authentic, ethical and compassionate leadership. Leadership is rela‐ tional. Leading is about relationships. Leaders earn trust; it is not given. As Cashman [31] writes:

*"Leadership is not simply something we do. It comes from somewhere inside us. Leadership is a process,* 

Curiosity drives inquiry, questioning and learning. Curiosity keeps leaders open and recep‐ tive. The human brain loves questions. Curiosity keeps leaders awake, alerts to their blind spots, avoids complacency, questions the status quo and drives creativity and innovation.

Curiosity's questioning puts leaders and their teams at the edge of their learning, challeng‐ ing the known, assumed and expert in order to explore other possibilities, perspectives and potential. It enables leaders to sense and lean into what is wanting and needing to emerge. As Einstein [32] wrote:

*"The important thing is to not stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existence. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure of reality."*

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:


#### *Capacity 3: Courage*

Courage in English is derived from "Coeur", which means "heart" in French. Courage comes from the intelligence of the heart to be brave, bold and fearless for wise action.

Courage enables leaders to move forward whilst also being aware of their vulnerabilities, fears and risks. Leaders with courage feel the future and act upon it, comfortable to prototype and test and to learn. According to Coco Chanel [33]:

*"The most courageous act is still to think for yourself. Aloud."*

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:


#### *Capacity 4: Compassion*

Compassion is the capacity to connect to yourself, to others and to be aware of our shared humanity.

Compassion is not just empathy. Compassion is the capacity to be with and to connect to the feelings of others whilst also staying centered and connected to self.

Compassion is the awareness of the inter‐relatedness of everything. People exist in relation‐ ship. Compassion is the capacity to embrace all of what it means to be fully human: the vul‐ nerabilities, the joys, the losses and the celebrations, which accompany an everyday life. As the poet John Donne [34] wrote:

*"No man is an island, Entire of itself, Every man is a piece of the continent, A part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less. As well as if a promontory were. As well as if a manor of thy friend's Or of thine own were: Any man's death diminishes me, Because I am involved in mankind, And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee."*

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:


#### *Capacity 5: Connection*

Curiosity's questioning puts leaders and their teams at the edge of their learning, challeng‐ ing the known, assumed and expert in order to explore other possibilities, perspectives and potential. It enables leaders to sense and lean into what is wanting and needing to emerge. As

*"The important thing is to not stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existence. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure* 

Courage in English is derived from "Coeur", which means "heart" in French. Courage comes

Courage enables leaders to move forward whilst also being aware of their vulnerabilities, fears and risks. Leaders with courage feel the future and act upon it, comfortable to prototype

Compassion is the capacity to connect to yourself, to others and to be aware of our shared

Compassion is not just empathy. Compassion is the capacity to be with and to connect to the

Compassion is the awareness of the inter‐relatedness of everything. People exist in relation‐ ship. Compassion is the capacity to embrace all of what it means to be fully human: the vul‐ nerabilities, the joys, the losses and the celebrations, which accompany an everyday life. As

**b.** When was the last time you were truly surprised or discovered something new?

from the intelligence of the heart to be brave, bold and fearless for wise action.

Einstein [32] wrote:

18 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

*of reality."*

**d.** What is emerging?

*Capacity 3: Courage*

**a.** What are you called to do?

**d.** What is needed right now?

the poet John Donne [34] wrote:

**b.** What are you here for?

*Capacity 4: Compassion*

humanity.

**a.** What are you curious about?

**c.** Where are your blocks or blind spots?

**e.** Who can give you honest feedback?

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:

and test and to learn. According to Coco Chanel [33]:

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:

**c.** What do you really want to create in your life?

*"The most courageous act is still to think for yourself. Aloud."*

feelings of others whilst also staying centered and connected to self.

Connection is the capacity to see the deeper underlying and universal inter‐connections in and between all of life. Connection is the capacity to appreciate, value and work our intimate interconnections with all living things across the dimensions of past, present and future.

Connection gives us a bigger perspective, purpose and sense of belonging within the world and the work we do. It also bestows an awareness of how our actions can affect others and our planet. As Einstein [35] wrote:

*"A human being is part of the whole, called by us the 'universe', a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and his feelings, as something separated from the rest, a kind of optical illusion of his consciousness.*

*This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free to ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty."*

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:


#### **d.** How did your perspective alter?

**e.** How would you describe your connection with your team/organization?

#### *Capacity 6: Contemplation*

Contemplation is the capacity to learn to turn away from the endless busyness, rush and noise of everyday living to tune into ourselves, to be with ourselves and hear ourselves think.

Contemplation is the capacity to listen deeply to ourselves, to sit with and to be with issues, trusting that in time—and *with* time—that our own inner wisdom and knowing will surface. It is the capacity to be fully and mindfully present in the moment. This stills the ego and our strategic minds in order that we can listen to all of our other and perhaps quieter bodily, heart‐based and soulful intelligences. As Parker Palmer [36] describes the soul as like a wild animal, he writes:

*"The soul is like a wild animal… whilst tough, resilient and resourceful, savvy and self‐sufficient ….. it is also shy.. and will only come out when it is safe to do so…"*

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:


#### *Capacity 7: Creativity*

Creativity is the capacity to break old patterns and habitual ways of being, seeing, relat‐ ing, learning and working to create anew. Creativity is the capacity to bring the new into the world—be it a new product, idea, insight or way of working—while also being deeply respectful of past efforts, which have brought the individual or team to the point of a new creative breakthrough.

As George Lois an American Art Director [37] said:

*"Creativity can solve any problem. The creative act, the defeat of habit by originality, overcomes everything."*

Creativity thrives where there is time and space for care, curiosity, courage, compassion, con‐ nection and contemplation to blend and work its magic.

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:


#### **3.2. The four core conditions for "Reflect to** *Create***"**

**d.** How did your perspective alter?

*Capacity 6: Contemplation*

20 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

animal, he writes:

*Capacity 7: Creativity*

*everything."*

**a.** What inspires you?

flourish?

think.

**e.** How would you describe your connection with your team/organization?

*it is also shy.. and will only come out when it is safe to do so…"*

**c.** What are you holding onto that you need to let go off to see afresh?

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:

**b.** How do you listen to yourself think?

of a new creative breakthrough.

As George Lois an American Art Director [37] said:

nection and contemplation to blend and work its magic.

**b.** What are the seeds of the future in the present here and now?

Core questions to explore this capacity are as follows:

**a.** Do you create the time and space to tune into yourself?

Contemplation is the capacity to learn to turn away from the endless busyness, rush and noise of everyday living to tune into ourselves, to be with ourselves and hear ourselves

Contemplation is the capacity to listen deeply to ourselves, to sit with and to be with issues, trusting that in time—and *with* time—that our own inner wisdom and knowing will surface. It is the capacity to be fully and mindfully present in the moment. This stills the ego and our strategic minds in order that we can listen to all of our other and perhaps quieter bodily, heart‐based and soulful intelligences. As Parker Palmer [36] describes the soul as like a wild

*"The soul is like a wild animal… whilst tough, resilient and resourceful, savvy and self‐sufficient …..* 

Creativity is the capacity to break old patterns and habitual ways of being, seeing, relat‐ ing, learning and working to create anew. Creativity is the capacity to bring the new into the world—be it a new product, idea, insight or way of working—while also being deeply respectful of past efforts, which have brought the individual or team to the point

*"Creativity can solve any problem. The creative act, the defeat of habit by originality, overcomes* 

Creativity thrives where there is time and space for care, curiosity, courage, compassion, con‐

**c.** How can you bring more light and playfulness into your work to enable creativity to

The four core pillars or environmental conditions for reflection to flourish are creating rela‐ tionships and cultures built on: trust, safety, support and challenge.

The four pillars are mutually dependent and interdependent reinforcing each other to create thriving learning cultures where leaders can continually apply, deepen and test their capaci‐ ties for transformational leadership in the real world of work.

The conditions weave together for the following reasons:


These conditions hold the work as shown in **Figure 8**.

**Figure 8.** Four conditions for "Reflect to Create."

#### **3.3. The four core practices for "Reflect to** *Create***"**

The four core practices are the personal practices that nourish the deepening of the seven foundational capacities. These are a beginner's mindset, building foundations and scaffolding, developing a mindfulness practice and making the commitment as shown and described below.

#### **1.** *Starting with a beginner's mindset*

Assume nothing, play with openness, wonder, spontaneity, generosity and abundance, find‐ ing inspiration from unexpected sources.

#### **2.** *Building the foundations and the scaffolding for reflection*

Find and/or design your places, spaces, times, ways, processes, people, inspirations, struc‐ tures, places and spaces that work for you.

#### **3.** *Developing a mindfulness practice(s)*

There are many to choose from including centering exercises, meditation, yoga, t'ai chi, walk‐ ing, art, music, reading or writing/journaling – these sidestep the ego, foster stillness and nurture heart, mind, body and soul.

#### **4 .***Making the commitment*

Make the time and decision to invest in living and working in this way **Figure 9**.

**Figure 9.** Four practices of "Reflect to Create."

## **4. The complete "Reflect to** *Create***" leadership map**

**Figure 10** pulls together the "Reflect to *Create"* leadership map showing how all the elements of the approach come together.

Waking Up to the Power of Reflection to Unlock Transformation in People, Teams and Organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64611 23

**Figure 10.** "Reflect to Create" leadership map©.

#### **5. Summary**

**1.** *Starting with a beginner's mindset*

22 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

ing inspiration from unexpected sources.

tures, places and spaces that work for you.

**3.** *Developing a mindfulness practice(s)*

nurture heart, mind, body and soul.

**4 .***Making the commitment*

**2.** *Building the foundations and the scaffolding for reflection*

**4. The complete "Reflect to** *Create***" leadership map**

of the approach come together.

**Figure 9.** Four practices of "Reflect to Create."

**Figure 10** pulls together the "Reflect to *Create"* leadership map showing how all the elements

Assume nothing, play with openness, wonder, spontaneity, generosity and abundance, find‐

Find and/or design your places, spaces, times, ways, processes, people, inspirations, struc‐

There are many to choose from including centering exercises, meditation, yoga, t'ai chi, walk‐ ing, art, music, reading or writing/journaling – these sidestep the ego, foster stillness and

Make the time and decision to invest in living and working in this way **Figure 9**.

At the heart of "Reflect to *Create,"* leadership map is an opportunity and an invitation to trans‐ form how leaders and their teams can develop new ways of leading, thinking and relating in today's VUCA world. The vast changes required will not be solved by yesterdays' logic but by rediscovering how, as human beings, we can best learn from all of our experiences—and the experiences of others—to innovate and create.

## **Author details**

Elaine Patterson

Address all correspondence to: elaine@ep‐ec.com

Elaine Patterson Executive Coaching, London, United Kingdom

Coaching Supervision Academy, International Centre for Reflective Practice, London, United Kingdom

#### **References**


[19] Dewey, J *(1*938) *Experience and education.* New York, Touchstone.

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[4] Harvard Business Review. Available from: https://hbr.org/2013/10/map‐the‐sad‐state‐of‐

[5] Gavett, G. and Berinato, S (2013) Harvard business review. *State of the Global Workplace.* USA.

[6] Finkelstein, S (2004). *Why smart executives fail: and what you can learn from their mistakes.*

[8] Meeker, M (2014) *Global internet report: mobile evolution and development of the internet.* Kleiner, Perkins, Caulfield and Byers. http://www.internetsociety.org/globalin ternetreport/?gclid=CMv08suarMwCFUKeGwodF8UDGQ [Downloaded 26th April

[9] *United Nations (2007) Human development report: figh*ting climate change—human solidar‐

[10] Schamer, O. and Kaufer, K (2013) Leading from the emerging future: from ego‐system to eco‐system economies: applying theory U to transforming business, society and self.

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[12] Francis, R (2013) *Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust public inquiry NHS patient safety and quality* [Internet]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/

[13] ?WHATIF! Innovation Partners (2015) *Eyes wide shut: leading for innovation in post‐reces-*

[14] IBM (2010) *Capitalizing on complexity: insights from the global chief executive office study.* Available at http://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ssi/ecm/en/gbe03297u‐sen.

[15] Cook‐Reuter, S.R (2004), and Rooke, D. and Torbet, W.R (2005) Percentages refer to large

[17] Patterson, E (2015) 'What are leaders' experiences of reflection?' What leaders and leadership developers need to know from the findings of an exploratory research study. *Reflective Practice*. 16(5):636–651 [Internet]. doi:10.1080/14623943.2015.1064386

[18] Schon, D (1983) *The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action.*USA, Basic Books Ltd, p. 24.

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#### **Reflective Leadership: Learning to Manage and Lead Human Organizations Reflective Leadership: Learning to Manage and Lead Human Organizations**

Süleyman Davut Göker and Kıvanç Bozkuş Süleyman Davut Göker and Kıvanç Bozkuş

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64968

#### **Abstract**

This chapter mainly focuses on the concept of reflection as a process, both individual and collaborative, involving experience and uncertainty under the theme of reflective leadership. This type of leadership basically means learning to manage and lead human organizations. It originates from the concept of reflection defining leadership roles and responsibilities in all types of organizations. Focusing on reflection for learning in an effort to create reflective learning communities for all stakeholders taking part in both administrative and executive positions in organizations, this chapter is expected to contribute to leadership theories, to link theory and practice in concrete terms describing new leadership roles and responsibilities under the reflective thought considering its unique impact on organizational functioning.

**Keywords:** leadership, reflective practice, management, organizations, reflective learning

## **1. Introduction**

In the literature, leadership is defined by many theories that try to explain what leadership is, in terms of different standpoints. However, the real world is very complicated that cannot be prescribed in some given patterns. This is the very first fact that leaders realize once they enter into professional practice. This is when prescribed theories do not meet the requirements of real practice. How can leaders be effective in an environment that is so distinct from those portrayed on paper? The answer is the grail that many if not all practising leaders had committed him-/ herself to following of it. Reflective leadership goes to bat for anyone in the realm of leadership which is not mapped yet.

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

We start to explore reflective leadership by discussing what reflection is and then its role in creating reflective learning communities in organizations. The route to leadership through reflective thinking is the next topic we will address. Finally, we conclude with reflective practice which is the essence of reflective leadership and its models of implementation.

## **2. Reflection**

Reflection is not only a personal process but also a collaborative one, which involves uncertainty along with experience, and consists of specifying inquiries and essential components of a thing that came out as important, later taking a person's thoughts into dialogue with himself or herself and with other people. Individuals evaluate insights developed from that process in regard to additional perspectives, values, experiences, beliefs and the larger context within which the questions are raised. Through reflection, new-found clarity to base changes in action or disposition is achieved. New questions naturally arise, and the process spirals onwards [1].

Within this context, we argue that reflection is a vital component of leaders' daily life, not a detached or disconnected action but primal, promoted by the culture and structures of an organization, which affects choices, policies and decisions together with the emotions and politics related to them. Considered from this angle, to be reflective should not be considered as a method, which has been acquired and occasionally used, but an inherent component of what to manage or lead means.

#### **2.1. Dewey: father of reflection**

The philosopher John Dewey has made a great contribution to the current conceptualization of reflection in leadership learning as the origins of the reflection are mainly attributed to him. He described it as a form of problem solving. For him, action and thought used to be, or ideally ought to be, inseparably attached:

Thinking includes all of these steps, - the sense of a problem, the observation of conditions, the formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion, and the active experimental testing. [2]

For him, reflection is a deliberate and cognitive process triggered by a state of doubt, mental difficulty and hesitation. He sees reflection as a process of researching, clarifying and finding the right way that eliminates the doubt and difficulties. The mental process of reflection is activated by a problem, unstructured ideas and complicated situations to find a solution.

Forestalling something of the spirit of the progresses we maintain in this chapter, Dewey conceptualized this aspect of learning as more important than a problem-solving process. Dewey's vision was of an educational process which had reflection and action linked at its core and was the means by which individuals gained 'a personal interest in social relationships and control'—a platform for social change to a more democratic social order and preparation for membership of it [2].

#### **2.2. Schön: reflection in action**

We start to explore reflective leadership by discussing what reflection is and then its role in creating reflective learning communities in organizations. The route to leadership through reflective thinking is the next topic we will address. Finally, we conclude with reflective practice

Reflection is not only a personal process but also a collaborative one, which involves uncertainty along with experience, and consists of specifying inquiries and essential components of a thing that came out as important, later taking a person's thoughts into dialogue with himself or herself and with other people. Individuals evaluate insights developed from that process in regard to additional perspectives, values, experiences, beliefs and the larger context within which the questions are raised. Through reflection, new-found clarity to base changes in action or disposition is achieved. New questions naturally arise, and the process spirals onwards [1].

Within this context, we argue that reflection is a vital component of leaders' daily life, not a detached or disconnected action but primal, promoted by the culture and structures of an organization, which affects choices, policies and decisions together with the emotions and politics related to them. Considered from this angle, to be reflective should not be considered as a method, which has been acquired and occasionally used, but an inherent component of

The philosopher John Dewey has made a great contribution to the current conceptualization of reflection in leadership learning as the origins of the reflection are mainly attributed to him. He described it as a form of problem solving. For him, action and thought used to be, or ideally

Thinking includes all of these steps, - the sense of a problem, the observation of conditions, the formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion, and

For him, reflection is a deliberate and cognitive process triggered by a state of doubt, mental difficulty and hesitation. He sees reflection as a process of researching, clarifying and finding the right way that eliminates the doubt and difficulties. The mental process of reflection is activated by a problem, unstructured ideas and complicated situations to find a solution.

Forestalling something of the spirit of the progresses we maintain in this chapter, Dewey conceptualized this aspect of learning as more important than a problem-solving process. Dewey's vision was of an educational process which had reflection and action linked at its core and was the means by which individuals gained 'a personal interest in social relationships and control'—a platform for social change to a more democratic social order and preparation for

which is the essence of reflective leadership and its models of implementation.

**2. Reflection**

28 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

what to manage or lead means.

**2.1. Dewey: father of reflection**

ought to be, inseparably attached:

membership of it [2].

the active experimental testing. [2]

Schön sees reflection as closely related to action and personal experience. The reflective practitioner engages in thinking along with the effect of action. Thus, Schön classified reflection into two types: reflection in action and reflection on action. Reflection in action is conscious thinking and modification while on the job [3]. The reflective practitioner immediately reflects on the action upon confronting it. Reflection on action is the reflection done after experiencing the action. The practitioner evaluates to understand whether the activity was successful or not by making judgements.

Schön's concept of reflection [4, 5] exemplifies the learning theory and practice features of a focused on reconnecting experience and ideas by means of reflection. His amplification of this understanding of the 'reflective practitioner' reveals the implicit component suggested in the fact that reflection is not only retrospective but also a component of the experience. Schön outlined this as:

On-the-spot surfacing, criticizing, restructuring, and testing of intuitive understanding of experienced phenomena; often it takes the form of a reflective conversation with the situation. [4]

His work on the reflective practitioner also bears out the theoretical and practical development of reflection in several approaches emphasizing the significance of both organizational context and personal psychology. He was critical of the technical rationality which he considered as describing organizational problem solving and which ignored ends together with means. Schön mentioned about the importance of questioning the claims on which practice was based through reflecting on the 'norms' and 'appreciations' which support judgements and actions. Therefore, the practitioner should reflect:

… on the feeling for a situation which has led him to adopt a particular course of action, on the way he has framed the problem he is trying to solve, or on the role he has constructed for himself within a larger institutional 'context.' [4]

As discussed above, this included 'reflection on action' and 'reflection in action' in practical terms. Human beings always tend to take shelter in experienced and accustomed forms of working and in practised processes or similar methods. That is to say, all endeavours to see the unknown in everyday life let people confront routines and connections and to alter those sides of working thought and practice taken for granted. For example, the capacity to make use of certain images, emotions, metaphors, to engage both rationally and aesthetically and to look at relational dynamics considering settings allows for the production of discrete styles of practising and thinking.

#### **2.3. Reflection for learning: creating reflective learning communities in organizations**

Ultimately, the outcome of reflection is learning [6]. It widens our perspective on a problem (broadens knowledge). It helps us develop strategies for dealing with it (develop skills). It helps us acquire new insights into our behaviour (changes attitudes).

Learning is not an individual behavioural attribute or capability but a 'double-loop' cognitive learning process that can be shared, and if everyone can participate in shared learning, then, in principle, everyone is capable of leading [7]. Within this context, the learning organization assures whatever the classical human-centred view about learning treasured at all times that commitment to learning will rescue us from obedience in blind authority in the end.

Even though learning itself as an action could seem self-evident, it is concerned with many issues in determining in what ways learning individually could be 'effective' or 'rational' against 'self-deception' and 'defence reasoning' [8]. As the difference between reflexivity and learning is hard to understand, in all attempts to understand that difference, reflexivity in the organizational development tradition has often been problematic [4, 9, 10]. The question is so clear: is it a neutral and instrumental expression of expert knowledge and control, or is it a methodology of feedback and diagnostic practice that pursues to develop really inclusive forms of distributed knowledge and learning [11]. The former position treats self-reflection as 'I think', whereas the latter tends to treat it as an expression of 'I do' [12–14]. What can be said here is that these two conflicting positions usually finish up as remedial approaches to learning. Learning could be thought as a deliberate way of 'reflexive thinking', allowing us to keep our distance from existent actions or behaviours and alter them. In contrast, learning as doing is bound by pre-reflective practices, so it is difficult to retrospectively translate or transmit learning or knowing in practice into intentional actions designed to change behaviour [13].

Leading for learning is an essential aim in creating reflective learning communities, which aim to create strong and fair opportunities of learning for all in an organization and encourage them to benefit from these opportunities. Leaders can accomplish this by committing themselves to the following areas of action: establishing a focus on learning, building professional communities that value learning, engaging external environments that matter for learning, acting strategically and creating coherence [15, 16]. The perception suggested centres on supplying each learner, no matter what problems they confront, the ways to overcome intriguing skills and to advance habits of mind for additional and autonomous learning.

'Let's try it out and see how it works' is an active learner's phrase; 'Let's think it through first' is the reflective learner's response in a reflective learning community [17]. Leaders' learning incorporates skills, the knowledge and standpoints, which they obtain while getting ready for and regenerating their practice. Interacting with other professionals who offer moral support, critique, ideas and inspiration for the renewal process will also promote opportunities for effective professional development.

Nearly all managers wish to create more powerful and equitable learning opportunities when they are given time to reflect. Nevertheless, their abilities depend on how they perceive the existent and prospective links between learning and leading in their own context. Managers can use reflective tools like optimizing video as a self-assessment tool, strengthening electronic portfolios with reflective journal writing, making use of associated resources on the Internet, taking advantage of on-line peer mentoring and stimulating reflection via learning communities as part of professional development.

Creating such a reflective learning community requires building professional communities that value learning, acting strategically and sharing leadership and engaging external environments that matter for learning. This type of reflective learning also fosters system learning, in which opportunities come up by means of evaluation of policies, programmes and resource use, strategic planning endeavours, action research focused on system-wide issues and application of indicators to measure progress towards goals defined. Leaders will be able to support system learning through inquiry into how an organization performs.

#### **2.4. The route to leadership through reflective thinking**

Reflective thinking is not only an internal process but an external one promoting improved critical thinking skills together with self-understanding as an essential way of inner work which emerges in the energy for employing in outer work. This type of thinking is required for understanding what it means to be significant for oneself and in one's organization or practice. Being aware of one's thinking is essential to make informed and logical decisions while working with others. In other words, taking to heart the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of other people also eases improvement in accomplishing organizational and professional objectives. In this chapter, we keep focusing on becoming a reflective thinker as a means to becoming a reflective leader. Therefore, we believe that managers can raise their awareness on their potential capacity for leadership.

Reflective leaders regard learning as a lifelong process, and they tend to equilibrate the practice 'telling' with 'asking' and frequently depend on the collective intelligence capacity of the teams formed in their organizations. Rather than being 'in judgement', these leaders 'use judgement' in handing down significant decisions. They regularly tend to step out of their routine and accustomed settings to think, explore and learn. Because the business environment has grown more complex, volatile and fast paced, leaders are more and more willing to adopt a 'bias for action', but effective leaders reflect on their past experiences and search for relevant, different insights before decision-making process.

They highly value the answers to the following questions:

**1.** What have I learnt?

Learning is not an individual behavioural attribute or capability but a 'double-loop' cognitive learning process that can be shared, and if everyone can participate in shared learning, then, in principle, everyone is capable of leading [7]. Within this context, the learning organization assures whatever the classical human-centred view about learning treasured at all times that

Even though learning itself as an action could seem self-evident, it is concerned with many issues in determining in what ways learning individually could be 'effective' or 'rational' against 'self-deception' and 'defence reasoning' [8]. As the difference between reflexivity and learning is hard to understand, in all attempts to understand that difference, reflexivity in the organizational development tradition has often been problematic [4, 9, 10]. The question is so clear: is it a neutral and instrumental expression of expert knowledge and control, or is it a methodology of feedback and diagnostic practice that pursues to develop really inclusive forms of distributed knowledge and learning [11]. The former position treats self-reflection as 'I think', whereas the latter tends to treat it as an expression of 'I do' [12–14]. What can be said here is that these two conflicting positions usually finish up as remedial approaches to learning. Learning could be thought as a deliberate way of 'reflexive thinking', allowing us to keep our distance from existent actions or behaviours and alter them. In contrast, learning as doing is bound by pre-reflective practices, so it is difficult to retrospectively translate or transmit learning or knowing in practice into intentional actions designed to change behaviour [13].

Leading for learning is an essential aim in creating reflective learning communities, which aim to create strong and fair opportunities of learning for all in an organization and encourage them to benefit from these opportunities. Leaders can accomplish this by committing themselves to the following areas of action: establishing a focus on learning, building professional communities that value learning, engaging external environments that matter for learning, acting strategically and creating coherence [15, 16]. The perception suggested centres on supplying each learner, no matter what problems they confront, the ways to overcome intriguing skills and to advance habits of mind for additional and autonomous learning.

'Let's try it out and see how it works' is an active learner's phrase; 'Let's think it through first' is the reflective learner's response in a reflective learning community [17]. Leaders' learning incorporates skills, the knowledge and standpoints, which they obtain while getting ready for and regenerating their practice. Interacting with other professionals who offer moral support, critique, ideas and inspiration for the renewal process will also promote opportunities for

Nearly all managers wish to create more powerful and equitable learning opportunities when they are given time to reflect. Nevertheless, their abilities depend on how they perceive the existent and prospective links between learning and leading in their own context. Managers can use reflective tools like optimizing video as a self-assessment tool, strengthening electronic portfolios with reflective journal writing, making use of associated resources on the Internet, taking advantage of on-line peer mentoring and stimulating reflection via learning commun-

effective professional development.

30 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

ities as part of professional development.

commitment to learning will rescue us from obedience in blind authority in the end.


Based on the answers to the questions asked above, reflective leadership can be considered as a way of approaching the work of being a leader by leading one's life with presence and personal mastery. In other words, it requires learning to be present, to be aware and attentive to our experience with people in our daily life, and it regards leadership from the standpoint of human experience. Taking the science of phenomenology into consideration, self-awareness and reflection on one's own experience together with the experience of other people are the starting point for the process of reflective leadership, which ultimately aim to achieve improved communication changing leadership practice.

We have developed further questions and possible responses to encourage managers to become reflective leaders. Through these six questions and responses, we aim to create awareness on how to become a reflective leader in practice:

#### *2.4.1. In what ways can reflection evoke my self-interests?*

People's self-interests can be met if they reflect on how their work has affected their learning and lives. These effects entail their progress and apprehension in some fields like career search, development of leadership, social justice, civic responsibility and consciousness, intellectual interests and self-actualization. People tend to concentrate on self-learning on particular occasions. They also consider issues related to career search when they finish university. For example, people remember their civic responsibilities only when they vote. The forms of reflection we have been discussing are drawn up to link people's work experiences to personal development.

#### *2.4.2. How should I proceed to be a reflective thinker?*

A reflective thinking model illustrating the process of reflective thinking was developed by Taggart and Wilson [18]. To identify a problem, dilemma or challenge could be one of the initial efforts. As the next step, you should draw back from the problem concerned for a while and use an outsider perspective to re-evaluate that problem. Within this process you can employ ways of observation, data collection and reflection. They will help you obtain a cognitive picture about the way you think for the sake of defining the setting of that circumstance. This position may be integrated with a similar event in the past to lead you to get probable ways to attempt to solve the problem. You should ask a question at this stage: How have I dealt with the almost identical situation in the past and what makes the present situation different from the one in the past? You will naturally remember your experiences and make predictions and create different approaches. Doing so, you will also have tested the approaches used systematically. Finally, you will review the actions you have taken together with the consequences, and that process will provide you with a new opportunity to reframe the situation concerned.

#### *2.4.3. What do I understand by reflective leadership?*

As discussed earlier, a dedication to the continuous process of maintained critical selfawareness and development is essential in reflective leadership. How can you do that? If you are determined to become a reflective leader, you should exchange reflective thoughts of yours with those of others establishing new relationships and ask them to see the situation. We tend to make use of feelings that we highly value, let ourselves experience them and pass along them whenever available. This sort of approach, which is genuine, will certainly give us a space where we will be able to value the contributions of others. This is how we support other people by means of our own reflective practice.

Learning from others basically requires listening to them within the framework of reflective leadership, which will require receptivity to other people. Listening attentively is both an art and a skill to be practised. Effective leaders must listen to cases and stories from all workers to reflect on in what ways they could enrich and change practices. Within this context, those stories providing data about what does work or what does not will tell us to look for significance. Any discussion and reflection on those stories will enrich, change and provide us with opportunities to install any possible changes into practice.

and reflection on one's own experience together with the experience of other people are the starting point for the process of reflective leadership, which ultimately aim to achieve im-

We have developed further questions and possible responses to encourage managers to become reflective leaders. Through these six questions and responses, we aim to create

People's self-interests can be met if they reflect on how their work has affected their learning and lives. These effects entail their progress and apprehension in some fields like career search, development of leadership, social justice, civic responsibility and consciousness, intellectual interests and self-actualization. People tend to concentrate on self-learning on particular occasions. They also consider issues related to career search when they finish university. For example, people remember their civic responsibilities only when they vote. The forms of reflection we have been discussing are drawn up to link people's work experiences to personal

A reflective thinking model illustrating the process of reflective thinking was developed by Taggart and Wilson [18]. To identify a problem, dilemma or challenge could be one of the initial efforts. As the next step, you should draw back from the problem concerned for a while and use an outsider perspective to re-evaluate that problem. Within this process you can employ ways of observation, data collection and reflection. They will help you obtain a cognitive picture about the way you think for the sake of defining the setting of that circumstance. This position may be integrated with a similar event in the past to lead you to get probable ways to attempt to solve the problem. You should ask a question at this stage: How have I dealt with the almost identical situation in the past and what makes the present situation different from the one in the past? You will naturally remember your experiences and make predictions and create different approaches. Doing so, you will also have tested the approaches used systematically. Finally, you will review the actions you have taken together with the consequences, and that process will provide you with a new opportunity to reframe the situation concerned.

As discussed earlier, a dedication to the continuous process of maintained critical selfawareness and development is essential in reflective leadership. How can you do that? If you are determined to become a reflective leader, you should exchange reflective thoughts of yours with those of others establishing new relationships and ask them to see the situation. We tend to make use of feelings that we highly value, let ourselves experience them and pass along them whenever available. This sort of approach, which is genuine, will certainly give us a space where we will be able to value the contributions of others. This is how we support other people

proved communication changing leadership practice.

32 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

*2.4.1. In what ways can reflection evoke my self-interests?*

*2.4.2. How should I proceed to be a reflective thinker?*

*2.4.3. What do I understand by reflective leadership?*

by means of our own reflective practice.

development.

awareness on how to become a reflective leader in practice:

#### *2.4.4. What types of strategies, resources and tools do I need to be more reflective and self-aware?*

Awareness is created through communication. To achieve a high level of communication, awareness on what you have been thinking is necessary. In other words, it will enable you a tool to discover yourself and become more self-aware. To do so, any sort of conflict should be seen as an opportunity to understand more of your true self as well as other people. The questions and answers to what you are sensing, thinking, feeling and willing or not willing to do will take time to get. So, you should go on asking them till you could past strong emotions like resentment and anger, because those emotions play a key role in guiding you to what you have been thinking. After reflecting on genuine answers, you can share them with other people directly. Whatever language you use in answering to those questions will encourage ownership, thus enhancing connection. Through this process, you could get a tool to monitor your awareness, expand your opinions and listen to others attentively to resolve problem.

Another efficient approach to work with other people effectively is to be aware of your natural talents. This is something to do with exploration of your strengths. Identifying your talents will naturally provide you with many strategies to build them into your strengths. Knowing what gifts and talents you possess will help you see your weaknesses and align your goals and job with your own talents.

#### *2.4.5. In what ways do reflective leaders affect leadership practice positively and create reflective leaders to be?*

Reflective thinking lets you both share your concerns and reveal the concealed issues for you and other people concerned. This process will create an opportunity for you and other people to reflect on your and their point of view, thus providing a sort of catharsis. Doing so will help you develop a wider viewpoint, a new appreciation for everybody and deeper understanding.

As reflective practice is seen as a transformative process, you and the other people around could proceed in a more interconnected way. So, you could define common objectives and goals together with guidelines to avoid possible conflicts in the future. In creating open channels of communication, this environment will bring informal and regular meetings to allow reflective practices supporting reflective leadership. These types of meetings are highly valued by reflective leaders as they see them as productive environments to provide collaborative work supporting the greater sense of collegiality.

Being open and letting testing of propositions and inquiring about one's strength are another significant task for reflective leaders. It could be necessary for you to face problems like defensiveness of yours and that of other people and the inefficiency of your team for the sake of ensuring the impact of approach you use. So, a reflective learning community, in which reflection is an ideal way of support and learning, should be created by reflective leaders. In such a community, you provide a safe environment for self-expression, identify objectives, give feedback and stimulate self-observation. In defining the strengths of the individuals, you offer other people optional approaches to be successful in their work.

#### *2.4.6. Which leadership processes enhance reflective leaders' powers and achieve success in other people?*

First of all, peer reflection, which helps question assumptions, is one of the main means for reflective leaders to carry out with other reflective leaders. Peers are of paramount importance in clarifying our values. This process helps us build our and peers' strengths, compensate weaknesses and search for better problem-solving approaches [19].

To be able to achieve the task, effective leaders should form and maintain the teams in developing individuals. The aspirations can best be achieved if leaders can function in a collegial and collaborative ways by means of reflective practices, which initiate the process of perspective transformation. In other words, reflective leadership is considered to be transformative as long as it builds success in other people by reducing barriers while implementing leadership behaviours. Barriers, to a certain extent, are determined by means of reflection. They are regarded to be intrinsic to our human ego—strivings to achieve, to manage our situation and to compensate for our lack of confidence. The barriers can be reduced by deliberately reacting to what challenges us as a leader under different circumstances. Reflective leaders do that by having a deeper awareness of what sort of leader he/she wished to be, what sort human being is required and what sort of legacy is left by them. These choices direct leaders in how they take up daily leadership. That is to say that the way how leaders go about their day will determine ultimately whether they feel successful and rest with integrity and peace of mind or not.

The rapid rate of changes in our age seems to be one of the biggest demands for leaders. The other striking demand is the need for new frameworks for leadership skills. Leaders can cope with those challenges as long as they can bring each individual to the table to model the future with strong collective dialogues and cooperative actions. Among the other reflective leadership skills, they should be able to manage conflicts, model an adaptive capacity and be efficient in establishing and maintaining relationships. As they are expected to be the cocreators of change, they should accept that any individual or circumstance cannot move out their individual peace or competency. Viewed in this light, they should be able to communicate those feelings to other people in a way that will encourage and enable them to clasp the future and partake in its formation. Ultimately, they should be able to act as a model for other people in their exploration of the value and meaning of whatever they do. They can exhibit behaviours of personal growth and self-awareness if they have a commitment to the ongoing reflective practice.

To conclude, being a reflective leader is initiated through reflective practice. You can begin by being more fully present in every task in your daily life. This requires attending to verbal and nonverbal communication in your interaction with others, often inquiring and clearing up worries and being an attentive listener. You should further take your own experience into consideration together with the experience of other people and each assumption before making decisions. Only after these reflective practices can you establish a sense of mutual respect and sound relationships and see that other people are drawn to you and search for your compassionate consideration about any problem encountered. This transformative process followed will make advance on the way to becoming a reflective leader.

## **3. Reflective practice**

defensiveness of yours and that of other people and the inefficiency of your team for the sake of ensuring the impact of approach you use. So, a reflective learning community, in which reflection is an ideal way of support and learning, should be created by reflective leaders. In such a community, you provide a safe environment for self-expression, identify objectives, give feedback and stimulate self-observation. In defining the strengths of the individuals, you offer

*2.4.6. Which leadership processes enhance reflective leaders' powers and achieve success in other people?* First of all, peer reflection, which helps question assumptions, is one of the main means for reflective leaders to carry out with other reflective leaders. Peers are of paramount importance in clarifying our values. This process helps us build our and peers' strengths, compensate

To be able to achieve the task, effective leaders should form and maintain the teams in developing individuals. The aspirations can best be achieved if leaders can function in a collegial and collaborative ways by means of reflective practices, which initiate the process of perspective transformation. In other words, reflective leadership is considered to be transformative as long as it builds success in other people by reducing barriers while implementing leadership behaviours. Barriers, to a certain extent, are determined by means of reflection. They are regarded to be intrinsic to our human ego—strivings to achieve, to manage our situation and to compensate for our lack of confidence. The barriers can be reduced by deliberately reacting to what challenges us as a leader under different circumstances. Reflective leaders do that by having a deeper awareness of what sort of leader he/she wished to be, what sort human being is required and what sort of legacy is left by them. These choices direct leaders in how they take up daily leadership. That is to say that the way how leaders go about their day will determine ultimately whether they feel successful and rest with integrity and peace of mind

The rapid rate of changes in our age seems to be one of the biggest demands for leaders. The other striking demand is the need for new frameworks for leadership skills. Leaders can cope with those challenges as long as they can bring each individual to the table to model the future with strong collective dialogues and cooperative actions. Among the other reflective leadership skills, they should be able to manage conflicts, model an adaptive capacity and be efficient in establishing and maintaining relationships. As they are expected to be the cocreators of change, they should accept that any individual or circumstance cannot move out their individual peace or competency. Viewed in this light, they should be able to communicate those feelings to other people in a way that will encourage and enable them to clasp the future and partake in its formation. Ultimately, they should be able to act as a model for other people in their exploration of the value and meaning of whatever they do. They can exhibit behaviours of personal growth

and self-awareness if they have a commitment to the ongoing reflective practice.

To conclude, being a reflective leader is initiated through reflective practice. You can begin by being more fully present in every task in your daily life. This requires attending to verbal and nonverbal communication in your interaction with others, often inquiring and clearing up worries and being an attentive listener. You should further take your own experience into

other people optional approaches to be successful in their work.

34 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

weaknesses and search for better problem-solving approaches [19].

or not.

Managers and leaders focus upon events through an intellectual exercise in order to determine in what ways individual assumptions and beliefs together with their experiences and background impact organizational functioning. This is what we call reflective practice that inculcates the intellectual discipline needed to discern 'what is' in practice episodes as well as to engage in the self-growth necessary if one is to manage and lead others.

The success of reflective practice depends on learning. For reflective leaders, doing immerses learning. Being aware of what we have been doing does not always create learning as it is a purposeful endeavour. Approached from this angle, realizing the required role of reflection in taking out learning from experience and being aware of the essential principles of a reflective practice will let leaders begin to act on the conception that knowledge is planted in their experience and understand the significance of that knowledge in fostering their practice.

Through learning from experience, reflective practice aims to create a structure, habit or routine. So, a reflective practice can differentiate with regard to how much, how often and why reflection is carried out. Carrying out a reflective practice requires not only clearing the aims it needs to serve but also creating opportunities to install reflection into our activity that are down to earth and yet come about at the right intervals and with adequate depth to be meaningful. However, it is structured; sustaining a reflective practice will transform the probability of learning from our practice into an actuality.

Sergiovanni [20] classifies three distinct knowledge of leadership conceptions regarding the relationship between theory and practice: (1) there is no relation, (2) theory is superordinate to practice, and (3) practice is superordinate to theory (p. 7). People who adopt the first conception believe that professional practice in leadership relies solely on intuitive feelings disconnected from theory and research. People who put special emphasis on theory feel that leadership is an 'applied science' which can be prescribed by theoretical concepts, strategies and depictions. Believers of the last conception see leadership as a 'craft-like science' consisting of reflective practice not prescribed but informed by theory.

Since the first conception claims no relation between theory and practice, implication of leadership as no science makes no sense to many, and thus it did not find enough grounds to permeate. Unlikely, the theory-oriented conception of leadership as an applied science pervades throughout the literature on leadership. Its clear-cut linear fashion simplifies every decision to be made into steps and processes predefined in literature. When one has to end organizational conflicts, then there are models of conflict management. When some important decisions have to be made, there are decision-making processes that explain every step in detail. This tool-based approach to leadership has long lived for its feasibility, but when it was realized that the real life is more complicated that it cannot be predetermined to a degree which enables theory to make tools for every situation in leadership, then reflective practice seemed a more realistic way of generating professional knowledge that is different from scientific knowledge. It is different because professionals create it by crafting their intuitions once they encounter situations not defined by scientific knowledge unlike ones in applied science conception. Thus, the craft-like science conception distinguishes professional knowledge from scientific knowledge; the former is created on demand, while the latter is predetermined as a contingency. Reflective practice is about professional knowledge creation by 'deciding what to do. What purposes should be pursued? What strategies and practice should be used? What should be emphasized and when? In what ways should resources be deployed? How will we know we are on track, and so on' [20].

Another distinction implicit in our understanding is that scientific knowledge is prescribed by theory, while professional knowledge is informed by theory. It is informed by interacting elements of reflective practice: practice episodes, theories of practice and antecedents (p. 15). Practice episodes consist of intentions, actions and realities. Leader's priorities, preferences, strategies and decisions determine his or her intentions that impel actions in the form of leadership and management tactics and behaviours. After actions are performed, realities occur as results, outcomes and consequences. The realities further affect intentions and then actions in a loop which never ends (**Figure 1**). This infinite loop of practice episodes affects and is affected by theories of practice and leadership antecedents. Theories of practice are mental scenes of a leader's beliefs and assumptions about how things work in the real world. These are greatly affected by leadership antecedents especially by the theoretical knowledge antecedent. These mental images perform as mindscapes that govern leadership actions both consciously and unconsciously. 'A reflective mindscape is a perspective in which purposeful activity…is always subject to disciplined examination and re-examination using whatever resources are helpful' [21]. Theories of practice may arise from social interactions between leader and others or even from myths on how organizations work. 'The bundles of beliefs and assumptions about how organizations work, the role of power, authority, management, and leadership, the organization's purposes, the role of competition, and the nature of human nature' may evolve into theories [20]. Workplace is where leaders can best learn about their theories of practice. Therefore, a detailed explanation of these implicit theories cannot be made.

**Figure 1.** Elements of reflective practice [20].

At this point, we will focus on five key leadership antecedents, which play an essential key role in understanding the reflective practice. They are cultural milieu, theoretical knowledge, craft knowledge, self-knowledge and critical knowledge.

#### **3.1. Cultural milieu**

decisions have to be made, there are decision-making processes that explain every step in detail. This tool-based approach to leadership has long lived for its feasibility, but when it was realized that the real life is more complicated that it cannot be predetermined to a degree which enables theory to make tools for every situation in leadership, then reflective practice seemed a more realistic way of generating professional knowledge that is different from scientific knowledge. It is different because professionals create it by crafting their intuitions once they encounter situations not defined by scientific knowledge unlike ones in applied science conception. Thus, the craft-like science conception distinguishes professional knowledge from scientific knowledge; the former is created on demand, while the latter is predetermined as a contingency. Reflective practice is about professional knowledge creation by 'deciding what to do. What purposes should be pursued? What strategies and practice should be used? What should be emphasized and when? In what ways should resources be deployed? How will we

Another distinction implicit in our understanding is that scientific knowledge is prescribed by theory, while professional knowledge is informed by theory. It is informed by interacting elements of reflective practice: practice episodes, theories of practice and antecedents (p. 15). Practice episodes consist of intentions, actions and realities. Leader's priorities, preferences, strategies and decisions determine his or her intentions that impel actions in the form of leadership and management tactics and behaviours. After actions are performed, realities occur as results, outcomes and consequences. The realities further affect intentions and then actions in a loop which never ends (**Figure 1**). This infinite loop of practice episodes affects and is affected by theories of practice and leadership antecedents. Theories of practice are mental scenes of a leader's beliefs and assumptions about how things work in the real world. These are greatly affected by leadership antecedents especially by the theoretical knowledge antecedent. These mental images perform as mindscapes that govern leadership actions both consciously and unconsciously. 'A reflective mindscape is a perspective in which purposeful activity…is always subject to disciplined examination and re-examination using whatever resources are helpful' [21]. Theories of practice may arise from social interactions between leader and others or even from myths on how organizations work. 'The bundles of beliefs and assumptions about how organizations work, the role of power, authority, management, and leadership, the organization's purposes, the role of competition, and the nature of human nature' may evolve into theories [20]. Workplace is where leaders can best learn about their theories of practice. Therefore, a detailed explanation of these implicit theories cannot be made.

know we are on track, and so on' [20].

36 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Figure 1.** Elements of reflective practice [20].

As reflective practice is expected to be contextualized in work, it should not be considered separately from the cultural milieu together with the setting and purposes of organization. The cultural milieu includes the elements of educational background, social background, religious background, economic background and historical background, which plays a key role in shaping in what ways a person sees and interprets the outer world. This means that reflective practices will differentiate from individual to individual and from organization to organization and that companies will form different reflective practices that emerge from and further inform their backgrounds mentioned above.

On the other hand, reflective practice can occur through a visioning process or a bigger process of culture change or organizational change. Tucker and Russell [22] concluded that transformational leaders can have a major influence on organizational culture and change. As culture is a medium by means of which leadership travels and affects performance of the organization, reflective leaders play a key role in transmitting the culture that they believe will most augment organizational functioning.

#### **3.2. Theoretical knowledge**

The second antecedent of leadership is the theoretical knowledge, which consists of technical, cognitive and rational knowledge. It means that theoretical knowledge is factual in nature, based in scientific rationality. Reflective approach to leadership is important to the integration of theoretical knowledge, skill development and individualized contexts. The learning organization was often based on a systems theory that handled practice as a result of theoretical knowledge [23]. Professional learning communities, the name given to leaders' collaborative professional learning, have become so overused that the term's meaning is often lost. Only when leaders reflect on their practice based on their theoretical knowledge, consider the impact leadership has on workers and implement insights gained from a meeting to improve their leadership performance can this process be called a professional learning community.

#### **3.3. Craft knowledge**

Craft knowledge is believed to be implicit in practitioner; it provides the 'feel for' what one does [24] and manifests itself in the refined ability to interpret what is and to discern what ought to be and what one should do to get there. According to Kluge [25], knowledge management shows unique leadership challenges. 'From a leadership perspective, knowledge management has been viewed more like a craft and less like a science. Because of the very nature of knowledge, it is difficult for managers to predict what measures can really improve performance, and how to encourage and guide knowledge flows within an organization' [25]. The leaders, according to them, should presume the function of advancing leadership and knowledge in the organization. They should set the tone for the organization and demonstrate that knowledge together with its administration are carefully taken into consideration.

Leaders, from this standpoint of view, should signal a shift in tone when they ask their team to reflect on their learning. Reflective leaders help them realize that they can now look back rather than move forwards. They will take a break from what they have been doing, step away from their work and ask themselves, 'What have I (or we) learned from doing this activity?' Some leaders could use music to signal the change in thinking.

In the reflective settings, leaders could invite the teams to learn from their experiences orally or in written form. They ask them to reflect on their learning, to evaluate their metacognitive strategies, to compare intended with actual outcomes, to analyze and draw causal relationships and to synthesize meanings and use their learning in different and future events. Members of the team realize that they will not 'fail' or make a 'mistake', because these terms are broadly described. Nonetheless, reflective teams realize that they can learn from all their experiences and develop personal insight.

#### **3.4. Self-knowledge**

Self-knowledge, even though it is often neglected, enables a vital lens through which leaders could better understand, realize and interpret organizational reality and their position in it. It mainly includes self-awareness, self-understanding and self-management. Without selfknowledge, it is hard for the leaders to understand their weakness and strengths together with their super powers. It lets the best business builders walk the tightrope of leadership: projecting conviction while at the same time staying humble enough to be open to different ideas and opposite thoughts since it is an essential element for organizational functioning. To improve self-knowledge, we highly recommend reflective leaders to (1) observe yourself to learn, (2) keep testing and knowing yourself better and (3) be conscious of other people as well.

While building a team, self-knowledge is also a crucial factor as being aware of one's weaknesses together with strengths makes them a better recruiter and allocator of talent. In the meantime, you should also be an acute observer of others' weaknesses and strengths. Reflective teams consist of people who both understand and complement each other. Whenever you notice people developing a common goal by pursuing different ways, there is an implied feedback loop based on peers and systemic learning in that observation itself. Should you have the right complement of people as well as a supportive learning organization, it lets you look at yourself and other people.

That is called the leash of self-awareness: know, improve and complement thyself. They are the common sense principles even though they are not generally practised. In other words, people do not often commit to stand in the face of truth. Rigorous commitment, intellectual honesty and active truth seeking are sine qua non to any process of self-awareness.

#### **3.5. Critical knowledge**

The final antecedent of reflective practice is critical knowledge, which includes assumptions, beliefs and values. In other words, critical knowledge (sometimes called 'philosophical' or 'ethical' knowledge) is a conscious awareness of that which is of transcendent or ultimate value and which perjures beyond the individual. Reflective practice creates an opportunity for development for people holding leadership positions. If you want to manage a team, you should have a clear balance between technical expertise and people skills because this type of role is hard to play. Reflective practice gives an opportunity to leaders to re-evaluate what has been achieved and what improvements could be made.

knowledge in the organization. They should set the tone for the organization and demonstrate that knowledge together with its administration are carefully taken into consideration.

Leaders, from this standpoint of view, should signal a shift in tone when they ask their team to reflect on their learning. Reflective leaders help them realize that they can now look back rather than move forwards. They will take a break from what they have been doing, step away from their work and ask themselves, 'What have I (or we) learned from doing this activity?'

In the reflective settings, leaders could invite the teams to learn from their experiences orally or in written form. They ask them to reflect on their learning, to evaluate their metacognitive strategies, to compare intended with actual outcomes, to analyze and draw causal relationships and to synthesize meanings and use their learning in different and future events. Members of the team realize that they will not 'fail' or make a 'mistake', because these terms are broadly described. Nonetheless, reflective teams realize that they can learn from all their experiences

Self-knowledge, even though it is often neglected, enables a vital lens through which leaders could better understand, realize and interpret organizational reality and their position in it. It mainly includes self-awareness, self-understanding and self-management. Without selfknowledge, it is hard for the leaders to understand their weakness and strengths together with their super powers. It lets the best business builders walk the tightrope of leadership: projecting conviction while at the same time staying humble enough to be open to different ideas and opposite thoughts since it is an essential element for organizational functioning. To improve self-knowledge, we highly recommend reflective leaders to (1) observe yourself to learn, (2) keep testing and knowing yourself better and (3) be conscious of other people as well.

While building a team, self-knowledge is also a crucial factor as being aware of one's weaknesses together with strengths makes them a better recruiter and allocator of talent. In the meantime, you should also be an acute observer of others' weaknesses and strengths. Reflective teams consist of people who both understand and complement each other. Whenever you notice people developing a common goal by pursuing different ways, there is an implied feedback loop based on peers and systemic learning in that observation itself. Should you have the right complement of people as well as a supportive learning organization, it lets you look

That is called the leash of self-awareness: know, improve and complement thyself. They are the common sense principles even though they are not generally practised. In other words, people do not often commit to stand in the face of truth. Rigorous commitment, intellectual

The final antecedent of reflective practice is critical knowledge, which includes assumptions, beliefs and values. In other words, critical knowledge (sometimes called 'philosophical' or

honesty and active truth seeking are sine qua non to any process of self-awareness.

Some leaders could use music to signal the change in thinking.

and develop personal insight.

38 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

at yourself and other people.

**3.5. Critical knowledge**

**3.4. Self-knowledge**

As discussed earlier, reflection is the conscious and intentional examination of one's behaviour. Through this process, new understandings and appreciations may be acquired. Leaders should be an active reflector keeping their personal journals. When a difficult event takes place, they can often scribble in their journal to decanter their emotions and thoughts. Schön [4] described three processes to reflection—awareness of uncomfortable feelings or thoughts, followed by a critical analysis of experience, leading to the development of new perspectives. The phases are not necessarily linear and can involve both looking forwards and looking back.

To be able to explore mind-sets, we suggest here eight key principles to have a better understanding in our critical knowledge and reflective way of thinking:


Through these processes, it will be much easier to learn from colleagues; write downshifts in your awareness and in your sense of purpose. Ask yourself whether you are aware of things you have not noticed earlier, by virtue of any of these processes or practices. The possible responses you will have will contribute to your effectiveness as a leader; increase the capacity to lead change. When people are asked about the most effective leaders, they will talk about the extraordinary capacity of leader to listen. Listening is an essential cognitive skill for a leader. One might conclude from this that reflective practice begins within yourself, and it is a significant transformational leadership skill, which will help you notice and change the profound processes of thought.

#### **3.6. The models of reflective practice**

To make reflective practice more concrete, there are some models offered to leaders. A useful model that explains reflective practice is the ALACT model of Korthagen [26]. The model has continuous phases of action, looking back on the action, awareness of essential aspects, creating alternative methods of action and trial (**Figure 2**). A leader or manager does an action; judges how well he or she did the action; considers elements that attributed to success of the action or prevented the action to be successful, based on that judgement develops better ways of doing action; and finally tries the action in a better way. Note that the first and the last phases are the same. A sample implementation of this approach would be like this one [26]:

A: A mathematics lesson was given.

L: This lesson went fine. They were a bit noisier than usual, but I could control them all the same.

A: Ronnie was not present; that may have been a cause of the extra noise. In my opinion he is a kind of 'leader', and because he was always cooperative, the others cooperated too. Now that he wasn't there, the others didn't know how to behave. Yet they all worked well. Another cause may be that we started at 8:30, which is earlier than usual. The children hadn't blown off steam yet, but I wanted to start quickly all the same, for I had only 1 h.

Reflective Leadership: Learning to Manage and Lead Human Organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64968 41

**Figure 2.** The ALACT model of reflection [26].

**6.** Tackling creative endeavour: spend some time each day for some creative capacity such as writing poems, cooking, playing music, painting or sketching. These can rest our mind placing you in a flow state and enable significant perspectives to understand the world in

**7.** Reaching physical wisdom: to have a better reflection, you should devote to attempt in processes creating different understanding in your body. You may spend some time for some activities like playing golf, jogging, taking up skiing, woodworking or gardening

**8.** Discovering people who draw the best out of you: identify who in your life draws your best energies and in whose presence you are the one who you would like to be. Also identify what you have in common. Spend more time with those people who give you

Through these processes, it will be much easier to learn from colleagues; write downshifts in your awareness and in your sense of purpose. Ask yourself whether you are aware of things you have not noticed earlier, by virtue of any of these processes or practices. The possible responses you will have will contribute to your effectiveness as a leader; increase the capacity to lead change. When people are asked about the most effective leaders, they will talk about the extraordinary capacity of leader to listen. Listening is an essential cognitive skill for a leader. One might conclude from this that reflective practice begins within yourself, and it is a significant transformational leadership skill, which will help you notice and change the

To make reflective practice more concrete, there are some models offered to leaders. A useful model that explains reflective practice is the ALACT model of Korthagen [26]. The model has continuous phases of action, looking back on the action, awareness of essential aspects, creating alternative methods of action and trial (**Figure 2**). A leader or manager does an action; judges how well he or she did the action; considers elements that attributed to success of the action or prevented the action to be successful, based on that judgement develops better ways of doing action; and finally tries the action in a better way. Note that the first and the last phases are the

L: This lesson went fine. They were a bit noisier than usual, but I could control them all the

A: Ronnie was not present; that may have been a cause of the extra noise. In my opinion he is a kind of 'leader', and because he was always cooperative, the others cooperated too. Now that he wasn't there, the others didn't know how to behave. Yet they all worked well. Another cause may be that we started at 8:30, which is earlier than usual. The children hadn't blown off steam

same. A sample implementation of this approach would be like this one [26]:

yet, but I wanted to start quickly all the same, for I had only 1 h.

different ways.

40 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

courses.

best energies.

profound processes of thought.

**3.6. The models of reflective practice**

A: A mathematics lesson was given.

same.

C: The next time I will take more time.

Reflective questioning is another way of performing reflective practice. This model offers questions to be asked by reflective practitioners in three levels of reflective practice, which are descriptive, that is, theory-building, knowledge-building and action-oriented levels of reflection (**Table 1**). The levels are a type of reflection in action. Reflective leaders first describe the situation they are in and then move to scrutinize the situation to construct knowledge to be used in the action-oriented level of reflection. In this final level, questions to improve the consequences of the action are asked by the reflective leaders.


**Table 1.** Reflective questioning [27].

Gibbs' model of reflective cycle takes feelings into account when reflecting on and learning from experience. It starts with a brief description of an event and then feelings about the event are expressed (**Figure 3**). In the evaluation stage, value judgements are made for further analysis in the next stage to draw a personal understanding of the event. In the conclusion stage, insights into how behaviour affected the outcome of the event are developed. Finally, an action plan is developed to be used when encountered the same or similar event. The plan should constitute learned intuition of what a leader would do differently in the next time. This model is a type of reflection on action. A very good example reflection done by a leader using Gibbs' model can be read at [29]. Instructions about how to implement each stage are further detailed in **Table 2**.

**Figure 3.** Reflective cycle [28].


**Table 2.** Stages of reflective cycle [28].

Kolb's reflective model presents another circular approach to reflective practice (**Figure 4**). New knowledge is generated upon experience building on prior experiences and knowledge. The cycle starts with a concrete experience in which a person is actively involved. In the reflective observation stage, reviewing of what has been done and experienced takes place. The next stage is called abstract conceptualization that involves making sense of what happened by interpreting relations between events. The final stage of active experimentation is about testing implications of concepts, which are developed in the previous stage, in new situations.

Reflective Leadership: Learning to Manage and Lead Human Organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64968 43

**Figure 4.** Kolb's reflective model [30].

Gibbs' model can be read at [29]. Instructions about how to implement each stage are further

Description What happened? Don't make judgements yet or try to draw conclusions; simply describe Feelings What were your reactions and feelings? Again don't move on to analyzing these yet

Analysis What sense can you make of the situation? Bring in ideas from outside the experience to help you.

Kolb's reflective model presents another circular approach to reflective practice (**Figure 4**). New knowledge is generated upon experience building on prior experiences and knowledge. The cycle starts with a concrete experience in which a person is actively involved. In the reflective observation stage, reviewing of what has been done and experienced takes place. The next stage is called abstract conceptualization that involves making sense of what happened by interpreting relations between events. The final stage of active experimentation is about testing implications of concepts, which are developed in the previous stage, in new situations.

What was really going on? Were different people's experiences similar or different in important

What can be concluded, in a general sense, from these experiences and the analyses you have

What can be concluded about your own specific, unique, personal situation or way of working?

What are you going to do differently in this type of situation next time? What steps are you going

Evaluation What was good or bad about the experience? Make value judgements

to take on the basis of what you have learnt?

detailed in **Table 2**.

42 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Figure 3.** Reflective cycle [28].

Conclusions (general)

Conclusions (specific)

Personal action plans

ways?

**Table 2.** Stages of reflective cycle [28].

undertaken?

When implementing this cycle, it is recommended that leaders should consider five key issues as follows [31]:


#### **4. Conclusions**

Leadership is so complex that everything about it cannot be written in a handbook nor can be prescribed in the literature on leadership. So, how can new knowledge about leadership be generated when it is needed but not available at hand? Reflective leadership fills the gap between theory and practice by enabling leaders to construct their own theories of practice during, after and even before their actions. It teaches leaders how to catch fish instead of giving them fishes. It is a self-development tool and requires little mastery to use. We believe that this chapter is a good starting point for all leaders to acquire this mastery that paves the way for growing as reflective leaders who are self-efficient in creating and updating their own practice of leadership.

## **Author details**

Süleyman Davut Göker\* and Kıvanç Bozkuş

\*Address all correspondence to: gokersd@gmail.com

Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Education, Artvin Çoruh University, Turkey

## **References**


**Author details**

**References**

Süleyman Davut Göker\*

44 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

and Kıvanç Bozkuş

education. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2002;18(1):73–85.

mentation. Teaching and Teacher Education. 1995;11(1):33–49.

[4] Schön D. The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books; 1983.

[7] Senge P. The fifth discipline. New York: Doubleday/Currency; 1990.

[2] Dewey J. How we think. Boston: D.C. Heath; 1933.

terly. 1981;32(1):3–24.

Education. 2004;28(4):407–426.

Studies. 2003;40(5):1279–1303.

Theory, Culture & Society. 2000;17(3):26–54.

of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington; 2003.

logical Association; 1999.

2003;54(2):221–238.

Press; 2004.

Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Education, Artvin Çoruh University, Turkey

[1] Jay Johnson K. Capturing complexity: a typology of reflective practice for teacher

[3] Hatton N, Smith D. Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and imple-

[6] Mezirow J. A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education Quar-

[9] Cunliffe A. On becoming a critically reflexive practitioner. Journal of Management

[10] Johnson P, Duberley J. Reflexivity in management research. Journal of Management

[11] Lewin K, Gold M. The complete social scientist. Washington, DC: American Psycho-

[12] Adams M. The reflexive self and culture: a critique. British Journal of Sociology.

[13] Bourdieu P, Nice R. Science of science and reflexivity. Chicago: University of Chicago

[14] Lynch M. Against reflexivity as an academic virtue and source of privileged knowledge.

[15] Knapp M, Copland M, Talbert J. Leading for learning. Seattle, WA: Center for the Study

[5] Schön D. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1987.

[8] Argyris C. Reasons and rationalizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004.

\*Address all correspondence to: gokersd@gmail.com


**Provisional chapter**

## **Developing Leadership Resilience Through a Sense of Coherence Developing Leadership Resilience Through a Sense of Coherence**

Dee Gray Dee Gray

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64611

#### **Abstract**

Leadership resilience is something that is accrued through experience. Becoming resilient necessarily involves the negative side of leadership and is one in which the leader often manifests symptoms of work‐induced stress. When in this space, the leader often feels isolated, and the voice of the leader is quietened as few leaders are able to say they are afraid. This case study provides insight into one leader's journey, during which he was able to find his voice. In so doing he developed a sense of coherence, which enabled the leadership episode to become part of a broader narrative. The process was facilitated through a coaching relationship, one in which a resilience and Salutogenic model/process and interpretative phenomenological analysis was utilised.

**Keywords:** leadership, resilience, salutogenesis, sense of coherence, organisational change

## **1. Introduction**

This study explored ways in which to foster resilient leadership through the development of an emerging situational 'sense of coherence' (SoC) [1, 2], and a subjective self‐expression of salutogenesis [3]. Salutogenesis is the seminal work of Antonovsky [1], a renowned medical sociologist. The Salutogenic approach veers away from addressing perceived deficits, either in the person or the environment. Instead it shifts the gaze to a strengths‐based approach to becoming resilient, an approach that is familiar to coaching practice. The Salutogenic model Antonovsky developed has two key components, one is the SoC and the other is generalised resistance resources (GRRs). Antonovsky discovered that if people were able to develop an enduring SoC, they were able to survive stressful situations much better than their counter‐ parts [1, 2]. GRRs are all of the resources available to any of us at a given time, and help us to overcome life's challenges. Antonovsky realised that when people utilised their GRRs it

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

contributed to their resilience and enhanced their SoC. For the purposes of the study, resilient leadership was determined using Antonovsky's SoC theories of comprehension, management and meaning [1].

The workplace context in which the study took place was one of profound organisational change, and highlights the challenges faced leading an organisation during a time of restruc‐ turing and reducing resources. The study discusses the experiential process undertaken through a leadership coaching relationship, facilitated through a resilience and well‐being coaching model [4, 5]. The model and process were designed to enable individuals and teams to make sense of a stressful workplace environment, and develop their resilience to workplace stressors. This is made possible in part through the capture of personal data using a resilience pathway [5] that remains sterile until it is subjected to interpretation defined by human expe‐ rience [5]. Interpreting the pathway means becoming sensitive to workplace symptoms of ill health and lowered well‐being, (such as burnout, fatigue, malaise, depression, defensiveness and cynicism), which are as important as noticing a sense of purpose, esteem and motivation, and enable leaders to become proactive about managing workplace resilience.

The experience of leading through change can challenge the resilience of those in leadership roles, not least because there is an expectation, that the leader will have solutions to ease the turmoil of organisational change, and, that they as leaders will not succumb to burnout. The expectation is as much with the leader as with those following; it can therefore be demoralis‐ ing when the leader stumbles, and it is here where coaching can help leaders regain traction and a sense of direction.

Within a leadership coaching relationship, the coach facilitates a process where the direc‐ tion of travel includes celebrating even small successes (personal and organisational), and supports the coachee to develop independent resilience skills that will have a long‐lasting positive impact. Being a resilient leader is less about bouncing *forward* out of a situation. It is about inculcating a dynamic way of thinking, one that enables the leader to either manage a current issue in the same way but for a longer period of time, and/or through experience, find a workable solution that had become obscured from view. Leadership that incorporates a Salutogenic approach values adaptation to changing circumstances, the reframing of situ‐ ations to incorporate realistic and positive perspectives, and developing the ability to take something constructive from *all* learning experiences.

## **2. The study**

The study was facilitated through a leadership coaching relationship, contracted between the author (researcher/coach) and a senior executive manager (SEM) (coachee). The SEM had day‐to‐day leadership and management responsibility of a U.K. national charitable organisa‐ tion, and was tasked by the executive board with delivering a change agenda that included delivering an improved service with fewer resources. Scrutiny of the SEM performance by the executive board was intense but supportive. A developmental leadership programme was already being provided to all SEMs, but this was not addressing workplace stress. The provision of resilience and well‐being coaching to the SEM was intended to augment and align to existing provision [6].

Workplace coaching is a known OD/L intervention [7] and can enable individuals or teams to feel a greater sense of connection, commitment and collaboration [8, 9]. By itself, coaching is known to enhance leadership styles [10] and forms core components of many leadership development programmes. Coaching is also known to reduce stress and improve resilience [11–13], both of which are important during times of organisational transition [14]. Being resilient means not just recovering from setbacks, but learning from them, and using them to significant advantage [15]. Resilience can take a variety of forms [16]; however, having a positive mindset, which is inculcated through coaching, is a contributory factor in resilience development [11, 17]. Another significant advantage of coaching is that the positive effects of coaching are long lasting [7, 18], partially because coaching is known to facilitate a deep form of learning through neurological changes [5, 18]. The resilience and well‐being model used in this study was designed to bring about deep learning experiences [18, 19] through the development of a resilient positive mindset [20, 21].

#### **2.1. Study design**

contributed to their resilience and enhanced their SoC. For the purposes of the study, resilient leadership was determined using Antonovsky's SoC theories of comprehension, management

The workplace context in which the study took place was one of profound organisational change, and highlights the challenges faced leading an organisation during a time of restruc‐ turing and reducing resources. The study discusses the experiential process undertaken through a leadership coaching relationship, facilitated through a resilience and well‐being coaching model [4, 5]. The model and process were designed to enable individuals and teams to make sense of a stressful workplace environment, and develop their resilience to workplace stressors. This is made possible in part through the capture of personal data using a resilience pathway [5] that remains sterile until it is subjected to interpretation defined by human expe‐ rience [5]. Interpreting the pathway means becoming sensitive to workplace symptoms of ill health and lowered well‐being, (such as burnout, fatigue, malaise, depression, defensiveness and cynicism), which are as important as noticing a sense of purpose, esteem and motivation,

The experience of leading through change can challenge the resilience of those in leadership roles, not least because there is an expectation, that the leader will have solutions to ease the turmoil of organisational change, and, that they as leaders will not succumb to burnout. The expectation is as much with the leader as with those following; it can therefore be demoralis‐ ing when the leader stumbles, and it is here where coaching can help leaders regain traction

Within a leadership coaching relationship, the coach facilitates a process where the direc‐ tion of travel includes celebrating even small successes (personal and organisational), and supports the coachee to develop independent resilience skills that will have a long‐lasting positive impact. Being a resilient leader is less about bouncing *forward* out of a situation. It is about inculcating a dynamic way of thinking, one that enables the leader to either manage a current issue in the same way but for a longer period of time, and/or through experience, find a workable solution that had become obscured from view. Leadership that incorporates a Salutogenic approach values adaptation to changing circumstances, the reframing of situ‐ ations to incorporate realistic and positive perspectives, and developing the ability to take

The study was facilitated through a leadership coaching relationship, contracted between the author (researcher/coach) and a senior executive manager (SEM) (coachee). The SEM had day‐to‐day leadership and management responsibility of a U.K. national charitable organisa‐ tion, and was tasked by the executive board with delivering a change agenda that included delivering an improved service with fewer resources. Scrutiny of the SEM performance by the executive board was intense but supportive. A developmental leadership programme was already being provided to all SEMs, but this was not addressing workplace stress.

and enable leaders to become proactive about managing workplace resilience.

and meaning [1].

48 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

and a sense of direction.

**2. The study**

something constructive from *all* learning experiences.

#### *2.1.1. Methodology*

The methodology chosen for the study was that of interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) [22], selected partially because it facilitates the process whereby sense is made of the phenomena under study [22, 23]. In this instance the sense making process was applied to develop an understanding of leadership resilience, and was reliant on the contribution of both the coach (researcher) and coachee (SEM). Within IPA, the researcher's role incorporates one that strives to make sense of the participant's sense making, and in this way is one that lends itself readily to the multi‐faceted role that the researcher and coach inhabit. In order to gain a meaningful understanding of the lived experience, IPA utilises the knowledge of the researcher as an interpretative lens, so that researcher bias is identified and removed, the 'lens' is laid bare [24] and open to scrutiny throughout.

IPA values the voice of human experience, and resonates with coaching practice [25], which brings people to a place where they can find their voice again. The idiographic aspect of IPA [22] is actioned through the coaching/research process; a process which surfaces descriptions of leadership resilience as experienced by the coachee, and is made sense of within the coach‐ ing relationship [26].

#### *2.1.2. Method*

The method chosen for the study is one that aligns with IPA and is an in‐depth reflective case study [27]. As a purposeful sample [28] of one single case, it is representative of a senior leader experiencing and leading organisational change. Participation was facilitated through a one‐to‐one coaching relationship, utilising the resilience and well‐being coaching model/ process [4]. As a case study the results are non‐generalisable, but as an idiographic qualita‐ tive exploration of a real‐life situation, the study illuminates how the practical application of the resilience and well‐being model [5] contributes to what we know about developing resilient leadership.

The research questions that guided the study were:


#### *2.1.3. Data collection*

Data captured during coaching sessions was initially recorded on the resilience and well‐ being model. This was combined with field note observations and written in the form of reflective summaries sent to the coachee. The coachee was asked to reflect on the summaries, add comments and insights of his own, and confirm/disconfirm summaries for accuracy. The summaries formed reflective discussions undertaken at the beginning of each new coaching episode and between episodes via email, these facilitated sense making [26] of a maturing resilient leadership repertoire gained through a lived experience [29].

Data was collection over a 6‐month period through multiple sources, these included:


#### *2.1.4. Ethical considerations*

A full explanation of the study, and requirements for participation, was given at the beginning of the coaching relationship. Participation in the study was on a voluntary basis and could be withdrawn by the coachee at any time. The coachee was informed that participation in the study in no way affected his opportunity to access coaching. Confidentiality and anonym‐ ity were assured and opportunities to scrutinise, confirm and disconfirm data were offered throughout the study period. Permission was sought and given to disseminate findings.

#### *2.1.5. Data analysis*

Data analysis became a dual hermeneutic iterative process, with both coach and coachee reflecting on and interpreting data throughout the study period [23]. The lens with which the data was viewed included, *organisational stressors*, *response to stressors*, *ability to gain*/*regain*  *resilience traction* and *perceived challenges*/*opportunity*. Data coding was conducted by the author (coach) using the resilience and well‐being model as an analysis frame, and this required:


The emergent themes underwent scrutiny to ascertain researcher bias, this is different from the experiential lens with which a researcher may come to understand and explain certain phenomena, and amounted to looking for evidence that viewed the resilience and well‐being model/process as positively contributing to resilient leadership. The bias was bracketed [26], and dealt with by proactively looking for evidence where the model/process may not have contributed to resilient leadership; this activity was viewed positively in as much as ulti‐ mately it would enable innovation and improvement of the model/process. Identified themes and researcher bias were also the subject of peer review conversations with an academic coach colleague, and incorporated into reflective discussions with the coachee. Both practices contributed to validity, and the latter enabled the positing of theories regarding leadership resilience borne from direct personal (coachee) experience.

#### *2.1.6. The coaching/research process*

of the resilience and well‐being model [5] contributes to what we know about developing

• Will the resilient and well‐being model/process facilitate situational awareness of resilient

• Will the resilient and well‐being model/process develop coachee resilience to the extent

Data captured during coaching sessions was initially recorded on the resilience and well‐ being model. This was combined with field note observations and written in the form of reflective summaries sent to the coachee. The coachee was asked to reflect on the summaries, add comments and insights of his own, and confirm/disconfirm summaries for accuracy. The summaries formed reflective discussions undertaken at the beginning of each new coaching episode and between episodes via email, these facilitated sense making [26] of a maturing

that it can be explicitly included within his leadership repertoire?

resilient leadership repertoire gained through a lived experience [29].

Data was collection over a 6‐month period through multiple sources, these included:

• coaching notes that required the recording of resilience and well‐being statements

• in‐depth coaching summaries which the coachee scrutinised for accuracy and provided

• a coachee leadership narrative collated from the coachee's reflective responses (via email) to questions that required him to apply the resilience and well‐being model/process in

A full explanation of the study, and requirements for participation, was given at the beginning of the coaching relationship. Participation in the study was on a voluntary basis and could be withdrawn by the coachee at any time. The coachee was informed that participation in the study in no way affected his opportunity to access coaching. Confidentiality and anonym‐ ity were assured and opportunities to scrutinise, confirm and disconfirm data were offered throughout the study period. Permission was sought and given to disseminate findings.

Data analysis became a dual hermeneutic iterative process, with both coach and coachee reflecting on and interpreting data throughout the study period [23]. The lens with which the data was viewed included, *organisational stressors*, *response to stressors*, *ability to gain*/*regain* 

resilient leadership.

50 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

leadership?

*2.1.3. Data collection*

• observational field notes

• a reflective coaching journal

reflective feedback

*2.1.4. Ethical considerations*

practice

*2.1.5. Data analysis*

The research questions that guided the study were:

Establishing the coaching relationship and building trust is paramount in coaching practice, not least because the coaching/research process requires the coachee (research participant) to share their experiences of leadership resilience and well‐being. The process began with an explanation of what resilience and well‐being coaching is, and how the visual model that is part of the process, is used. The resilience/well‐being model was then utilised to capture coachee resilient leadership experiences on the resilient and well‐being pathway [5], which over time is populated with the lived experience descriptions of the coachee and represents a situational knowing of resilience.

This part of resilience and well‐being model/process was developed from the work of De la Vega [30], who realised that our primordial centre (best self) is something that we can drift away from, and as a result become isolated, less resilient and unwell. In order to return to who we really are as leaders, we need to take action to move back to our 'best self'.

Surfacing the 'leadership voice' was facilitated through a range of questions designed to elu‐ cidate situational awareness of resilience and well‐being. The process began by ascertaining where the coachee was on the resilience and well‐being pathway, and orientating the coachee towards his 'best self' space. In order to do this, the coachee had to surface what the 'best self' space meant to him in terms of his eudaimonic and/or hedonistic leadership journey. Questions that enabled the coachee to surface these memories included:

#### *2.1.6.1. Questions for primordial centre (best self)*


Responses to these questions vary, as there are lots of reasons why people work, and why people step forward to lead. Reasons can get lost in the chaos of organisational change, and revisiting them establishes a motivational 'best self' leadership goal.

#### *2.1.6.2. Coachee responses*

**1.** *Why? Why do I do I choose this? Sometimes I wonder whether it chose me. (laughs, looks down). Really? You really want to know?*

*Yes, I do.*

*OK. …..(pause) I feel a strong sense of belonging. I care about the environment, I care deeply. I feel that we learn from it, it should be part of our education and we should hold our classrooms here! We are custodians, and we are all connected in some way to planetary systems so we should protect it, we should ensure that our children are able to enjoy this and take their turn in looking after it. I am inspired by this place, and I want it to inspire others. This place is magnificent, I respect that and I want to find ways to communicate that and share that with others, to help them to see how important it is. I feel responsible for sharing this place in a way that is sustainable, so that harm isn't done and that people can benefit from being here. Too often the environment suffers, because we don't consider the impact we have on it. We drive our agendas and the world suffers. Somehow we can balance what we need with what the planet can give us. That is why I chose this work because it has purpose….a good purpose, perhaps I should talk more about the purpose of this more…use it to…communicate the vision.*

**2.** *Leadership….(laughs). Is that what I am a leader! I don't feel like one at times. …I certainly don't mind taking risks, I will try new things and I try to get my staff to do the same. I know my job title infers leader, and the leadership programme gives us all the speak and theories but you know I just think that we end up leading because of the lives we choose. I chose this work, I also chose promotion because I knew I could do more and if I am honest I also wanted to have more money as I have a growing family and need to provide for them. I also see us as contributing to the economy at a local level, so I believe I can bring financial stability not only to the organisation as we go through these changes but also to the area. The experience is a mixed blessing. Sometimes I do have the answers, I do know how to implement changes, I can bring the staff with me and when that happens…well ….I feel as though I am inspiring others, and that feels good, like everything fits. At other times…I am not who I think I should be, my purpose gets swamped by the overwhelm of uncertainty. I know*  *I have determination, some people say that is a nice way to describe stubbornness but I know the difference, and I am determined to do the best I can.*

**3.** *What do you mean….serves?*

towards his 'best self' space. In order to do this, the coachee had to surface what the 'best self' space meant to him in terms of his eudaimonic and/or hedonistic leadership journey.

Responses to these questions vary, as there are lots of reasons why people work, and why people step forward to lead. Reasons can get lost in the chaos of organisational change, and

**1.** *Why? Why do I do I choose this? Sometimes I wonder whether it chose me. (laughs, looks down).* 

*OK. …..(pause) I feel a strong sense of belonging. I care about the environment, I care deeply. I feel that we learn from it, it should be part of our education and we should hold our classrooms here! We are custodians, and we are all connected in some way to planetary systems so we should protect it, we should ensure that our children are able to enjoy this and take their turn in looking after it. I am inspired by this place, and I want it to inspire others. This place is magnificent, I respect that and I want to find ways to communicate that and share that with others, to help them to see how important it is. I feel responsible for sharing this place in a way that is sustainable, so that harm isn't done and that people can benefit from being here. Too often the environment suffers, because we don't consider the impact we have on it. We drive our agendas and the world suffers. Somehow we can balance what we need with what the planet can give us. That is why I chose this work because it has purpose….a good purpose, perhaps I should talk more about the purpose of this* 

**2.** *Leadership….(laughs). Is that what I am a leader! I don't feel like one at times. …I certainly don't mind taking risks, I will try new things and I try to get my staff to do the same. I know my job title infers leader, and the leadership programme gives us all the speak and theories but you know I just think that we end up leading because of the lives we choose. I chose this work, I also chose promotion because I knew I could do more and if I am honest I also wanted to have more money as I have a growing family and need to provide for them. I also see us as contributing to the economy at a local level, so I believe I can bring financial stability not only to the organisation as we go through these changes but also to the area. The experience is a mixed blessing. Sometimes I do have the answers, I do know how to implement changes, I can bring the staff with me and when that happens…well ….I feel as though I am inspiring others, and that feels good, like everything fits. At other times…I am not who I think I should be, my purpose gets swamped by the overwhelm of uncertainty. I know* 

Questions that enabled the coachee to surface these memories included:

revisiting them establishes a motivational 'best self' leadership goal.

*2.1.6.1. Questions for primordial centre (best self)*

*2.1.6.2. Coachee responses*

52 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

*Yes, I do.*

*Really? You really want to know?*

*more…use it to…communicate the vision.*

**1.** Can you tell me why you chose to do this work?

**2.** Can you tell me why you chose this leadership role?

**3.** Who do you work for? Who does your role serve?

*Not your employer, I mean the broader aspect of who your work serves*

*Ah, well like we have just been discussing, my work serves to educate others about protecting our resources so our children and grandchildren can take up the role in the future. If you take it from a local perspective we work with communities to share what we know about where we live, sometimes that can be quite scientific, sometimes it is pure history. Moving outwards… what we do impacts on other areas, on other businesses so we work with them and again share our ethos of sustainability. Moving outwards again, every time someone comes to visit they take away knowl‐ edge about what we do, so we can have a global impact. That way we are connected.*

#### *You say 'we'*

*Yes, we are all connected, that is the bigger picture. That is I guess the vision. Humm. I had lost sight of it. But that is it isn't it? That is who I am when I am being this 'best self' person you explained…..that is me when I am a leader. Well. I feel as though I have woken up and smelt the coffee!*


#### *2.1.6.4. Responses*


*It is not what I call the periphery, it is what you call the periphery. Perhaps you can tell me how you know you are away from being the 'best self' person, describe how it feels, physically and emo‐ tionally, tell me what you are doing…..*

**3.** *Right now I feel as though I have to fight for everything, fight for survival of the organisation, fight for jobs for the staff, fight for my own job. (gets up starts walking around the office)*

*I am fighting my corner. People say things to me and I know I am defensive but I feel under attack, and I don't feel as though I have the answers to the problems or at least it feels like the answers I have are not wanted. I am paranoid that I am not good enough. My vision doesn't fit with finance and I am fighting to sustain things in a way that is not harmful. Having said that my fighting is combined with retreat and I know I am hiding from some of my staff because I am afraid I can't deal with their fear….. it brings me further down. I ask them to do things, and some of them just don't get the precipice we are on so they don't do it, or do it half‐hearted so I vent, I shout at work. I shout at them, then I go home and I shout at home. (sighs)*

*It takes hours for me to calm down at home…, I am so so tired but paradoxically I can't sleep. It's like I am on alert with my head trying to figure things out all the time, but I can't, and it is like having two hands around my throat and I am being strangled. I can feel pressure on my chest. I am a drowning man. I am afraid'.*

While the underpinning Salutogenic approach shapes the whole coaching relationship, once the resilience and well‐being descriptions have been surfaced, the coachee is gaining an implicit SoC. This is because the process facilitates sense making of a situation that may have become obscured by symptoms of workplace stress. Antonovsky's [1] SoC model incorpo‐ rates three key components, which are:


Over the study period the three components were utilised in an explicit SoC process whereby the coachee was supported to comprehend, manage and find meaning [1] from his current workplace experiences. This facilitated a learned resourcefulness that enabled the coachee to identify GRRs that increased his sense of well‐being, and in turn contributed towards leader‐ ship resilience.

#### *2.1.7. Findings*

The coaching episodes interspersed over a 6‐month time frame, with dedicated actions and reflections on actions, brought the coachee to a leadership SoC. This extended to develop suf‐ ficient situational awareness of a resilient 'self', and the impact of 'self' on others.

*Being more focused on me and impacts others have on me…. Being more focused on others and the im‐ pacts I have on others has made a huge difference to my leadership. I now listen, listen, listen to people and watch them (kindly!) but intently.*

*Coachee*

Developing a SoC and locating GRRs that ameliorate the effects of workplace stress assist us with the return towards a 'best self' space. Over the study period the coachee was able to identify GRRs that increased his sense of well‐being. The GRRs he chose allowed him 'time out' or 'recovery', which is essential in fostering resilience.

*I always park in the far car park so I can walk in, it takes me about 10 minutes to do this. I like the walk in. The pace and being outside prepares me. So this is a GRR…right? I used to cycle a lot and I felt good, I was a lot lighter then too. I can see now that when I am stressed I stop doing this as I think I should spend even my own time working to sort out all that is happening. So I have got my bike out again, cycled 20 miles last night. After about 10 miles I had forgotten about work. My brain had a rest!*

*Coachee*

One GRR that many leaders find difficulty operationalising is connected to asking for help. This is because leaders often feel as though as '*Leader*' they should be providing all the solutions, yet asking for help contributes to resilience as it is part of being resourceful. The coach was able to develop this skill with very positive effect on his growing leadership resilience.

*Over the past few weeks there has been the realisation that my voice was not being heard within the SMT. Some of this is politics, some of it also has been about influencing people old and new within SMT. I have asked for help, as I always did, but now it has become much more of a dialogue. I needed support, I asked for it and ultimately now we are nationally supported in this issue. I have built allies within the board and without (some of these I suspect are still frail alliances) but I feel that when the SMT meets every week that I am no longer at the mercy of one or two individuals.*

*Coachee*

Leaders need to find their own resilient style, and by reflecting on his own emerging leader‐ ship resilience the coachee was able to identify with something that was a positive addition to his leadership repertoire.

*Being an anchor – this is a question I ask in all my encounters – 'Am I being an anchor'? This has helped a lot and kept me focused on the important things instead of constantly being drawn back into 'white noise' with individuals. There is so much chaos that I feel as though if I can be this for myself and others then we will weather the storm. It means I can stop and see who I am, am I leading my team on to the rocks, or am I holding them or myself back? I can identify with being an anchor as it means I stop to make sense of what is going on..and I can see where I am in terms of what number I am….and then do something about it.*

*Coachee*

#### *2.1.8. Discussion of findings*

*I am fighting my corner. People say things to me and I know I am defensive but I feel under attack, and I don't feel as though I have the answers to the problems or at least it feels like the answers I have are not wanted. I am paranoid that I am not good enough. My vision doesn't fit with finance and I am fighting to sustain things in a way that is not harmful. Having said that my fighting is combined with retreat and I know I am hiding from some of my staff because I am afraid I can't deal with their fear….. it brings me further down. I ask them to do things, and some of them just don't get the precipice we are on so they don't do it, or do it half‐hearted so I vent, I shout at work.* 

*It takes hours for me to calm down at home…, I am so so tired but paradoxically I can't sleep. It's like I am on alert with my head trying to figure things out all the time, but I can't, and it is like having two hands around my throat and I am being strangled. I can feel pressure on my chest. I* 

While the underpinning Salutogenic approach shapes the whole coaching relationship, once the resilience and well‐being descriptions have been surfaced, the coachee is gaining an implicit SoC. This is because the process facilitates sense making of a situation that may have become obscured by symptoms of workplace stress. Antonovsky's [1] SoC model incorpo‐

• Comprehension of the current situation—being able to understand the situation well

• Manageability of the current situation—having a locus of control—being resourceful and

• Meaning— finding meaning in what is happening/happened—believing there is a good reason for what is happening and that there remains a good reason to care about what

Over the study period the three components were utilised in an explicit SoC process whereby the coachee was supported to comprehend, manage and find meaning [1] from his current workplace experiences. This facilitated a learned resourcefulness that enabled the coachee to identify GRRs that increased his sense of well‐being, and in turn contributed towards leader‐

The coaching episodes interspersed over a 6‐month time frame, with dedicated actions and reflections on actions, brought the coachee to a leadership SoC. This extended to develop suf‐

*Being more focused on me and impacts others have on me…. Being more focused on others and the im‐ pacts I have on others has made a huge difference to my leadership. I now listen, listen, listen to people* 

Developing a SoC and locating GRRs that ameliorate the effects of workplace stress assist us with the return towards a 'best self' space. Over the study period the coachee was able to

*Coachee*

ficient situational awareness of a resilient 'self', and the impact of 'self' on others.

*I shout at them, then I go home and I shout at home. (sighs)*

*am a drowning man. I am afraid'.*

54 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

rates three key components, which are:

happens in the future

ship resilience.

*2.1.7. Findings*

enough to predict some future outcomes

*and watch them (kindly!) but intently.*

becoming resilient—having self‐determination

The aim of this study was to explore situational spaces [31] on the resilience and well‐being pathway, and by providing an opportunity for the leader's 'voice' to be heard [32, 33], develop our understanding of what it may be like for a leader to be in each space at a given time.

The research questions that guided the study were:


The resilient and well‐being model/process did facilitate situational awareness regarding leadership resilience, and was successfully used to construct descriptors that populated all of the resilience and well‐being spaces. The descriptors provided tangible positions that moti‐ vated the coachee to progress to an improved space and eventually towards becoming his 'best self'. The 'best self' was the ultimate goal, and movement towards this was facilitated through leadership goals embedded within each position. The effect of identifying the two polarised spaces was profound, the 'best self' space elicited a return to eudaimonic feelings of passion, belonging and purpose; the 'periphery' space descriptions surfaced emotions of fear, isolation and being out of control. In terms of leadership the periphery is likely to be a disruptive and distressing place to be, the impact on the leader and the organisation they were leading would be significant. It is in this space that the more severe psychobiological symptoms manifest [5, 34, 35], and where dysfunctional leadership contributes to chaos and disintegration.

The polarised spaces were the easiest to surface, the remaining pathway spaces are more nuanced and require discernment. Resilience and well‐being are not fixed states, and resil‐ ience can be eroded over time or by significant impactful events [5]. For example, during the ensuing months it emerged that the coachee himself was being bullied by a senior manager, this caused a fluctuation in his resilience and affected his performance so that he moved from his best self back towards the periphery. The coachee's emerging SoC; however, assisted with ameliorating the impact of bullying, as he was able to recognise previous similar behaviours, and was able to consolidate how he had learned from prior experience. This enabled him to continue to care about himself, his work and his colleagues, and by having a SoC was able to re‐activate GRRs (cycling) that supported his return to his leadership best self. In addition, the actions devised between coaching sessions, such as explicitly thanking staff, became part of the coachee's GRRs and brought the coachee into pro‐social behaviours that are indicative of resilience.

*I am thanking a minimum of three people every day; something I realise I do anyway; however what I did not realise I do is simply say thanks and move on (sometimes a bit too quickly), so I am now saying thanks and discussing why the thanks and what we can do next. Using thanks as an opener to a deeper dialogue over what went well, not so well, what would they do different next time – how can I help etc.*

#### *Coachee*

By explicitly revisiting how he was understanding, managing and finding meaning (SoC) during this leadership episode [23], the coachee began to embed a SoC mindset that has the potential to positively impact on his health and well‐being in the long term [2, 3]. The IPA methodology dovetailed with resilience and well‐being coaching so well that the 'voice' of the leader (coachee) who was struggling, spoke,

*Transitional change is tough. My mistake has been not accepting, or giving myself the permission to accept how hard it has been. It got the team down and eventually got me down. Change effects everyone and everything and has unexpected side effects. Do not change things lightly. Far better to carry out paced evolutionary change than having to re‐do an entire structure.*

*Coachee*

The resilient leadership goals, borne from his SoC, were aligned with the in‐house organisa‐ tional leadership programme, so that they contributed towards emotional leadership, com‐ munication and collaboration skills.

*Where am I now? Overall the outcomes to transitional change has been extremely positive – I have a great team who are keen and eager to perform, they want to actually be a team and importantly I had a say in their recruitment. It feels good.*

*Coachee*

The resilient and well‐being model/process developed the coachee's appreciation of the inherent stress of his leadership role, one in which his self‐perception shifted to one of resil‐ ience. The coachee remained *employed* in the same role, and still had to lead a difficult work‐ place transition, the crucial difference was the coachee possessed a more resilient mindset and had developed resilient leadership skills that would facilitate optimism, self‐efficacy and potency.

*As the leader, being the captain, is often or can at least often seem a lonely place. It challenges us leaders to face our demons and importantly make others do more and be more accountable. Through this process my team is stronger and I am stronger because of this – it will remind us how we really are as leaders… how we are and also what we can be.*

*Coachee*

#### *2.1.8.1. Lessons learned from the study regarding resilience and well‐being process*

The request made to the coachee to keep a reflective journal was fulfilled at best piece‐meal. Dedicating reflective time to write was not something that the coachee could commit to, ensur‐ ing that reflection remained part of the process was brought about through providing the coachee with detailed coaching summaries and asking him to feedback on their accuracy, and to add his thoughts post coaching session. In addition, reflection was prompted via specific ques‐ tions sent by email between sessions, asking the coachee to respond thoughtfully to incidents in work and how he related these to the resilience and well‐being model/process. Adapting the process in this way was less onerous and reduced chances of disengagement from the coachee.

### **3. Conclusion**

The resilient and well‐being model/process did facilitate situational awareness regarding leadership resilience, and was successfully used to construct descriptors that populated all of the resilience and well‐being spaces. The descriptors provided tangible positions that moti‐ vated the coachee to progress to an improved space and eventually towards becoming his 'best self'. The 'best self' was the ultimate goal, and movement towards this was facilitated through leadership goals embedded within each position. The effect of identifying the two polarised spaces was profound, the 'best self' space elicited a return to eudaimonic feelings of passion, belonging and purpose; the 'periphery' space descriptions surfaced emotions of fear, isolation and being out of control. In terms of leadership the periphery is likely to be a disruptive and distressing place to be, the impact on the leader and the organisation they were leading would be significant. It is in this space that the more severe psychobiological symptoms manifest [5, 34, 35], and where dysfunctional leadership contributes to chaos and

The polarised spaces were the easiest to surface, the remaining pathway spaces are more nuanced and require discernment. Resilience and well‐being are not fixed states, and resil‐ ience can be eroded over time or by significant impactful events [5]. For example, during the ensuing months it emerged that the coachee himself was being bullied by a senior manager, this caused a fluctuation in his resilience and affected his performance so that he moved from his best self back towards the periphery. The coachee's emerging SoC; however, assisted with ameliorating the impact of bullying, as he was able to recognise previous similar behaviours, and was able to consolidate how he had learned from prior experience. This enabled him to continue to care about himself, his work and his colleagues, and by having a SoC was able to re‐activate GRRs (cycling) that supported his return to his leadership best self. In addition, the actions devised between coaching sessions, such as explicitly thanking staff, became part of the coachee's GRRs and brought the coachee into pro‐social behaviours that are indicative

*I am thanking a minimum of three people every day; something I realise I do anyway; however what I did not realise I do is simply say thanks and move on (sometimes a bit too quickly), so I am now saying thanks and discussing why the thanks and what we can do next. Using thanks as an opener to a deeper dialogue over what went well, not so well, what would they do different next time – how* 

By explicitly revisiting how he was understanding, managing and finding meaning (SoC) during this leadership episode [23], the coachee began to embed a SoC mindset that has the potential to positively impact on his health and well‐being in the long term [2, 3]. The IPA methodology dovetailed with resilience and well‐being coaching so well that the 'voice' of the

*Transitional change is tough. My mistake has been not accepting, or giving myself the permission to accept how hard it has been. It got the team down and eventually got me down. Change effects everyone and everything and has unexpected side effects. Do not change things lightly. Far better to carry out* 

*Coachee*

disintegration.

56 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

of resilience.

*can I help etc.*

leader (coachee) who was struggling, spoke,

*paced evolutionary change than having to re‐do an entire structure.*

The case study offered the opportunity to capture and share the lived experience of a leader as coachee, during a leadership episode in which he was experiencing workplace stress. The study demonstrates how resilient leadership is born of a dynamic experience. In this instance 'dynamic form' takes a very practical interpretation, and means to represent the fluid changes in resilience and well‐being as experienced by leaders [4]. At an individual level, the resilience and well‐being model/process assists leaders to become situationally aware of their leadership resilience and by doing so encourages them to become proactive about improving it.

Through the development of a SoC, the coachee was able to define descriptors of his own resilience/well‐being, and in doing so re‐engage with his leadership 'best self'. The resilience/ well‐being model/process provides the wherewithal for leaders to be active contributors to their own and their colleague's resilience and well‐being. This may of itself go some way to prevent an organisational culture of learned helplessness [35] and move towards a focus of learned resilience and well‐being [36].

The case study has contributed to what we know about resilient leadership [37] by demon‐ strating that the leadership repertoire can be formerly supported to achieve resilience through a process of learning to develop a SoC [2], which in turn brings the leader towards their lead‐ ing 'best selves' [30]. The value of the study lies in the subjective self‐expression of leader‐ ship salutogenesis [3], and may also illuminate the relationship between workplace stress and impact on psychobiological states [3, 38–41].

## **Author details**

Dee Gray

Address all correspondence to: grays100@gmail.com

1 Grays, Caernarfon Wales, United Kingdom

2 Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, United Kingdom

## **References**


[8] Koffman, F., Senge, P. (2001). Communities of commitment: The heart of the learning organisation. In: Chawla, S. and Renesch, J. (Eds.): *Learning Organizations: Developing Cultures for Tomorrow's Workplace*. Portland: Productivity Press.

Through the development of a SoC, the coachee was able to define descriptors of his own resilience/well‐being, and in doing so re‐engage with his leadership 'best self'. The resilience/ well‐being model/process provides the wherewithal for leaders to be active contributors to their own and their colleague's resilience and well‐being. This may of itself go some way to prevent an organisational culture of learned helplessness [35] and move towards a focus of

The case study has contributed to what we know about resilient leadership [37] by demon‐ strating that the leadership repertoire can be formerly supported to achieve resilience through a process of learning to develop a SoC [2], which in turn brings the leader towards their lead‐ ing 'best selves' [30]. The value of the study lies in the subjective self‐expression of leader‐ ship salutogenesis [3], and may also illuminate the relationship between workplace stress and

[1] Antonovsky, A. (1979). *Health, Stress and Coping: New Perspective on Mental and Physical* 

[2] Antonovsky, A. (1987). *Unravelling the Mystery of Health–How People Manage Stress and* 

[3] Eriksson, M., Lindstrom, B. (2005). Validity of Antonovsky's sense of coherence scale: A systematic review. *Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health*. 59; 460–466.

[4] Gray, D., Burls, A., Kogan, M. (2014). Salutogenisis and coaching: Testing a proof of con‐ cept to develop a model for practitioners. *International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching* 

[5] Gray, D. (2016). Developing resilience and wellbeing for healthcare staff during diffi‐ cult organisational transition: The Salutogenic approach*. International Journal of Evidence* 

[6] Weick, K.E., Sutcliffe, K.M. (2007). *Managing the Unexpected: Resilient Performance in an* 

[7] Whitmore, J. (2009). *Coaching for Performance: Growing Human Potential and Purpose–The Principles and Practice of Coaching and Leadership* (4th ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

learned resilience and well‐being [36].

58 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

impact on psychobiological states [3, 38–41].

Address all correspondence to: grays100@gmail.com

2 Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, United Kingdom

1 Grays, Caernarfon Wales, United Kingdom

*Well‐being*. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

*Stay Well.* San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

*and Mentoring*. 12(2). pp. 14 – 40.

*Based Coaching and Mentoring.* 14(2). pp. 30‐47.

*Age of Uncertainty*. San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons.

**Author details**

Dee Gray

**References**


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60 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

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## **Leadership and Gender Differences—Are Men and Women Leading in the Same Way? Leadership and Gender Differences—Are Men and Women Leading in the Same Way?**

Cătălina Radu, Alecxandrina Deaconu and Corina Frăsineanu Cătălina Radu, Alecxandrina Deaconu and Corina Frăsineanu Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65774

#### **Abstract**

In this chapter, we aim to highlight the main gender differences in terms of leadership, to provide a critical comparative analysis, to discuss potential barriers that need to be overcome, and to find some ways of increasing organizational performance through a better leadership style. The focus will not be placed on the gender differences by themselves but on the ways these differences can positively influence the organizational performance. Our proposed chapter is mainly based on literature review as a methodology in its own right. Since literature review has revealed quite many divergent opinions, we also used questionnaires and interviews as data collection tools and we intend to present some of our results, without aiming to generalize all these results to different cultures. We cannot conclude that men's leadership skills are more powerful and more important than women's skills or vice versa, but it is clear that gender differences do exist and people should capitalize on them. We consider the word 'complementary' is better than the word 'different' when talking about leadership styles and that it is possible for leaders to develop a series of skills that are not necessarily traditionally linked to their own gender.

**Keywords:** leadership styles, gender, communication, motivation, femininity versus masculinity

## **1. Introduction**

Business ventures are currently facing all sorts of risks that seem to be endangering their very existence. There are economic, political, cultural, environmental, technological, and social challenges that force stakeholders, investors, employees, and state representatives to carefully analyse and project different strategic scenarios in order to sustain long-term business growth.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

When looking at the specialized literature concerning the business environment, the analyses are being conducted from different perspectives. Having said that, they do converge toward a universally shared opinion, which is that leadership decisively influences the day-to-day business activities and their results.

Therefore, it is obvious that there should be a vested interest in finding the correct answers to questions that focus on a leader's activities, their competencies, style behaviour, and personality, as many of the already conducted research offer valuable results, whether they are congruent or complementary. Some of these studies show that without a willingness to lead, without a commitment toward the company's mission and vision, and without integrity, the notion of authentic leadership simply does not exist in a business environment [1, 2]. That is why, when choosing or preparing future leaders, there is a need to:


Over the past few years, there have been quite a lot of careful, diverse studies regarding the leadership concept. Often, it is analysed alongside the gender characteristics, which further reveal some interesting tendencies in the future of the business world.

As far as we are concerned, in this present chapter, we wanted to delve into the potential relationship between gender and leadership style, while also looking for an answer to the following question: 'Are Men and Women Leading in the Same Way?' We wanted to highlight the main gender differences, to provide a critical comparative analysis, to discuss potential barriers that need to be overcome, and to find some ways of increasing organizational performance through a better leadership style.

Leadership is contextual, as people's individual and organizational characteristics lead to particular perceptions and behaviours. Therefore, we should not expect to find the best way of dealing with people. However, we are interested in finding a series of elements that might lead to a leader profile that is able to influence the business environment in a positive manner. Therefore, the focus in this chapter will not be placed on the gender differences by themselves but on the ways these differences can positively influence the organizational performance. Actually, one of the main ideas that should be stressed right from the beginning is that we agree with the viewpoint of existing two different leadership styles—masculine and feminine—, but it is also important to add that the differences are not a result of the gender by itself and in fact refer to human traits that are only traditionally attributed to men and/or women.

Our opinions take into account not only many of the viewpoints expressed in the specialized literature but also the results of our own research, which was conducted over the past 2 years, through a survey and interviews with responsible factors in the Romanian business environment.

## **2. The evolution of women's managerial careers**

When looking at the specialized literature concerning the business environment, the analyses are being conducted from different perspectives. Having said that, they do converge toward a universally shared opinion, which is that leadership decisively influences the day-to-day

Therefore, it is obvious that there should be a vested interest in finding the correct answers to questions that focus on a leader's activities, their competencies, style behaviour, and personality, as many of the already conducted research offer valuable results, whether they are congruent or complementary. Some of these studies show that without a willingness to lead, without a commitment toward the company's mission and vision, and without integrity, the notion of authentic leadership simply does not exist in a business environment [1, 2]. That is

• **Evaluate the people's desire to lead and favour a self-reflection process** that will offer them answers to questions such as: what do you feel when others are interested in finding out your opinions? During a project, do you like asking your teammates challenging questions? Do you enjoy helping the members of your team finish their tasks on time and in good conditions? How do you value personal interests versus the team's ones? Can you enable an authentic team spirit when working with other people? Do you feel comfortable when other people take your ideas and put them into practice? Do you enjoy helping others to improve their skills and assuming a coaching/mentoring role? When personal conflicts arise, would you rather sort them out within the team, or do you let them continue? What are your feelings when noticing someone else being successful? Can you have a productive discussion when the others are disagreeing with your opinion? Do you see your team's problems as your own? Do you enjoy generating ideas and sharing them with your group?

• **Evaluate the leader's commitment to the company's mission and vision**. It is hard to imagine how you can convince others to give their best when attempting something that you, as the leader, don't put a real faith in. Certainly, with careful observation, we can notice the fact that, not by accident, the first company leaders were actually the ones who created the company. The founding leaders had a mission and a vision regarding the purpose of their organization, their customers, and the changes that they will create in their belonging industry. They took risks and made personal sacrifices before their company has become a successful one. They hired the first leaders from within the company, trained and groomed them, taught them what to do and how to behave. These leaders, in turn, carried on the same process until the human hierarchies were created in order for the company to fulfil its mission and vision.

• **Evaluate integrity**. That means that a leader's actions should be in line with his/her words, he/she should behave according to his/her team's expectations, to be authentic and express the expectations he/she has from his/her colleagues and teammates. Although that does not sound very difficult, reality shows that these sorts of promises are not all that easy to keep. In fact, it is quite challenging for people to keep their word and be an example, espe-

Over the past few years, there have been quite a lot of careful, diverse studies regarding the leadership concept. Often, it is analysed alongside the gender characteristics, which further

cially when under a great amount of stress.

reveal some interesting tendencies in the future of the business world.

why, when choosing or preparing future leaders, there is a need to:

business activities and their results.

64 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Before speaking about women's leadership, we thought it would be useful to analyse women's relationship with their own career paths, as it was presented in several recent studies conducted all over the world.

In the past few years, women have increasingly expressed their desire to develop their careers, while the percentage of working women has also increased. At the same time, there have been favourable changes with regard to their presence in domains in which, till not long ago, women were accessing with difficulty.

A recent survey conducted by the ILO's Bureau for Employers' Activities (ACT/EMP) (2013) among around 1300 private sector companies in 39 developing countries showed the extent to which the companies have policies and measures in place to promote women in management [3]. And these policies were not created only as a result of a need for minimizing the problems created due to gender discrimination. They are, instead, based on an increasing and extremely important awareness that women have great results in the organizations they lead. That explains the conclusion of a study made by Catalyst (conducted in 2008), according to which the percentage of women in managerial positions has seen a constant increase from 13.8% in 1950 to 26.1% in 1980 and to more than 50% nowadays [4, 5].

Still, it should be noted that, in reality, when women are part of management, they usually find themselves in the middle of the pyramid and rarely at the top [6]. They are underrepresented in the well-paid job sector and it will take some time until this imbalance changes. Furthermore, there is still a considerable gap between men and women earnings [7]. In addition, even if some authors advanced the idea that women and men are equal from the point of view of education in many occupational fields [8], US Bureau of Labor Statistics still shows that women obtain only 80% of men's incomes [9]. This inequality affects women at various professional levels. At a high level, women are less preferred for the managerial and professional positions and for the positions involving decision-making regarding the policy of the company [8, 10].

On a global level, women's involvement in the management structures is shown in **Table 1**. The results indicate that in just four countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway and United Kingdom) women represent over 20% of board members; in 13 countries, between 10% and 20%; in 14 countries, between 5% and 10%, and in 13 countries, <5%.

We can also look at the percentage of men and women in management positions in different sectors, as shown in **Table 2**.

It is quite easy to observe that women are a large percentage of management in the HR, Public Relations and Communications; there is quite a balanced approach in the Finance and Administration departments, whereas women represent a minority in the Research and Development of new products and especially in Sales and Operations. The f also shows a strong imbalance for women when looking at the General Manager position.


**Table 1.** Percentage of board seats held by women, 2013, Catalyst Inc. Knowledge Center [11].

This sort of gender difference can be traced back to the education system. If we look at the young people's options in terms of University degrees and their trends, we can predict future


trends. In **Figure 1**, we can look at some key information regarding graduate distribution in countries all over the world.

the well-paid job sector and it will take some time until this imbalance changes. Furthermore, there is still a considerable gap between men and women earnings [7]. In addition, even if some authors advanced the idea that women and men are equal from the point of view of education in many occupational fields [8], US Bureau of Labor Statistics still shows that women obtain only 80% of men's incomes [9]. This inequality affects women at various professional levels. At a high level, women are less preferred for the managerial and professional positions and for the positions involving decision-making regarding the policy of the company [8, 10]. On a global level, women's involvement in the management structures is shown in **Table 1**. The results indicate that in just four countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway and United Kingdom) women represent over 20% of board members; in 13 countries, between 10% and

We can also look at the percentage of men and women in management positions in different

It is quite easy to observe that women are a large percentage of management in the HR, Public Relations and Communications; there is quite a balanced approach in the Finance and Administration departments, whereas women represent a minority in the Research and Development of new products and especially in Sales and Operations. The f also shows a

> France MK China Kuwait Germany Indonesia Oman Israel Ireland Portugal Netherlands Italy Qatar

Poland Malaysia Rep. of Korea South Africa Mexico Russia Turkey New Zealand Saudi Arabia Switzerland Singapore Taiwan USA Spain UAE Thailand

This sort of gender difference can be traced back to the education system. If we look at the young people's options in terms of University degrees and their trends, we can predict future

**Table 1.** Percentage of board seats held by women, 2013, Catalyst Inc. Knowledge Center [11].

20%; in 14 countries, between 5% and 10%, and in 13 countries, <5%.

strong imbalance for women when looking at the General Manager position.

**>20% 10–20% 5–10% <5%** Finland Australia Belgium Bahrain Norway Austria Brazil Chile Sweden Canada China India United Kingdom Denmark Greece Japan

sectors, as shown in **Table 2**.

66 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Table 2.** Percentage of companies with women and men in different types of management, International Labour Organization [3].

As it can be seen from **Figure 1**, the positive evolution that has been recorded over the past few years in terms of an increased involvement of women in business and management did not create a perfect overall balance. So, it is obvious that we should expect a continuous future acceleration of this phenomenon.

We have presented this situation not only in order to characterize a certain facet of the current business environment but also to show that women's presence, scarce as it is, has allowed specialists to observe the way in which they behave in leadership roles, as well as their competencies and potential in that sort of position. We did not expect to see big percentages of women as leaders. We also consider that gender stereotypes are still part of global culture and are a big reason for this current situation because this results also from practice and other studies [12].

The feeling that we are unable to actively help solving this gender imbalance in leadership positions is certainly not a very comfortable one, which is why we thought it would be useful to redistribute some opinions that validate the results of women as leaders. In our opinion,


**Figure 1.** Increase in percentage of graduates in engineering, manufacturing, and constructions who are women, selected countries, 2000–2012, International Labour Organization [3].

it is quite revealing that, according to many analyses, employees view female leaders better than male ones in several characteristics regarding transformational leadership (charisma, motivational skills, creativity, problem solving, and several other key skills that show leadership efficiency) [13–15]. Furthermore, Eagly has evidenced that, according to research, teams with a female leader are more willing to make an extra effort, are more satisfied with their leader and their teams are in many cases more efficient when compared with teams with a male manager. All the information currently at our disposal regarding women's ability to act as efficient leaders still does not answer this question: how is there still so much data showing a serious discrepancy between genders in terms of leadership, when women leaders are currently viewed much better by the management than they were previously, perhaps even better than their male counterparts? This paradox seems to be a reflection of our current historical context and proves that, despite the fact that the social roles of women are rapidly changing, there is still a traditional cultural expectation which continues to be the norm [14].

## **3. Challenges in the evolution of women's careers**

**Figure 1.** Increase in percentage of graduates in engineering, manufacturing, and constructions who are women, selected

countries, 2000–2012, International Labour Organization [3].

68 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Keeping all these information in mind, all we need to do is take a look at the barriers, which are slowing down the evolution of women's careers. Some of these challenges refer to the women role in families and in society as a whole. Moreover, there are just a few role models for women, and masculine corporate cultures are still the norm in many cases. Women are the ones who take most of the family responsibilities and it is hard to find some flexible work solutions. While gender equality policies are generally in place, they are not properly implemented and there is an inherent bias in recruitment, selection, and promotion. Stereotypes against women and discrimination can lead to real problems (which have totally different dimensions depending on the culture) [3]. No matter the diversity of potential barriers for women as leaders, they could be grouped into two main categories: work-family challenges and discrimination.

There are also other barriers keeping women from accessing the top management level, which basically reflect some general psychological differences between the two genders [16, 17]. As women are more emotionally driven than men, they tend not to act in an authoritarian manner, and in many cases, it is hard for them to use imperatives and to show disapproval, when it is the case. They are less aggressive than men and tend to involve personally, to smile more, but also to give credit to other people for their own success. As a plus, they are generally available when people need them, as they prefer to invest their time in building relationships.

'Glass cliff' is also a concept that has been used quite often in the recent literature. It refers to the idea of choosing women for leadership positions associated rather with deteriorating than with increasing their performance, whereas the opposite is found in the case of men (who are rather chosen for leadership positions associated with increasing and not with decreasing performance) [18, 19]. According to the authors who identified this phenomenon, the glass cliff should appear especially in the case of a masculine industry and/or culture and this could happen due to gender stereotypes. However, a recent study does not support this theory, after a research on a highly masculine IT setting in Turkey [20]. There are also many other studies that support or reject the hypothesis of the glass cliffs and for sure this could be further explored [16, 21]. In our opinion, results will always be contextual, as it depends on a lot of variables: feminine/masculine culture, field of activity, team structure (gender, age, occupation, and previous experience), and so on.

## **4. Feminine leadership versus masculine leadership**

If we compare male and female leaders, we can see that it is an ever-evolving situation. There are some female principles and characteristics (such as using their intuition in the decisionmaking process, being careful, getting a good work-life balance, and social responsibility), as being in tune with the basic cultural hypotheses with regard to the way men and women think and act [22].

In general, women are better equipped for motivation (they are energetic and enthusiastic), communication (they make sure that their employees are well informed), feedback (they update their team in terms of their performance), and aspirations (they set high goals). Men are better at tradition (building knowledge based on past experience), innovation (they are open to new ideas and are willing to take chances), strategy (seeing the big picture), being calm (they tend to keep their emotions in check), delegating (they assign objectives and responsibilities), cooperation (they are good teammates), and persuasion (they sell ideas and win people over).

Furthermore, women tend to be better evaluated in terms of empathy (showing good people management skills and their needs by establishing a strong connection with their team) and communication (by establishing clear demands from others, expressing their thoughts and ideas clearly, and by keeping a solid communication flow) when compared to men [23]. Also, women are better qualified in terms of people skills (sensitivity toward others, being kind, having good listening skills, and developing efficient relationships with their team and their superiors). Contrary to popular belief, women have great results on the leadership scale, which measures their focus on production (women have a great interest in achieving their goals; they have high expectations both from themselves and their colleagues). Men tend to get good results on scales that evaluate the focus on strategic planning and the overall company vision.

We all know that at the beginning of this century, the professional activity was totally different from the reality nowadays. There was no discussion upon flexibility and innovation as phenomena characterizing the global economic conditions and there were no such fast changes in technology. Cameron calls these transformation changes in the culture of Anglo-American capitalism and associates them with the passage to the norms of traditional interaction (aggressiveness, competitiveness, and individualism) to a new leadership style focused on flexibility, team work, and collaboration in problem solving [24].

Traditionally, the most appreciated leadership characteristics were masculine in their nature. Yet, in the past years, the researchers have shown that many of these traits (assertiveness, individualism, and task orientation) did not always contribute to the efficacy of leadership. Instead of the leadership theory centred on The Great Man, the transformational leadership has emerged, and its efficiency is supported by more and more researchers [14]. It is interesting that many of the traits of the transformational leadership (such as collaboration and empowerment) are associated traditionally with women, which illustrates that many feminine features contribute to the leadership efficacy. Fortune 500 showed how the companies with many female managers have a much higher average productivity of their own capital in comparison with the companies with few female managers [25]. Despite this information, female leaders still deal with many disadvantages. Often, people tend to attribute their success as leaders to some external rather than internal factors and avoid placing them on leadership positions [16].

theory, after a research on a highly masculine IT setting in Turkey [20]. There are also many other studies that support or reject the hypothesis of the glass cliffs and for sure this could be further explored [16, 21]. In our opinion, results will always be contextual, as it depends on a lot of variables: feminine/masculine culture, field of activity, team structure (gender, age,

If we compare male and female leaders, we can see that it is an ever-evolving situation. There are some female principles and characteristics (such as using their intuition in the decisionmaking process, being careful, getting a good work-life balance, and social responsibility), as being in tune with the basic cultural hypotheses with regard to the way men and women

In general, women are better equipped for motivation (they are energetic and enthusiastic), communication (they make sure that their employees are well informed), feedback (they update their team in terms of their performance), and aspirations (they set high goals). Men are better at tradition (building knowledge based on past experience), innovation (they are open to new ideas and are willing to take chances), strategy (seeing the big picture), being calm (they tend to keep their emotions in check), delegating (they assign objectives and responsibilities), cooperation (they are good teammates), and persuasion (they sell ideas and

Furthermore, women tend to be better evaluated in terms of empathy (showing good people management skills and their needs by establishing a strong connection with their team) and communication (by establishing clear demands from others, expressing their thoughts and ideas clearly, and by keeping a solid communication flow) when compared to men [23]. Also, women are better qualified in terms of people skills (sensitivity toward others, being kind, having good listening skills, and developing efficient relationships with their team and their superiors). Contrary to popular belief, women have great results on the leadership scale, which measures their focus on production (women have a great interest in achieving their goals; they have high expectations both from themselves and their colleagues). Men tend to get good results on scales that evaluate the focus on strategic planning and the overall com-

We all know that at the beginning of this century, the professional activity was totally different from the reality nowadays. There was no discussion upon flexibility and innovation as phenomena characterizing the global economic conditions and there were no such fast changes in technology. Cameron calls these transformation changes in the culture of Anglo-American capitalism and associates them with the passage to the norms of traditional interaction (aggressiveness, competitiveness, and individualism) to a new leadership style focused

Traditionally, the most appreciated leadership characteristics were masculine in their nature. Yet, in the past years, the researchers have shown that many of these traits (assertiveness,

on flexibility, team work, and collaboration in problem solving [24].

occupation, and previous experience), and so on.

think and act [22].

70 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

win people over).

pany vision.

**4. Feminine leadership versus masculine leadership**

Some authors showed that increasing the number of female leaders has been accompanied by changes of theory and practice in leadership [15]. They also specify that the most modern characterization of an efficient leadership found in the literature and in mass media is heavily based on the characteristics considered to be feminine. At the same time, they state that if the leadership roles belong to more women and/or are perceived feminine attributes, we will continue to see a serious cultural change. It is a real success that many analyses emphasize the fact that employees position female leaders better than male leaders in more traits of the transformational leadership (charisma, ability to motivate the employees, and creativity in problem solving) [13–15]. Moreover, these characteristics of leadership are considered a real support for the efficacy of leadership. Subordinates of some of the female leaders are more willing to make supplementary effort, are more satisfied with their leaders, and are more efficient competitively in comparison with the subordinates of male leaders. It was also observed that women work harder than men in the same position, and this difference is explainable by the strict standards and exigencies manifested toward women [26].

Various papers published on this topic develop and compare the feminine leadership with the masculine leadership. The feminine leadership style was called social-expressive, with personal attention paid to subordinates and with focus on a good work environment; by contrast, the masculine leadership style was described as an instrumental one, focused on giving directions. Helgesen is one who made researches that led to the identification of the differences between the masculine and feminine leadership styles [27]. The works of Hofstede are also very well known at the international level and actually femininity versus masculinity is considered an important cultural dimension. Human traits that are generally attributed to men are more present in some cultures, whereas the ones generally attributed to women appear in other cultures. For example, in a more masculine culture, like the American one, it is expected that in CVs, people's works are presented in superlative terms, as they feel the need to show their qualities and sometimes even more. For people living in a masculine culture, it is important to win, to have recognition, to be promoted, and to accept challenges. On the contrary, in Holland, we should meet more modesty, as there is a feminine culture. People value relationships and cooperation and generally think that work safety is more important than challenges [28].

Is feminine leadership a solution for modern organizations? In order to answer this question, we took, as our starting point, the opinions of Kouzes and Posner and conducted a research based on the list of the 10 descriptors included in the Checklist of Admired Leaders: Ambitions, Caring, Competent, Determined, Forward-looking, Honest, Imaginative, Inspiring, Loyal, and Self-controlled [29]. In conducting this research, we have taken the following steps: Step 1: Preparing the research. During this stage, we formulated the goal of the research, we chose the research method, and we built the instrument we needed to conduct it. Also, we defined the respondent group, while also formulating the research hypotheses. Step 2: Conducting the research. During this stage, the research was launched and the respondents' opinions were gathered. Step 3: Interpreting the results, verifying that the objectives were completed, and validating the work hypotheses that were initially formulated.

We have taken into consideration the continued development of new businesses, organizational structures, and operational and managerial processes. Many of today's companies are lean, dynamic, and adaptable, which is essential, especially with employees who have different expectations, motivations, and skills than the ones from previous generations. It seems obvious that a successful leader for these types of companies ought to have a different profile from the traditional one.

In order to collect the data, we have constructed a questionnaire consisting of two parts: Part 1, composed of questions referring to personal information: age, gender, field of work, professional status (manager/non-manager) and Part 2, in which respondents are invited to establish the relationship between, on the one hand, the leadership characteristics as seen by Kouzes and Posner and, on the other hand, the gender of a successful leader (in other words, they were asked to assign each characteristic to a gender: masculine, feminine, or they could consider to be neutral). Then, the respondents were asked to order these characteristics on a scale of 1–10, based on their importance to a successful leader.

After analysing the resulted data, we have noticed that descriptors such as Ambitious, Caring, Honest, Imaginative, and Loyal are mainly associated with a female style of leadership, whereas descriptors like Competent and Forward looking tend to be associated with a male style of leadership. We have also noticed the fact that there is no clear answer when looking at the Determined, Inspiring, and Self-controlled descriptors, which means that these concepts are generally equally attributed to male and female leadership.

This research has also helped us observe how people's perception of a successful leader varies when the respondent is a manager or not, male or female, and when they belong to a certain generation (Baby boomers, X or Y). Indeed, the respondents' opinion influenced their preference for several key female leadership characteristics: non-manager respondents said that they appreciated descriptors such as Honest, Imaginative, and Caring more (35% versus 15%). As far as the generation differences are concerned, they were also clearly visible: for people from Generation Y, characteristics such as Imaginative, Ambitious, Honest, Inspiring, and Determined are more valued, which suggests the fact that, over time, there have been changes in mentality that favour the women's style of leadership.

The research has also given us a lot of signals indicating that successful leadership is no longer solely attributed to men and we anticipate that there will be further important changes in the approach based on the social and cultural evolution of our times. For this reason, we will keep following the articles and studies written on this subject and we will analyse the opinions of as many employees from the business environment as possible.

## **5. In search of 'The Best' leadership**

Self-controlled [29]. In conducting this research, we have taken the following steps: Step 1: Preparing the research. During this stage, we formulated the goal of the research, we chose the research method, and we built the instrument we needed to conduct it. Also, we defined the respondent group, while also formulating the research hypotheses. Step 2: Conducting the research. During this stage, the research was launched and the respondents' opinions were gathered. Step 3: Interpreting the results, verifying that the objectives were completed, and

We have taken into consideration the continued development of new businesses, organizational structures, and operational and managerial processes. Many of today's companies are lean, dynamic, and adaptable, which is essential, especially with employees who have different expectations, motivations, and skills than the ones from previous generations. It seems obvious that a successful leader for these types of companies ought to have a different profile

In order to collect the data, we have constructed a questionnaire consisting of two parts: Part 1, composed of questions referring to personal information: age, gender, field of work, professional status (manager/non-manager) and Part 2, in which respondents are invited to establish the relationship between, on the one hand, the leadership characteristics as seen by Kouzes and Posner and, on the other hand, the gender of a successful leader (in other words, they were asked to assign each characteristic to a gender: masculine, feminine, or they could consider to be neutral). Then, the respondents were asked to order these characteristics on a

After analysing the resulted data, we have noticed that descriptors such as Ambitious, Caring, Honest, Imaginative, and Loyal are mainly associated with a female style of leadership, whereas descriptors like Competent and Forward looking tend to be associated with a male style of leadership. We have also noticed the fact that there is no clear answer when looking at the Determined, Inspiring, and Self-controlled descriptors, which means that these concepts

This research has also helped us observe how people's perception of a successful leader varies when the respondent is a manager or not, male or female, and when they belong to a certain generation (Baby boomers, X or Y). Indeed, the respondents' opinion influenced their preference for several key female leadership characteristics: non-manager respondents said that they appreciated descriptors such as Honest, Imaginative, and Caring more (35% versus 15%). As far as the generation differences are concerned, they were also clearly visible: for people from Generation Y, characteristics such as Imaginative, Ambitious, Honest, Inspiring, and Determined are more valued, which suggests the fact that, over time, there have been

The research has also given us a lot of signals indicating that successful leadership is no longer solely attributed to men and we anticipate that there will be further important changes in the approach based on the social and cultural evolution of our times. For this reason, we will keep following the articles and studies written on this subject and we will analyse the opin-

validating the work hypotheses that were initially formulated.

scale of 1–10, based on their importance to a successful leader.

are generally equally attributed to male and female leadership.

changes in mentality that favour the women's style of leadership.

ions of as many employees from the business environment as possible.

from the traditional one.

72 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

In the last year, our research has continued with studying the general gender differences presented by Human Synergistic International in Life Styles Inventory (LSI) [30]. First of all, we took into account all the 12 styles, grouped into the three clusters:


Since constructive styles are the ones that are needed for a real leadership potential, we will try to give some recommendations in order to improve in each of us the styles grouped in this cluster and to diminish the influences of the other styles.

According to our research, women and men have split the 12 styles quite equally. Thus, in terms of constructive styles, women tend to be better at Humanistic-Encouraging and Affiliative, whereas men scored better at Achievement and Self-Actualizing. When being defensive, there are more women with passive styles (Approval, Conventional, Dependent, and Avoidance) and there are more men with aggressive styles (Oppositional, Power, Competitive, and Perfectionistic). Of course, our research is contextual (Romania in 2015), but we believe at least partly, the results could be generalized, as they seem to be in line with the ideas mentioned in the previous sub-chapter.

#### **5.1. Achievement style**

This is clearly an effective thinking style, which increases the leadership potential through a feeling of direction and the capability to establish and attain realistic objectives, better planning, more respect, and self-accomplishment. There are also more promotion opportunities, higher wages, and less stress.

In order to increase the Achievement style, people could work on the following list:


According to our research, it is slightly more often attributed to men (but the difference is not really significant).

#### **5.2. Self-actualizing style**

This is the style showing the highest level of personal development and generally manifests through an excellent self-acceptance and acceptance of others as they are. In this case, people are very preoccupied with self-development and release of any negative feeling. They have more energy, believe in their instincts, and are open to new experiences. Self-actualizing leaders can see new opportunities in every situation and are more flexible.

In order to be more self-actualizing-oriented, people should focus on:


While women generally seemed to work more in order to obtain the benefits of a self-actualizing style, our research showed that this style was clearly more attributed to men.

#### **5.3. Humanistic-Encouraging style**

This style also refers to a positive unconditioned acceptance of others, but in another way. People having this thinking style are very sensitive to the others' needs, value close relationships, and put most of their energy into the others' development. They appreciate sincerely people's strengths and believe in them. They are optimistic and good at inspiring and motivating the others, which makes them great leaders. They are patient and productive.

In order to improve their Humanistic-Encouraging style, people should work on the following:


According to our research, women score generally better for this style compared to men.

#### **5.4. Affiliative style**

The last, but not the least constructive style is the affiliative one. It refers to a real need for social interaction and interpersonal contact. People having this thinking style value strong relationships more than anything else, work on developing interpersonal skills, and motivate others with a friendly attitude. They are liked because they focus on teamwork and building trust. By having a collaborative style, they are more productive.

In order to increase their affiliative thinking style, people could do more of the following:


As expected, the results of our research showed that women are generally more affiliative compared to men.

#### **5.5. Approval style**

more energy, believe in their instincts, and are open to new experiences. Self-actualizing lead-

• Reducing the temptation to judge others and trying to always accept them as they are

• Looking at the problems from multiple facets, in order to see the opportunities

izing style, our research showed that this style was clearly more attributed to men.

vating the others, which makes them great leaders. They are patient and productive.

• Allowing their feelings and thoughts to guide them more in their lives.

• Choosing to do pleasant things whenever it is possible and reorganizing the unpleasant

While women generally seemed to work more in order to obtain the benefits of a self-actual-

This style also refers to a positive unconditioned acceptance of others, but in another way. People having this thinking style are very sensitive to the others' needs, value close relationships, and put most of their energy into the others' development. They appreciate sincerely people's strengths and believe in them. They are optimistic and good at inspiring and moti-

In order to improve their Humanistic-Encouraging style, people should work on the following:

• Focusing on a few persons, encouraging them, and observing the role of this encourage-

• Showing genuine appreciation for what the others do to you and maybe learning to say

• Being open about their feelings and thoughts, in order to encourage the others to be open

The last, but not the least constructive style is the affiliative one. It refers to a real need for social interaction and interpersonal contact. People having this thinking style value strong relationships more than anything else, work on developing interpersonal skills, and motivate

According to our research, women score generally better for this style compared to men.

ers can see new opportunities in every situation and are more flexible. In order to be more self-actualizing-oriented, people should focus on:

• Living in present and thinking less about past and/or future

• Developing their empathy and learning to listen more

• Being more involved and spending more time with other people

• Asking for ideas and feedback from the others

• Looking for opportunities to help and train others

ones in order to become better activities

**5.3. Humanistic-Encouraging style**

74 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

ment into their lives

'Thank you' more often

as well.

**5.4. Affiliative style**

This refers to a defensive approach, based on the need to be accepted by others. While it is absolutely normal to want to be approved, the tendency to understand this as a need inevitably leads to a series of problems related to low self-esteem, too much attention to the others' opinions, and difficulties in conflictual situations and in negotiations. Affiliative managers are not good leaders because they tend to be undecided, to postpone discussions, to avoid conflicts, and not to act immediately.

In order to reduce the need for approval, people should focus on:


The results of our research showed that women tend to feel the need for approval stronger than men and they should work more on diminishing it.

#### **5.6. Conventional style**

Another defensive and potential dangerous approach is the one of acting only according to norms. It is potentially dangerous because this way people risk losing their uniqueness and individuality. Conventional managers are not good leaders, because they prefer the standard rules and procedures and generally work in a very predictable environment that hinders innovation. The Rules are more important than ideas.

In order to become less conventional, people should work on the following:


According to our research, women tend to be a little more conventional than men.

#### **5.7. Dependent style**

Dependent managers cannot lead because they rather tend to follow and to depend on the direction of the others. It is quite rare for them to disagree with them or to take a moderate risk, as they are very sensitive to the others' feelings and reactions and it is very hard to say 'no'.

In order to become more independent, people should do the following:


The results of our research showed that women tend to be more dependent than men and thus they should work more on the above suggestions.

#### **5.8. Avoidance style**

People having the avoidance thinking style need protection and keep distance from any potential danger. They are afraid of failure and tend not to take responsibility for their own behaviour. It is hard for them to express their feelings and, in many cases, they focus on their weaknesses rather than on their strengths.

In order to become less avoidance-oriented, people should work on the following:


In our research, we found that women tend to have higher avoidance scores than men.

#### **5.9. Oppositional style**

This is an aggressive thinking style that shows a tendency to be in disagreement with the others. People having high scores for this style often appear to be distant and seem to look for the others' mistakes. They have a negative attitude and their humour is sarcastic. This approach is a result of their belief that their ideas are better than the others' ideas. While the oppositional style is not a constructive one, the score should not be very low either, because in that case the others would perceive them as naïve and maybe too flexible persons.

In order to decrease their oppositional style, people should focus on:


As expected, the results of our research have shown an increased oppositional style in men when compared to women.

#### **5.10. Power style**

• Taking moderate risks, when it is the case

• Focusing on making decisions independently

weaknesses rather than on their strengths.

thus they should work more on the above suggestions.

• Identifying the causes of the avoidance behaviour

**5.7. Dependent style**

76 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**5.8. Avoidance style**

• Developing self-trust

**5.9. Oppositional style**

by itself.

• Trying new ways of doing things, avoiding routine.

According to our research, women tend to be a little more conventional than men.

In order to become more independent, people should do the following:

• Trying to take initiatives and move toward the behaviour of a leader.

• Learning something new in order to become more achievement-oriented

• Establishing small objectives, as a series of small steps can mean very much

Dependent managers cannot lead because they rather tend to follow and to depend on the direction of the others. It is quite rare for them to disagree with them or to take a moderate risk, as they are very sensitive to the others' feelings and reactions and it is very hard to say 'no'.

The results of our research showed that women tend to be more dependent than men and

People having the avoidance thinking style need protection and keep distance from any potential danger. They are afraid of failure and tend not to take responsibility for their own behaviour. It is hard for them to express their feelings and, in many cases, they focus on their

• Trying to tell the others what they feel and having this, at least for a period, as an objective

This is an aggressive thinking style that shows a tendency to be in disagreement with the others. People having high scores for this style often appear to be distant and seem to look for the others' mistakes. They have a negative attitude and their humour is sarcastic. This approach is a result of their belief that their ideas are better than the others' ideas. While the oppositional style is not a constructive one, the score should not be very low either, because in that case the

In our research, we found that women tend to have higher avoidance scores than men.

others would perceive them as naïve and maybe too flexible persons.

In order to become less avoidance-oriented, people should work on the following:

• Focusing not only on their feelings but also on the relationships with the others

The power thinking style measures our tendency to associate our self-recognition with the degree in which we can dominate and control the others. People having this style are motivated by the need for prestige, status, and influence.

In order to decrease their preference toward power, people should focus on the following:


According to our research, as expected, men manifest the need for power considerably more than women do.

#### **5.11. Competitive style**

This style reflects the need for always comparing with others and obtaining self-recognition through competition. While this is traditionally associated with the idea of success, it was proven that people should rather focus on performance, excellence, on the process by itself, and not on the result of winning in order to really become successful. Actually, people scoring high at competitive style are very aggressive and have a big fear of failure. Competitive managers are preoccupied with the way they are perceived by the others and focus more on being the winners than on performance.

In order to lead more successfully, people should decrease their competitive orientation, and they could do this by working on:


The results of our research have revealed higher competitive scores for men than for women.

#### **5.12. Perfectionistic style**

As the name of this thinking style suggests, it refers to the degree in which we feel the need to be perceived as 'perfect'. Of course, the need for being perfect comes at quite a high price: it is hard to be relaxed, people seem not to be very close, everything is stressful, and priorities are not really clear. This style generally comes with a low level of self-esteem and an excessive preoccupation for avoiding mistakes. Expectations from self and others are huge, and it is very difficult to cope with emotions and to express them. Perfectionistic managers tend to look too much into details and thus do not see very well the whole. While being perfectionist seems not to be a good thing, too low scores for this style also reveal some issues related to working under the potential and lacking motivation and determination.

In order to become less perfections, people should focus on:


According to our research and this time unlike our expectations, men seemed to be more perfectionistic than women (with a difference not really significant).

## **6. Conclusions**

Once more, our endeavour has evidenced the fact that the concept of leadership is increasingly important in today's business environment. All the recent changes have called for a new look at the leadership characteristics that guarantee success in the business world. We cannot conclude that men's leadership skills are more powerful and more important compared to the ones of the women or vice versa, but it is clear that gender differences do exist and people should capitalize on them. Business and cultural changes have also shown that, in order to benefit from sustainable development, organizations need a balance in terms of masculinity and femininity, and this can be achieved through a proper understanding of these concepts. A new approach from the one of a one-gender leadership style (masculine or feminine) certainly needs, in our opinion, to be replaced with a vision of both genders complementing each other. This is perfectly justifiable when looking at the current leadership styles and the fact that they are very rarely based on traditional abilities, instead being characterized by innovation skills, flexibility, intuition, and a people-oriented approach.

Besides the analysis that was presented in this chapter, we wanted to define a few initiatives for the future which might contribute to the normalization of the business world in terms of gender equality and favourable performance environment. In our opinion, there are two main directions that can be taken. The first refers to management education: leadership skills programs; leadership courses in all university programs; extracurricular activities that would develop leadership skills; mentoring programs that would contribute to personal growth, confidence, and self-motivation; and strategic thinking (forward looking). The second refers to managerial practice: developing leadership skills through training and coaching; adopting and implementing adequate, non-discriminatory career strategies that capitalize on leadership skills; practicing a provisional type of management; adopting an appropriate managerial style based on performance; an evaluation criteria that will point out the required characteristics of a potential leader; a set of values (equity, professionalism, competence, team spirit, etc.) that are to be obeyed by every member of the organization; and strategies that will later be shared with all the employees.

One of our main concerns was to not transform this text into a manifest to support women in their profession and society. Our approach was to be as neutral and objective as possible because we think this subject is not a trend but an essential one: can we remain fixed in our traditional approach, although we are aware that current economic realities reveal certain skills that women possess at a very high level? The pragmatism which characterizes most of the businessmen will make them choose efficient solutions for the companies they run and, if this will lead to a more powerful presence of women in top management, then our society will become more solid and balanced.

## **Author details**

**5.12. Perfectionistic style**

78 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

• Improving relationships

**6. Conclusions**

As the name of this thinking style suggests, it refers to the degree in which we feel the need to be perceived as 'perfect'. Of course, the need for being perfect comes at quite a high price: it is hard to be relaxed, people seem not to be very close, everything is stressful, and priorities are not really clear. This style generally comes with a low level of self-esteem and an excessive preoccupation for avoiding mistakes. Expectations from self and others are huge, and it is very difficult to cope with emotions and to express them. Perfectionistic managers tend to look too much into details and thus do not see very well the whole. While being perfectionist seems not to be a good thing, too low scores for this style also reveal some issues related to

• Understanding that the desire to be perfect is actually harmful and time-consuming and

According to our research and this time unlike our expectations, men seemed to be more

Once more, our endeavour has evidenced the fact that the concept of leadership is increasingly important in today's business environment. All the recent changes have called for a new look at the leadership characteristics that guarantee success in the business world. We cannot conclude that men's leadership skills are more powerful and more important compared to the ones of the women or vice versa, but it is clear that gender differences do exist and people should capitalize on them. Business and cultural changes have also shown that, in order to benefit from sustainable development, organizations need a balance in terms of masculinity and femininity, and this can be achieved through a proper understanding of these concepts. A new approach from the one of a one-gender leadership style (masculine or feminine) certainly needs, in our opinion, to be replaced with a vision of both genders complementing each other. This is perfectly justifiable when looking at the current leadership styles and the fact that they are very rarely based on traditional abilities, instead being characterized by inno-

Besides the analysis that was presented in this chapter, we wanted to define a few initiatives for the future which might contribute to the normalization of the business world in terms of gender equality and favourable performance environment. In our opinion, there are two main directions that can be taken. The first refers to management education: leadership skills programs; leadership courses in all university programs; extracurricular activities that would develop leadership skills; mentoring programs that would contribute to personal growth, confidence,

working under the potential and lacking motivation and determination.

becoming aware of the fact that their work is not the same with their value

In order to become less perfections, people should focus on:

• Lowering expectations in order to obtain more satisfaction.

perfectionistic than women (with a difference not really significant).

vation skills, flexibility, intuition, and a people-oriented approach.

Cătălina Radu\*, Alecxandrina Deaconu and Corina Frăsineanu

\*Address all correspondence to: catalina.radu@ase.ro

Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

## **References**


[6] Lipsey, G.; Steiner, O.; Purvis, D.; Courant, N. Economics. New York: Harper & Row;

[7] Tavis, C.B.; Gross, L. J.; Johnson, B. A. Tracking the gender pay gap: A case study.

[8] O'Campo, P.; Eaton, W.W.; Muntaner, C. Labor market experience, work organization, gender inequalities and health status: Results from a perspective analysis of US

[9] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Median Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers by Selected Characteristics [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.bls.

[10] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Household Data Annual Averages [Internet]. 2009. Available from: http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.pdf [Accessed: October 2015]

[11] Catalyst Inc. Knowledge Center. Quick Take: Women on Boards [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-boards [Accessed: March

[12] Hoyt, C. L.; Simon, S. Female Leaders: Injurious or Inspiring Role Models for Women? Jepson School of Leadership Studies articles, book chapters and other publications [Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.

cgi?article=1115&context=jepson-faculty-publications [Accessed: February 2015]

[13] Eagly, A. H.; Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C.; van Engen, M. L. Transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analyses comparing women and men.

[14] Eagly, A.H. Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: resolving the contradic-

[15] Eagly, A.H.; Carli, L.L. The female leadership advantage: an evaluation of the evidence.

[16] Heilman, M. E. Description and prescription: how gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues.

[17] Kanter, R.M. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books; 1993. 390 p. [18] Haslam, S. A.; Ryan, M. K. The road to the glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of men and women for leadership. The Leadership Quarterly. 2008;**19**:530-546.

[19] Ryan, M. K.; Haslam, S. A. The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding women's appointment to precarious leadership. Academy of Management Review.

[20] Pınar Acar, F. Gender differences in promotions to top level management. Procedia -

Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2010;**33**:410-418.

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1990. 992 p.

80 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

2016]


## **Chapter 5**

**Provisional chapter**

## **Leadership: The Act of Serving Leadership: The Act of Serving**

Sharon K. Stoll, Jennifer M. Beller, Peter

Sharon K. Stoll, Jennifer M. Beller, Peter VanMullem, Kevin Bryant and Marcis R. Fennell VanMullem, Kevin Bryant and Marcis R. Fennell Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65970

#### **Abstract**

This chapter is directed toward servant leadership as applied to the field of sport and athletic coaching. The purpose of the chapter is to give a brief definition of servant leadership and the application of such in coaching, and then to offer strategies for servant leadership as well as discuss several different research studies in athletic coaching. The conclusion simply states that though little research in coaching servant leadership exists, that which has been accomplished argues for implementation of coaching styles that are servant leadership focused.

**Keywords:** athletic coaching, servant leadership

## **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1. What is servant leadership?**

In 1970, at the age of 66, Robert Greenleaf published *The Servant as Leader*, the first of a dozen essays and books on servant leadership [1]. Greenleaf spent the majority of his organizational life in the field of management, research, development, and education at American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). His job at AT&T was to study how the best leaders emerged in an organization, and in that role, he studied the best and most successful organizations. After a half century of working with large organizations and teaching at a variety of colleges and universities about business management, Greenleaf distilled his observations in a series of essays and books on the theme of "The servant as leader" and then established a Center dedicated to servant leadership.1

<sup>1</sup> The Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership is located in Westfield, Indiana, and can be found at: http://www.greenleaf.org/.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

At the time, his essays and books were uniquely different from the majority of organizational texts for none spoke of leadership as serving. Rather, organization texts spoke of effective management. No texts ever focused on leadership as service.

In all of these works, Greenleaf described the need for a new kind of leadership model—a model which puts serving others as the number one priority. Unlike other leadership styles, a servant leader focuses on service to others [1]. This sort of thinking uses a holistic approach to the individual and all relevant others which them promotes community and sharing the process of decision making to all interested parties.

#### **1.2. What is a servant leader?**

Greenleaf said that the servant leader is always an individual first but the more importantly the leader serves others. This choice to serve others is a conscious choice, a way of being, in which the individual, the leader, takes an active role in serving others through leadership. What is the litmus test to know if one is a servant leader? The answer lies is a simple question: Do those who are being served grow as professionals and as human beings? The served should become healthier, more autonomous, with a greater ability to make wise choices and they should be able to see themselves having autonomy so strong that they are free to make decisions for themselves. An individual who has been served by a servant leader in the most optimal fashion will become a servant leader of others. The net effect then is that everyone involved will benefit and not feel deprived of the benefits of the organization and this in turn will benefit both the organization and therefore society in general [1].

Greenleaf was very clear in his discussion of a servant leader and how he developed the concept of servant leadership. Greenleaf, a prolific reader of leadership and of the literature in general, borrowed from the work of numerous writers who also had a visionary perspective about the role of serving through leadership.

First and probably most importantly, Greenleaf was inspired by the writings of St. Paul in the New Testament. St. Paul described a servant as an under rower or the actual Greek word of huperetes (Fourth Chapter of 1 Corinthians)<sup>2</sup> In St. Paul's period of Roman dominance, galley ships were propelled by galley slaves who were under rowers who kept the galleys moving. St. Paul envisioned a servant leader as one who is "equal" to all of the workers, all of the individuals within the organization. A servant leader is not above the followers but is one of them. A servant in the galley "under" rows for the good of all. A servant leader is one who serves first, rather than wanting power, influence, fame, or wealth [2].

<sup>2</sup> The actual word used by St. Paul is huperetes, which loosely translated in the galley slaves who were under-rowers. The meaning here is derived from the Roman Empire's warships, the galley ships. It derives its meaning from, the war galleys of the Roman. These ships had a low deck just a foot or so above the water, and under that decks were where the rowers, the slaves were chained to their oars. http://ldolphin.org/underrowers.html. The translation reads "Let a man regard us in this manner, as servants of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God," which in the Ancient Greek is: Outwv hmav logizesqw (5737) anqrwpov wv uphretav Xristou kai oikonomouv musthriwn qeou. http://www.searchgodsword.org/isb/bible.cgi?query=1co+4:1&translation=nas&ot=bhs&nt=na&sr=1.

Greenleaf was also highly influenced by the writings of Max Dupree and Abraham Heschel. Max DuPree [3] wrote two important works from his experience as the ECO/Chairman of Herman Miller Corporation, a Fortune 500 company. In "Leadership is an Art" and "Leadership Jazz", DuPree set forth his leadership style simply and directly. Leadership is an intimate activity of work and in relationship with your people, i.e., the followers. He said that true leaders define reality. They thank their people often and they know they are indebted to then and they serve them [3].

At the time, his essays and books were uniquely different from the majority of organizational texts for none spoke of leadership as serving. Rather, organization texts spoke of effective

In all of these works, Greenleaf described the need for a new kind of leadership model—a model which puts serving others as the number one priority. Unlike other leadership styles, a servant leader focuses on service to others [1]. This sort of thinking uses a holistic approach to the individual and all relevant others which them promotes community and sharing the

Greenleaf said that the servant leader is always an individual first but the more importantly the leader serves others. This choice to serve others is a conscious choice, a way of being, in which the individual, the leader, takes an active role in serving others through leadership. What is the litmus test to know if one is a servant leader? The answer lies is a simple question: Do those who are being served grow as professionals and as human beings? The served should become healthier, more autonomous, with a greater ability to make wise choices and they should be able to see themselves having autonomy so strong that they are free to make decisions for themselves. An individual who has been served by a servant leader in the most optimal fashion will become a servant leader of others. The net effect then is that everyone involved will benefit and not feel deprived of the benefits of the organization and this in turn will benefit both the organization and therefore society

Greenleaf was very clear in his discussion of a servant leader and how he developed the concept of servant leadership. Greenleaf, a prolific reader of leadership and of the literature in general, borrowed from the work of numerous writers who also had a visionary perspective

First and probably most importantly, Greenleaf was inspired by the writings of St. Paul in the New Testament. St. Paul described a servant as an under rower or the actual Greek word of

ships were propelled by galley slaves who were under rowers who kept the galleys moving. St. Paul envisioned a servant leader as one who is "equal" to all of the workers, all of the individuals within the organization. A servant leader is not above the followers but is one of them. A servant in the galley "under" rows for the good of all. A servant leader is one who serves

The actual word used by St. Paul is huperetes, which loosely translated in the galley slaves who were under-rowers. The meaning here is derived from the Roman Empire's warships, the galley ships. It derives its meaning from, the war galleys of the Roman. These ships had a low deck just a foot or so above the water, and under that decks were where the rowers, the slaves were chained to their oars. http://ldolphin.org/underrowers.html. The translation reads "Let a man regard us in this manner, as servants of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God," which in the Ancient Greek is: Outwv hmav logizesqw (5737) anqrwpov wv uphretav Xristou kai oikonomouv musthriwn qeou. http://www.search-

In St. Paul's period of Roman dominance, galley

management. No texts ever focused on leadership as service.

process of decision making to all interested parties.

about the role of serving through leadership.

huperetes (Fourth Chapter of 1 Corinthians)<sup>2</sup>

first, rather than wanting power, influence, fame, or wealth [2].

godsword.org/isb/bible.cgi?query=1co+4:1&translation=nas&ot=bhs&nt=na&sr=1.

**1.2. What is a servant leader?**

84 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

in general [1].

2

Greenleaf also mentioned throughout his work the writings of Abraham Herschel, probably one of the twentieth century's great theologians. Greenleaf was drawn to Herschel's work, "*Who is man*" [4] in which Herschel clearly outlines how a true servant sees another person, "Our way of seeing a person is different from our way of seeing a thing. A thing we perceive; a person we meet." *Who is man* is learned, lucid, and drew Greenleaf into the knowledge that the authentic life should be authentically lived as a leader and as a follower.

One singular work that influenced Greenleaf's thinking was the novel by Hermann Hesse, *Journey to the East*, which is an example of Hesse's typical Eastern mysticism at its finest [5]. The story is about a group of people who are traveling to a new land. Leo, their servant, sings songs and takes care of their needs. Somewhere on their trip Leo disappears and the group cannot function without him and they are forced to disband. Much later, the group through their narrator discovered that Leo (the servant) was actually the leader and therefore they realized the importance of his role—Without a leader who would be servant, the group could not function. Inspired by Leo's character, Greenleaf realized that the key to leadership is to serve first. The combination of this inspiration and his own 40 years of experience with AT&T helped him create his most famous essay, "The Servant as Leader" [1]. The basic characteristics of a servant leader according to Greenleaf lie in specific competencies. We have selected but a few to share.


## **2. Servant leadership in coaching**

After reading Greenleaf [1], Dupree [3], and Heschel [4], as well as other writers mentioned by Heschel including Nouwen [6], Hauerwas [7], and Crossin [8], we began to wonder if the principles of servant leadership could be applied to coaching in athletics. Very little is written on the concept of servant leadership as applied to coaching and less has been studied about the effect of a servant leadership philosophy on coaching. A few studies have examined servant leadership from the perspective of how coaches were perceived by their athletes to possess "servant leader" characteristics. One study in particular focused on the quality of perceived servant leadership which was associated with their athletes' use of mental skills, motivation, satisfaction, and performance [9]. Little research, however, exists on educating and helping coaches reflect about the role of servant leadership.

Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss and apply the principles of servant leadership to the art and practice of coaching in athletics and to offer direction and helpful hints as to how this can be accomplished.

#### **2.1. Application**

Because athletic coaching education is inadequate in the application of servant leadership education for coaches, we as a research group, the Center for ETHICS\*3 [10] decided to begin a journey to develop face to face and online educational programs to help develop a servant leadership heart in coaches. We had won a contract with a nonprofit organization, Winning with Character,4 specifically to develop a new model for coaching education. Could we develop a philosophic model that could capture the strength of Greenleaf's original thesis and place it into a curriculum that would inspire coaches to want to be servant leaders?

For us, at the Center for ETHICS\*, servant leadership could only exist if certain moral character traits were also developed and supported in the coaching model. Thus, we believed to truly understand the role of servant leadership, we had to choose descriptors of a servant to match what we believe are the necessary and sufficient qualities to be leaders of character. Such an individual is focused on the good for everyone, not just the good of the self. An "under rower" would have specific traits of character that stand as the measure of a mission—what is the leader's purpose? First, a servant leader as coach would live an honorable life. The coach would know what is right and what is wrong. This coach would have a mission that explicitly states their servant role. This servant leader coach would assist, give, share, and help others. The servant leader coach would be an inspiration for others to make choices that were honorable, right, and to develop and lead a mission driven life of honor. This servant leader coach

<sup>3</sup> The Center for ETHICS\* at the University of Idaho offers study, intervention, outreach, consultation, and leadership in developing and advancing the theory, knowledge, and understanding of character education including moral and ethical reasoning, moral development, ethical leadership, and ethical application. The Center's mission is in believing and teaching the tradition of competitive integrity to inspire leaders of character.

<sup>4</sup> Winningwithcharacter.org. The organization is now defunct, however, the research and curriculum development continues on through the Center for ETHICS\*.

would have a clear action plan, which was honorable and easily understood. Such a servant leader coach would have to be courageous to stand for the right and to do the right.

**2. Servant leadership in coaching**

86 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

to how this can be accomplished.

tion, Winning with Character,4

tinues on through the Center for ETHICS\*.

**2.1. Application**

servant leaders?

3

4

and helping coaches reflect about the role of servant leadership.

After reading Greenleaf [1], Dupree [3], and Heschel [4], as well as other writers mentioned by Heschel including Nouwen [6], Hauerwas [7], and Crossin [8], we began to wonder if the principles of servant leadership could be applied to coaching in athletics. Very little is written on the concept of servant leadership as applied to coaching and less has been studied about the effect of a servant leadership philosophy on coaching. A few studies have examined servant leadership from the perspective of how coaches were perceived by their athletes to possess "servant leader" characteristics. One study in particular focused on the quality of perceived servant leadership which was associated with their athletes' use of mental skills, motivation, satisfaction, and performance [9]. Little research, however, exists on educating

Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss and apply the principles of servant leadership to the art and practice of coaching in athletics and to offer direction and helpful hints as

Because athletic coaching education is inadequate in the application of servant leadership

begin a journey to develop face to face and online educational programs to help develop a servant leadership heart in coaches. We had won a contract with a nonprofit organiza-

tion. Could we develop a philosophic model that could capture the strength of Greenleaf's original thesis and place it into a curriculum that would inspire coaches to want to be

For us, at the Center for ETHICS\*, servant leadership could only exist if certain moral character traits were also developed and supported in the coaching model. Thus, we believed to truly understand the role of servant leadership, we had to choose descriptors of a servant to match what we believe are the necessary and sufficient qualities to be leaders of character. Such an individual is focused on the good for everyone, not just the good of the self. An "under rower" would have specific traits of character that stand as the measure of a mission—what is the leader's purpose? First, a servant leader as coach would live an honorable life. The coach would know what is right and what is wrong. This coach would have a mission that explicitly states their servant role. This servant leader coach would assist, give, share, and help others. The servant leader coach would be an inspiration for others to make choices that were honorable, right, and to develop and lead a mission driven life of honor. This servant leader coach

The Center for ETHICS\* at the University of Idaho offers study, intervention, outreach, consultation, and leadership in developing and advancing the theory, knowledge, and understanding of character education including moral and ethical reasoning, moral development, ethical leadership, and ethical application. The Center's mission is in believing and

Winningwithcharacter.org. The organization is now defunct, however, the research and curriculum development con-

teaching the tradition of competitive integrity to inspire leaders of character.

specifically to develop a new model for coaching educa-

[10] decided to

education for coaches, we as a research group, the Center for ETHICS\*3

We believed that the servant leader coaching model should follow the same simple ideal but profound vision of Robert Greenleaf, who said that a servant leader wants to serve first and foremost. They aspire to lead, and their followers grow as human beings to the point where they are called to be servant leaders themselves [1].

Servant leadership encourages a balance of leading and serving. For individuals in leadership positions, the primary responsibility is serving others but at times the leader is also a follower. The end result of this moving back and forth between leading and following is to enhance lives as individuals and raise the possibilities of our many institutions.

Our first project in 2002–2003 [10] was to examine the possibilities of affecting change toward servant leadership by developing first a curriculum focused on the qualities of servant leadership. Second, we developed an assessment tool that measured qualities necessary to be a servant leader. At the time, we were working with a large United States university football team. The coach had asked us to write curriculum focused on servant leadership that their coaches could teach. We wanted to assess the effectiveness of our curriculum. We developed a 4-year curriculum for the university team in which we worked to educate the players about the importance of character in relation to servant leadership. The curriculum begins with examination of self, self as a follower, self as an emerging leader, and finally self as a servant leader. The university team found the curriculum to be effective, but we wanted to know if the curriculum did affect change in leadership ability. To do so, meant some sort of measurement to capture the essence of servant leadership. After deliberation and study of the current tools available at that time, we decided to develop our own instrument: the SBB Servant Leadership Judgment Inventory5 [10].

The SBB Servant Leadership Judgment Inventory (SBB Servant) was developed, using a theoretical construct based on Greenleaf [1] and St. Paul's usage of the word, huperetes, to examine individual's perceptions of others in relationship to servant leadership qualities [10]. The SBB Servant was designed to assess individual and peer evaluated moral values associated with character driven servant leadership. Participants read and answered 50 statements about: honorable nature, serving others, inspiration to others, a plan of action, and courage. Their answers were evaluated based on a five point Likert Scale from Most Like Me to Not Like Me. The Inventory has two different sections, (1) The SBB SELF Servant Leadership Judgment Inventory and (2) The SBB Peer Servant Leadership Judgment Inventory. The total curriculum and inventory aided young people in their journey to become servant leaders. Each athlete took the SELF inventory and then each in the group was to rate each other using the PEER inventory. Results from the self-inventory were then compared with the peer group evaluation. The goal was for the athletic servant coach to use this information to educate athletes about their values and how these values might beneficially or negatively affect their servant growth. The overall goal was to help athletes develop into functional servant leaders. Initial pilot studies were conducted on male and female athletes prior to the measuring the

<sup>5</sup> SBB was shortened for the last names of the primary authors, Stoll, Breitbach, and Beller.

University football team, with Cronbach alphas ranging on each subscale from 0.78 to 0.84 [11]. While theoretically an individual cannot consider him or herself a servant leader, it was of interest to examine how an individual perceived themselves relative to these servant leader qualities and then compare those views to how others viewed them. From this process, an individual can then learn how others perceive them and thus potentially grow in their servant leader qualities.

Next, we studied 27 of the male Division I football players. Each athlete gave informed consent and then completed the SBB Servant. Over a period of a week, each athlete then completed the SBB Peer Servant on the other 26 athletes. To examine how athletes perceived themselves in relation to how others viewed them a series of correlations analyses were run. Additionally, a coach was asked to evaluate the athletes relative to the servant leader qualities. Interestingly, the athletes whom a coach viewed as servant leaders were found to score high on the SBB Peer Servant qualities by their peers. These athletes also appeared to have a strong sense of who they were relative to these servant leader qualities. However, those athletes whom the coach felt did not demonstrate strong servant leader qualities were also viewed by their peers as having lower servant leader qualities. Interestingly, these particular athletes perceived themselves as having high levels of servant leader qualities. Thus, in a preliminary study, the instrument appeared to have the ability to help differentiate athlete's perceptions of themselves relative to how others view them in their servant leader qualities [10].

This preliminary study with the university team pushed us forward to affect change in the servant leadership literature and to also take the next giant step, to actually work with coaches on developing servant leadership traits. Our initial studies with athletes and servant leadership education told us that our curriculum appeared to work, and our instruments appeared to also work in measuring peer perception of leadership.

In 2015–2016, we studied over 200 high school athletic directors. A high school athletic director is the main leader of all coaches in a high school environment [12].

#### **2.2. What are the results of a servant leadership education program for coaches?**

Because most coaches are not available to take classes at a university or college, we were challenged to develop education that could be delivered online. We had experience working with athletes, and we had experience in developing curriculum and instruments, we now needed to actually develop an educational program that could be accessed by many coaches.

In 2007, we first developed a 10 lesson online coaching education program to help inspire and improve a coach's thinking about servant leadership. One of our student-colleagues gave us some thoughtful direction on the content of our lessons [13]. He argued for ten specific lessons: (1) What is leadership? (2) What are the styles of leadership in coaching? (3) What is your Mission as a Coach? (4) Love, (5) Commitment, (6) Responsibility, (7) Respect, (8) Humility, (9) Patience, and (10) Empathy, Compassion and Leadership. In 2008, another colleague added an additional lesson, number 11, Integrity and Sportsmanship [14]. We anticipated that completion of the educational online program would take approximately 30 h of clock time. In each lesson, a participant reads a variety of information on the lesson topic, views video through *YouTube*, answers five multiple choice questions, and does a reflective assessment of their reasoning about servant leadership and the values posted in the lesson.

University football team, with Cronbach alphas ranging on each subscale from 0.78 to 0.84 [11]. While theoretically an individual cannot consider him or herself a servant leader, it was of interest to examine how an individual perceived themselves relative to these servant leader qualities and then compare those views to how others viewed them. From this process, an individual can then learn how others perceive them and thus potentially grow in their servant

Next, we studied 27 of the male Division I football players. Each athlete gave informed consent and then completed the SBB Servant. Over a period of a week, each athlete then completed the SBB Peer Servant on the other 26 athletes. To examine how athletes perceived themselves in relation to how others viewed them a series of correlations analyses were run. Additionally, a coach was asked to evaluate the athletes relative to the servant leader qualities. Interestingly, the athletes whom a coach viewed as servant leaders were found to score high on the SBB Peer Servant qualities by their peers. These athletes also appeared to have a strong sense of who they were relative to these servant leader qualities. However, those athletes whom the coach felt did not demonstrate strong servant leader qualities were also viewed by their peers as having lower servant leader qualities. Interestingly, these particular athletes perceived themselves as having high levels of servant leader qualities. Thus, in a preliminary study, the instrument appeared to have the ability to help differentiate athlete's perceptions of them-

This preliminary study with the university team pushed us forward to affect change in the servant leadership literature and to also take the next giant step, to actually work with coaches on developing servant leadership traits. Our initial studies with athletes and servant leadership education told us that our curriculum appeared to work, and our instruments appeared

In 2015–2016, we studied over 200 high school athletic directors. A high school athletic direc-

Because most coaches are not available to take classes at a university or college, we were challenged to develop education that could be delivered online. We had experience working with athletes, and we had experience in developing curriculum and instruments, we now needed

In 2007, we first developed a 10 lesson online coaching education program to help inspire and improve a coach's thinking about servant leadership. One of our student-colleagues gave us some thoughtful direction on the content of our lessons [13]. He argued for ten specific lessons: (1) What is leadership? (2) What are the styles of leadership in coaching? (3) What is your Mission as a Coach? (4) Love, (5) Commitment, (6) Responsibility, (7) Respect, (8) Humility, (9) Patience, and (10) Empathy, Compassion and Leadership. In 2008, another colleague added an additional lesson, number 11, Integrity and Sportsmanship [14]. We anticipated that completion of the educational online program would take approximately 30 h of clock time. In each lesson, a participant reads a variety of information on the lesson topic, views video

selves relative to how others view them in their servant leader qualities [10].

tor is the main leader of all coaches in a high school environment [12].

**2.2. What are the results of a servant leadership education program for coaches?**

to actually develop an educational program that could be accessed by many coaches.

to also work in measuring peer perception of leadership.

leader qualities.

88 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

The multiple choice questions are unique, for if a participant chooses and an answer that is not correct or not the best choice, the reader is linked back to start again, read more information, do more reflection, before choosing an answer again. Thus, the multiple choice questions inspire and force reflection about their choices. The assessment tool asks a series of questions about the lesson and the coaches' responses including a reflective piece on each lesson.

The 2007 preliminary study appeared successful and a good foundation to increase the size and scope of the project [13]. In 2008, we conducted an additional preliminary study of this program on collegiate coaches [14].

What is so important about the Servant Leadership Online Education Program is that usually education and social science researchers are often limited to a sample of self-selected volunteers and/or intact groups. Thus, major limitations in research design exist and the ability to generalize those results to the greater population occurs. Because of these limitations, many argue that educational or social science research is limited in its ability to draw causation from the independent to dependent variable to the extent that studies in the hard sciences can accomplish.

However, our 2008 study is an exception to much of the typical design flaws of social science and educational research. We first sent out a general solicitation to coaches to participate in the study. From this call, he received responses from 37 individuals who were interested in participating, many of whom were currently coaching in their seasons. Once these individuals were identified, he sorted them by sport affiliation (in order to ensure equivalency across sports in each group) and then assigned numbers to each. They were then randomly assigned to either intervention of controls groups. All participants were active coaches and participants in a coaching character education program within their governing organization [13, 14].

The online intervention was then administered to the treatment group. Thus, there existed a modified pretest, posttest, randomized groups design. To ensure that randomization truly occurred, an independent t-test was run on initial Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory (HBVCI) scores—a valid and reliable instrument to measure moral reasoning Cronbach Alpha at 0.88—and Core Values Recognition Test (CVTRT)—a recognition test developed to measure the governing organization's character education program—finding no significant differences between groups at the study initiation. The intervention had a strong theoretical construct based in cognitive moral development as well as the philosophical theories underlying servant. The control group received only the governing organization's character education program. All participants were pretested and posttested with the HBVCI (moral reasoning) and the CVTRT (NAIA – National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics recognition test). It was hypothesized that the sport governing character education program would have limited impact on participant's ability to recognize values of respect, responsibility, and integrity, as their program had little to no theoretical construct and did not follow best practices related to the pedagogical practices of cognitive moral reasoning [14].

As one would expect, the intervention group significantly increased in their cognitive moral reasoning (HBVCI) from pretest to posttest with the control group decreasing in their scores. With the CVTRT, the intervention group had identical scores from pretest to posttest, while the control group decreased. Servant leadership has at its core values of respect, responsibility, and fairness, values that the governing organization program claims to teach and profess. One would think that the intervention group, because they spent much time in critical thinking about these values relative to personal and professional practice (Servant Leadership) and had gone through the governing organization character program as well, that their scores on the CVTRT would also increase. They did not which supported the premise that a strong theoretically based educational pedagogy is necessary in order for individuals to improve their critical moral reasoning about the relevant moral issues they face.

In 2015–2016, yet another doctoral student [12] studied the moral reasoning and social reasoning of athletic directors in the state of Oregon. In the United States, high school athletics is argued to be an important facet of developing character [15–17]. Athletics, though not a part of the general school curriculum, is highly valued as a part of the "extra-curricular" activities of high school experiences. If this is true, which most research [18–20] does argue for the social interaction of sport participation but not necessarily the moral attributes, one would believe that those who coach and those who administer would have a developed moral sense and social values.

Athletic directors are the administrators of the high school who oversee the work of coaches and related staff involved in athletic programs. These individuals are responsible for the hiring, firing, and education and character of the coaches as directed toward athletics. Bryant et al. [12] inventoried 208 athletic directors, 187 men and 21 women using the Rudd, Stoll, Beller, Hahm Values Choice Inventory, which measures moral reasoning and social reasoning in sport [21]. Thus far, the social character index has a Cronbach alpha of 0.72–0.74, and the moral character index has a Cronbach alpha of 0.77–0.88. The RSBHVI – Rudd, Stoll Beller and Hahm Value Choice Inventory [22] has two separate measures. The first 10 questions evaluates social reasoning, and the second 10 measures moral reasoning. The social questions evaluates teamwork, loyalty, sacrifice, and dedication—all important values of sport but not moral values. For example, one could be a hardworking, dedicated, loyal, sacrificial bully. The social side answers are based on a five-point Likert Scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

Like the social side of the inventory, the moral questions are directed toward real world competitive experiences. Unlike the social side, the questions lie within the actual competitive action of sport. The moral side also uses a five-point Likert Scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. In analyzing data, correlations, multivariate and univariate statistical analyses are used to evaluate difference by group on both the social side of the inventory and then the moral side [22]. The range of scores for the RSBHVI is 10–50.

In the Bryant, Stoll, and Beller, 2016 study [11], the Oregon athletic director men scored a mean of 30.90 *±* 0.45, and the women a score of 34.14 *±* 1.3. Neither mean scores show an elevated sense of moral knowing, though there was a significant different between the mean of men and women *F*(1200) = 5.0, *p* <0.02. There was no significant difference in social reasoning between men and women. Men scored a 42.42 *±* 0.28 and the women scored 43.46 *±* 0.86. Athletic directors appear more guided by social values compared to moral values. What we can say is that athletic directors in Oregon probably need a better educational model and intervention to improve their moral reasoning.

## **3. Conclusion**

As one would expect, the intervention group significantly increased in their cognitive moral reasoning (HBVCI) from pretest to posttest with the control group decreasing in their scores. With the CVTRT, the intervention group had identical scores from pretest to posttest, while the control group decreased. Servant leadership has at its core values of respect, responsibility, and fairness, values that the governing organization program claims to teach and profess. One would think that the intervention group, because they spent much time in critical thinking about these values relative to personal and professional practice (Servant Leadership) and had gone through the governing organization character program as well, that their scores on the CVTRT would also increase. They did not which supported the premise that a strong theoretically based educational pedagogy is necessary in order for individuals to improve

In 2015–2016, yet another doctoral student [12] studied the moral reasoning and social reasoning of athletic directors in the state of Oregon. In the United States, high school athletics is argued to be an important facet of developing character [15–17]. Athletics, though not a part of the general school curriculum, is highly valued as a part of the "extra-curricular" activities of high school experiences. If this is true, which most research [18–20] does argue for the social interaction of sport participation but not necessarily the moral attributes, one would believe that those who coach and those who administer would have a developed moral sense and

Athletic directors are the administrators of the high school who oversee the work of coaches and related staff involved in athletic programs. These individuals are responsible for the hiring, firing, and education and character of the coaches as directed toward athletics. Bryant et al. [12] inventoried 208 athletic directors, 187 men and 21 women using the Rudd, Stoll, Beller, Hahm Values Choice Inventory, which measures moral reasoning and social reasoning in sport [21]. Thus far, the social character index has a Cronbach alpha of 0.72–0.74, and the moral character index has a Cronbach alpha of 0.77–0.88. The RSBHVI – Rudd, Stoll Beller and Hahm Value Choice Inventory [22] has two separate measures. The first 10 questions evaluates social reasoning, and the second 10 measures moral reasoning. The social questions evaluates teamwork, loyalty, sacrifice, and dedication—all important values of sport but not moral values. For example, one could be a hardworking, dedicated, loyal, sacrificial bully. The social side answers are based on a five-point Likert Scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. Like the social side of the inventory, the moral questions are directed toward real world competitive experiences. Unlike the social side, the questions lie within the actual competitive action of sport. The moral side also uses a five-point Likert Scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. In analyzing data, correlations, multivariate and univariate statistical analyses are used to evaluate difference by group on both the social side of the inventory and

In the Bryant, Stoll, and Beller, 2016 study [11], the Oregon athletic director men scored a mean of 30.90 *±* 0.45, and the women a score of 34.14 *±* 1.3. Neither mean scores show an elevated sense of moral knowing, though there was a significant different between the mean of men and women *F*(1200) = 5.0, *p* <0.02. There was no significant difference in social reasoning between men and women. Men scored a 42.42 *±* 0.28 and the women scored 43.46 *±* 0.86.

their critical moral reasoning about the relevant moral issues they face.

then the moral side [22]. The range of scores for the RSBHVI is 10–50.

social values.

90 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Interpretation of the statistical findings of these diverse studies gives us hope that an intervention servant leadership education for coaches can be a powerful force in helping coaches be servant leaders. We also can state that without intervention, moral reasoning scores in administrators and coaches are not what they should be and that intervention is necessary. Our goal is that our involvement in sport servant leadership will continue the tradition of Robert Greenleaf and that athletes coached by servant leader coaches and hopefully athletic directors meet the Greenleaf test: "do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?" [1].

## **Author details**

Sharon K. Stoll\*<sup>1</sup> , Jennifer M. Beller<sup>2</sup> , Peter VanMullem3 , Kevin Bryant<sup>1</sup> and Marcis R. Fennell<sup>1</sup>


## **References**


### **Leadership as an Art and a Responsibility: A Case Study of the Linguistic Choices of Nigeria's President Goodluck Jonathan Leadership as an Art and a Responsibility: A Case Study of the Linguistic Choices of Nigeria's President Goodluck Jonathan**

Iyabode Omolara Akewo Daniel Iyabode Omolara Akewo Daniel

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/67014

#### **Abstract**

[8] Crossin, J. Everyday Virtues. Mahwah: Paulist Press; 2002.

Moscow: University of Idaho Center for ETHICS\*; 2003.

Moscow: University of Idaho Center for ETHICS\*; 2004.

raw data. (C. f. University of Idaho, Compiler). 2016.

stoll1008.htm. [Accessed 2016-07-21]

of Idaho; 2008.

92 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

2004, **75**.

McGraw-Hill, 2003.

[9] Rieke, M., Hammermeister, J., Chase, M. Servant leadership in sport: a new paradigm for effective coach behavior. International Journal of Sport Sciences. 2008; **3**(2): 227–239.

[10] Stoll, S., Beller, J., Breitbach, C. The SBB Servant Leadership Judgment Inventory.

[11] Stoll, S., Beller, J., Breitbach, C. Servant Leadership Qualities of Division I Athletes.

[12] Bryant, K., Stoll, S., Beller, J. Oregon High School Athletic Directors' servant leadership,

[13] VanMullem, P., Brunner, D., Stoll, S. Practical Applications for Teaching Character Through Sport. 2007. Available from Pelinks4u: http://www.pelinks4u.org/articles/

[14] VanMullem, P. A Dissertation Study to Compare the Effect of the NAIA's Champions of Character Program and Servant Leadership for Coaches Online on Coach Moral Reasoning and Knowledge of the NAIA Core Values [Dissertation]. Moscow: University

[15] Lumpkin, A., Stoll, S., Beller, J. Sport Ethics: Applications for Fair Play. St. Louis:

[16] Beller, J., Stoll, S. Moral reasoning of high school student athletes and general students: an empirical study versus personal testimony. Pediatric Science. 1995; **7**: 352–363. [17] Sport participation & character development: A symbiotic relationship. 2016. Available from True Sport: http://truesport.org/articles/parents/sport-participation-character-

[18] Beller, J., Stoll, S., Hansen, D. Four year longitudinal study of character development in high school sport. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (Supplemental Abstracts);

[19] Stoll, S. Athletics: the good it should do. Journal of College and Character. 2011; **12**(4).

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University of Idaho; 2004.

[20] Stoll, K., Beller, J. Do sports build character? In: Gerdy, J, editor. Sports in School: The

[21] Rudd, A., Stoll, S. Understanding sportsmanship. Journal of Physical Education,

[22] Rudd, A., Stoll, S., Beller, J. The Rudd, Stoll, Beller, Hahm Values Inventory. Moscow:

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President Jonathan of Nigeria continuously proclaimed that no blood of a Nigerian is worth his ambition before the 2015 elections. However, when he lost the presidential elections in 2015, it would be natural to expect him to become anti‐government and seek ill of the Nigerian people who rejected him. This study thus sought to determine the usage of lan‐ guage by President Jonathan in order to determine if he uses language responsibly and for the peace and unity of Nigeria. The data were sourced from his Facebook page. These were saved and analysed using the Chomsky theta theory and Halliday theme‐rheme system. The findings from the discussion show that Dr. Jonathan consistently exhibit responsible leadership in his linguistic usage. He continued to encourage and call on Nigerians to unite and support the government of the day. It was thus concluded that he has in him the spirit of leadership, which manifests in his positive use of language to encourage Nigeria's unity.

**Keywords:** responsible leadership, linguistic choices, President Jonathan, Facebook, theta theory, theme‐rheme, Nigeria

## **1. Introduction and background**

Many who call themselves leaders within the African milieu have usually been dressed with the false sense of what it means to be a leader. To many, being a leader has to do with the ability to win political positions and be at head of a group or organisation. It has usually been viewed that leadership is about 'calling the shots', while the others are there to obey their orders.

However, it is also a known fact that being a leader entails a lot of responsibility. It actually is a great responsibility [1, 2]. Part of responsible leadership is thus the linguistic choices that

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

people make as leaders. This is why the Rwandan leaders were held accountable for the geno‐ cide of more than two decades ago [3]. The pivot of that unfortunate incident, we now know, is essentially due to the choice of language [4]. In the same vein, the unfortunate killings of young Nigerians on national service as an aftermath of the 2011 elections could be traced to the kind of things being said by some northern leaders before the general elections at the time [2].

In a group, the linguistic choices of its leaders could either make or break the group; it could either hold the group together or scatter it. Linguistic choices are also important in pushing a group to outdo itself or even make it perform below its own attainment mark. Part of what makes for leadership is therefore the language the leader speaks.

This could show the leader as being responsible or not. On the global scene, this is probably why Donald Trump had thrown a chill down the spine of many 'sane' people in the world. The possibility of his becoming the President of America makes many fear, not because he is not qualified to contest but because his rhetoric so far in his quest for the presidential nomi‐ nation of the Republican Party makes many feel he could become the next big problem of the world if he finds himself in the White House as the American President. The question you then ask yourself is: why is this so? Why are people concerned about the kinds of things that Donald Trump is saying? It should be obvious that the way he had been manipulat‐ ing language and thus appearing as the enemy of the free world led to many people say‐ ing very uncomplimentary things about him, from his political opponents to the political 'allies' of America across the Atlantic. This goes to show that leadership responsibility could be couched in linguistic terms [1].

President Jonathan, the erstwhile President of Nigeria, was credited with the statement paraphrased as that no Nigerian citizen's blood is worth his ambition to remain President in Nigeria [5]. Despite his many assurances to this effect before the elections, there was still a lot of tension in Nigeria during the 2015 general elections. The reason for this is another basis for another study [2, 6]. Nonetheless, this promise was carried to the letter when he lost the elections. He voluntarily handed over the leadership of Nigeria to the opposition that won the elections, even calling General Buhari to congratulate him on winning the elections, even before the final results were declared. This unusual act of chivalry and acting responsibly (in a continent bedevilled by sit‐tight 'rulers') as a leader, following his seemingly 'responsible' use of language to save Nigeria from the expected holocaust that many had predicted the 2015 elections, would have so far impressed many outside Nigeria's shores that he had continued to garner awards from across the continents of the world.

### **2. What is leadership?**

Leadership has been variously defined. We will look at some of the definitions here. However, much more of importance is the fact that our approach will be that of seeing leadership as an art as well as a responsibility. The issue is that a responsible leader will be artistic in the man‐ ner in which their responsibility is delivered. This will make for consistency in the manner of doing the leadership.

Kruse [7] tries to define leadership by identifying what it is not. One essential factor he notes is that leadership is not about age, social position or assigned roles. He opines that leader‐ ship is a process of *social influence*, which aims at maximising the efforts of others towards the *achievement of a goal*. To Smith [8], leadership has to do with the ability to adapt the setting or situation in such a manner that everyone feels empowered to contribute creatively to solv‐ ing the problems. It is thus about being able to coordinate resources or people to the end of achieving a goal. In essence, leadership should lead to success in every sphere of one's life.

### **2.1. Leadership as responsibility**

people make as leaders. This is why the Rwandan leaders were held accountable for the geno‐ cide of more than two decades ago [3]. The pivot of that unfortunate incident, we now know, is essentially due to the choice of language [4]. In the same vein, the unfortunate killings of young Nigerians on national service as an aftermath of the 2011 elections could be traced to the kind of things being said by some northern leaders before the general elections at the time [2]. In a group, the linguistic choices of its leaders could either make or break the group; it could either hold the group together or scatter it. Linguistic choices are also important in pushing a group to outdo itself or even make it perform below its own attainment mark. Part of what

This could show the leader as being responsible or not. On the global scene, this is probably why Donald Trump had thrown a chill down the spine of many 'sane' people in the world. The possibility of his becoming the President of America makes many fear, not because he is not qualified to contest but because his rhetoric so far in his quest for the presidential nomi‐ nation of the Republican Party makes many feel he could become the next big problem of the world if he finds himself in the White House as the American President. The question you then ask yourself is: why is this so? Why are people concerned about the kinds of things that Donald Trump is saying? It should be obvious that the way he had been manipulat‐ ing language and thus appearing as the enemy of the free world led to many people say‐ ing very uncomplimentary things about him, from his political opponents to the political 'allies' of America across the Atlantic. This goes to show that leadership responsibility could

President Jonathan, the erstwhile President of Nigeria, was credited with the statement paraphrased as that no Nigerian citizen's blood is worth his ambition to remain President in Nigeria [5]. Despite his many assurances to this effect before the elections, there was still a lot of tension in Nigeria during the 2015 general elections. The reason for this is another basis for another study [2, 6]. Nonetheless, this promise was carried to the letter when he lost the elections. He voluntarily handed over the leadership of Nigeria to the opposition that won the elections, even calling General Buhari to congratulate him on winning the elections, even before the final results were declared. This unusual act of chivalry and acting responsibly (in a continent bedevilled by sit‐tight 'rulers') as a leader, following his seemingly 'responsible' use of language to save Nigeria from the expected holocaust that many had predicted the 2015 elections, would have so far impressed many outside Nigeria's shores that he had continued

Leadership has been variously defined. We will look at some of the definitions here. However, much more of importance is the fact that our approach will be that of seeing leadership as an art as well as a responsibility. The issue is that a responsible leader will be artistic in the man‐ ner in which their responsibility is delivered. This will make for consistency in the manner of

makes for leadership is therefore the language the leader speaks.

to garner awards from across the continents of the world.

be couched in linguistic terms [1].

94 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**2. What is leadership?**

doing the leadership.

In this study, a syntactic analysis of the linguistic choices of President Jonathan as a leader is the focus. The question then is what makes a leader responsible. Nelson Mandela was quoted as defining a leader as one who leads from behind, where the victory is shared by all but that takes responsibility for any negative occurrence in the group they lead by being at its fore‐ front at such times [9].

In essence, part of being a skilful leader involves being able to take actions that show sense of responsibility knowing that they are social influencers [10]. Looking at the features that make for a skilful leader as outlined by Gameslearn.com [11] and Taylor [12], a responsible leader is one who lives by example and one who has good attitude. They are able to hold their nega‐ tive energy in check and look at the bigger picture rather than being narrow minded in their responses to situation.

One may thus dare to add and say that a responsible leader is one who motivates people to do that which is to the benefit of all and sundry rather than their narrow selfish interests. This will require a great deal of readiness to sacrifice the self on the altar of the general good. Like Taylor [12] asserts, leadership involves giving and serving. The leader's linguistic choices should reflect such sacrifices, in our view. Kruse [7] quotes John Maxwell as summarising the concept of leadership as: 'influence – nothing more or less'. It is thus obvious that responsible leadership is being careful about how this influence is wielded to the end of common good. The kind of language the leaders chooses to express themselves should thus serve greatly to determine their level of social responsibility.

Nonetheless, it needs be pointed out that the modern leader has been defined as being a lot more fluid than the 'great man' view of a leader. Clare [10] states, 'we have to nurture a new leadership that doesn't depend on the illusion of extraordinary individuals. Indeed, the leadership of the future will not be provided simply by individuals but by groups, communities and networks'. Nonetheless, even in these groups, leaders emerge as someone tends to give direction and have influence that gives direction to the group or community. These are those that can make all the difference through their behavioural pattern – whether the collective will work or not.

A very interesting twist to the definition of leadership is [13] definition of leadership as 'the capacity to influence others through inspiration motivated by a passion, generated by a vision, produced by a conviction, ignited by a purpose' (p. 54). His argument is that influence is not enough to describe leadership. The kind of leadership provided must be positive and for common good for it to be called true leadership. In this wise, inspiration is an important component of the true spirit of leadership. It has to be rooted in a passion that is motivated by a vision. It is obvious that such a leadership will be expressed in the linguistic choices of that a leader. This is because the negative and manipulative kind of influence is manifested in propaganda; so, also will positive leadership be manifest in the encouraging and inspiring linguistic choices of the leader that could be described as responsible.

This study thus focuses on how language makes a difference in exposing the skilfulness or otherwise of the person of Dr. Jonathan as a leader in Nigeria. As much as it needs to be acknowledged that his leadership was based on position, the possible influence of that posi‐ tion in the graveness of the consequence that could follow his linguistic choices cannot be over‐emphasised. However, the interest here is to determine whether his linguistic choices fits into the perceived posture of a leader who looks at the bigger picture that his assurance of not wanting to lead Nigeria into commotion and confusion due to his personal ambition to continue to hold political office is a consistent posture or a mere fluke.

## **3. Problem statement**

This paper thus hopes to uncover if indeed his language usage is an art and act of responsibil‐ ity or just a chance occurrence that earned him his current global recognition.

## **4. Objectives**


## **5. Research questions**


## **6. Methodology**

This paper is a syntactic analysis of President Jonathan's speeches, especially those on his Facebook posts. This is especially relevant in the face of the seeming 'persecution' of his government by the new government [14]. It appeared as if that he could not be provoked to make public statements that would be considered unstatesmanlike. Could it then be that responsible leadership is a pattern exhibited through his usage of language?

Empirical data to confirm or refute this hypothesis are the focus of this paper. About 40 Facebook posts of Dr. Jonathan were harvested from his Facebook page. These include some of his formal speeches and engagements, which were posted on his Facebook page. These were saved on the author's Facebook page and later accessed for analytical purposes. Nonetheless, only a few of the Facebook posts were eventually used as data and analysed in this paper. These were coded for easy reference as FB day, the month and year, for example, FB 6 June 16 meaning Facebook 6 June, 2016. This style is used to show the extracted data and their date of posting on Dr. Goodluck Jonathan's Facebook page.

A syntactic analysis of his selected speeches in his Facebook posts was then done to compare the formal and informal usages of the English language by President Jonathan to ascertain the level of his responsible use of language at the formal and informal levels. It is expected that, with the informal medium such as the social media, he could let down his guard and respond to the government of the day. However, his linguistic choices as a measure of such tendencies are expected to reveal if he is a leader indeed or just a fluke of chance in terms of his handling of his famous mantra that no Nigerian blood is worth his ambition. As such, the Chomskian theta theory as well as the Hallidayan textual meta‐function is applied to unearth both the psychological and expressive bases in the usages of President Jonathan. The next section looks at the framework of analysis for the study.

## **7. Theoretical framework**

is an important component of the true spirit of leadership. It has to be rooted in a passion that is motivated by a vision. It is obvious that such a leadership will be expressed in the linguistic choices of that a leader. This is because the negative and manipulative kind of influence is manifested in propaganda; so, also will positive leadership be manifest in the encouraging and inspiring linguistic choices of the leader that could be described as

This study thus focuses on how language makes a difference in exposing the skilfulness or otherwise of the person of Dr. Jonathan as a leader in Nigeria. As much as it needs to be acknowledged that his leadership was based on position, the possible influence of that posi‐ tion in the graveness of the consequence that could follow his linguistic choices cannot be over‐emphasised. However, the interest here is to determine whether his linguistic choices fits into the perceived posture of a leader who looks at the bigger picture that his assurance of not wanting to lead Nigeria into commotion and confusion due to his personal ambition to

This paper thus hopes to uncover if indeed his language usage is an art and act of responsibil‐

**1.** This paper seeks to find out if his seeming responsible use of language was a fluke or a

**2.** It also wishes to ascertain if he is in the habit of being cautious in his usages as a leader

**1.** Is there a pattern of usage in the linguistic choices of President Jonathan or is the per‐

**2.** Are President Jonathan linguistic choices consistently cautious even now that he is no

This paper is a syntactic analysis of President Jonathan's speeches, especially those on his Facebook posts. This is especially relevant in the face of the seeming 'persecution' of his government by the new government [14]. It appeared as if that he could not be provoked

continue to hold political office is a consistent posture or a mere fluke.

ity or just a chance occurrence that earned him his current global recognition.

pattern of the linguistic behaviour of President Jonathan.

ceived responsible linguistic choices a fluke?

now that he is no longer in power and his party in opposition.

responsible.

96 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**3. Problem statement**

**5. Research questions**

longer in power?

**6. Methodology**

**4. Objectives**

Syntactic analysis is done in this study. The combined theories of Chomsky and Halliday were applied to the data. The theta theory of Chomsky as explicated in the government and binding theory (GB syntax) is combined with the theme‐rheme system as described in the Hallidayan systemic functional grammar (SFG) to do a psychological prodding and deter‐ mine the sociological manifestation of such base psychological manifestations in the linguistic choices of Dr. Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria. These theories are discussed below.

### **7.1. The theta theory**

The theta theory is basically about how verbs assign thematic roles to their arguments. These arguments are usually NPs, which occupy theta positions. In this position, an argument can perform a referential task like that of name, pronoun or anaphor in the sentence [15: 35]. Any element outside this theta position is said to be in a non‐argument position and consequently cannot be assigned a theta role. The verb thus determines the role played by a particular NP in an argument position, such as complement or subject positions adjoining it, within the sen‐ tence structure, for example, *Sade slapped the boy*. The verb, *slapped*, assigns the role of **agent** to *Sade* and that of **patient** to *the boy*.

A theta role is consequently the set of thematic relations assigned by an element to a theta position. Thematic relations, on the other hand, are the semantic relations that hold between a particular verb and a particular noun phrase [16: 55]. However, only a single theta role can be performed by an argument at a given time. The governing verb usually assigns thematic roles to its adjacent NP argument(s). There are many other thematic roles apart from the two already mentioned. These are described below. The essential fact that needs to be noted is that these roles are usually semantic in nature. However, some scholars see the idea of thematic roles being semantically disagreeable. This point is discussed further subsequently.

Chomsky [15: 17] observes that 'at the most general level of description, the goal of a grammar is to express the association between representations of meaning'. Ravin [17: 1] alleges that this is a very drastic turnaround by Chomsky from his previous stance that meaning is some‐ thing not too useful to grammatical theorising. Ravin [17] thus notes that the GB syntax is built on the pivot of meaning and that the theta theory is the locus of its explication. This he finds untenable as he believes that grammatical forms should not be tied to semantic explications.

It is held here that the two are highly connected. Grammatical structures are essentially a means of expressing propositions, which obviously are semantic contents or intentions of the speaker. The syntagmatic orderings of these structures are important means of conveying the proposi‐ tional contents. Though one finds their insistence on 'quantitative account of the patterns of verbal elements' as a prerequisite suspect, Miller and Selfridge [18] opine that the syntactical structuring of words can be so important that 'an accidental inversion of words…can produce grotesque alterations of a sentence' which can lead to a sensible message turning into 'gibber‐ ish' (p. 198). Kempson [19: 140] declares that the meaning of a sentence is not only expressed by meanings of the words contained in it but also by the 'syntactic arrangement in that sentence'.

There is a world of difference between *I told him to come* and *he was told to come*. While the first sentence is probably a statement of fact, the second sentence may be a mere conjecture or even a vague wish. Moreover, the agent of the verb *told* is present in the first sentence, while there is uncertainty about the agent of the same action in the second sentence. This undermines the possible volitional effectiveness of the second sentence. The differential meaning is brought about by the structural disparity between the two sentences. Lyons [20], however, calls for caution in this regard as he thinks matching sentences and meanings one on one could result in distorted analysis. He nevertheless acknowledges that the grammatical and semantic struc‐ tures of a language are 'highly…congruent with one another' (p. 135).

In this study, different explications of the theta theory within the GB syntax tradition are brought together, as they suit the data. Chomsky [15] identifies only three thematic roles. These are agent, patient/goal and instrument. Cowper [16] and Lamidi [21], however, add source, location, experiencer, recipient, benefactive, theme and percept. Napoli [22] identi‐ fies beneficiary (benefactive of Cowper [16]), maleficiary and motive as well as some others already mentioned. Ndimele [23] adds path in addition to some others already outlined.

Cowper [16] is of the opinion that not all scholars are agreed on the issue of the theme role. Carnie [24] observes that the disagreement is more wide ranging than just the concern with the theme role. Napoli [22: 383] points out that for English 'the debate over how many and which theta roles we have is ongoing'. These roles are believed to be connected to the gram‐ matical functions (GFs) of the arguments [15, 16, 22]. This view of the close‐knit link between syntax and semantics has been seriously questioned by Ravin [17] as noted above. He argues that thematic roles are not valid semantic entities, adding that the claim that the meaning of predicates can be used to predict syntactic structures is a fallacious one.

One, however, differs because the verb as the nucleus of a clause to a large extent determines its meaning structure, that is, its propositional content. When structures lack meaning, they are most probably going to prove nonsensical (especially when not properly contextualised, compare [25] and [26]). As a result, the words that reveal the action and processes or states within the clause should reveal the one affected by the action as well as the doer of the action or one in the state, as the case may be. Thus, thematic roles are regarded in this study as being important to syntax in that they give life to the grammatical positions within the clause. This is because they are actually semantic role carriers, depending on the function they perform in that particular syntactic position as assigned by the verb. Like Lamidi [21: 57] fittingly points out: 'since the verb is central, it means that the adjoining arguments are dependent on it for their interpretation'. Thus, the VP theta marks the NPs in the subject/object positions in the structure. The theta roles assigned to particular GF positions thus convey the thematic rela‐ tions existing between the verb and the argument(s) in the clause.

To this extent, of course, GB syntax is an improvement in the previous theories of TGG, which makes it very relevant to the present analysis. It is expected to disclose the effecting argu‐ ment (agent of the action) and the affected one (the argument at the receiving end of the action) within the event represented by the sentence. As rightly noted by Chomsky [15], we can account for these thematic relations within the clausal structure without needing to create a new abstract level of 'θ‐system' (p. 103) within the grammar.

Napoli [22: 382] opines that 'almost every statement one can make about syntax is open to attack'. This is no reason not to make them. The current quest is to find out how the erstwhile Nigerian President perceives his power base in relation to others in the society. It appears that the theta theory in the mentalistic generative grammar is adequate for this pursuit as it can reveal his perception of role and influence as expressed in the syntactic structures in relation to his leadership responsibility as the president of and a statesman in Nigeria. It is expected that the posture he manifests should show whether his psychological location is of the unconcerned or that of a responsible leader who sees implications to the linguistic choices he makes. This is important to this study.

Therefore, presented here are the previously identified thematic roles and their meanings. In the course of the analysis, the particular ones that occur in the data are the ones discussed in relation to their functions in the structures.

*Agent*: one that initiates an action or carries out the action.

*Patient*: the one affected by the action

a particular verb and a particular noun phrase [16: 55]. However, only a single theta role can be performed by an argument at a given time. The governing verb usually assigns thematic roles to its adjacent NP argument(s). There are many other thematic roles apart from the two already mentioned. These are described below. The essential fact that needs to be noted is that these roles are usually semantic in nature. However, some scholars see the idea of thematic

Chomsky [15: 17] observes that 'at the most general level of description, the goal of a grammar is to express the association between representations of meaning'. Ravin [17: 1] alleges that this is a very drastic turnaround by Chomsky from his previous stance that meaning is some‐ thing not too useful to grammatical theorising. Ravin [17] thus notes that the GB syntax is built on the pivot of meaning and that the theta theory is the locus of its explication. This he finds untenable as he believes that grammatical forms should not be tied to semantic explications. It is held here that the two are highly connected. Grammatical structures are essentially a means of expressing propositions, which obviously are semantic contents or intentions of the speaker. The syntagmatic orderings of these structures are important means of conveying the proposi‐ tional contents. Though one finds their insistence on 'quantitative account of the patterns of verbal elements' as a prerequisite suspect, Miller and Selfridge [18] opine that the syntactical structuring of words can be so important that 'an accidental inversion of words…can produce grotesque alterations of a sentence' which can lead to a sensible message turning into 'gibber‐ ish' (p. 198). Kempson [19: 140] declares that the meaning of a sentence is not only expressed by meanings of the words contained in it but also by the 'syntactic arrangement in that sentence'. There is a world of difference between *I told him to come* and *he was told to come*. While the first sentence is probably a statement of fact, the second sentence may be a mere conjecture or even a vague wish. Moreover, the agent of the verb *told* is present in the first sentence, while there is uncertainty about the agent of the same action in the second sentence. This undermines the possible volitional effectiveness of the second sentence. The differential meaning is brought about by the structural disparity between the two sentences. Lyons [20], however, calls for caution in this regard as he thinks matching sentences and meanings one on one could result in distorted analysis. He nevertheless acknowledges that the grammatical and semantic struc‐

roles being semantically disagreeable. This point is discussed further subsequently.

98 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

tures of a language are 'highly…congruent with one another' (p. 135).

In this study, different explications of the theta theory within the GB syntax tradition are brought together, as they suit the data. Chomsky [15] identifies only three thematic roles. These are agent, patient/goal and instrument. Cowper [16] and Lamidi [21], however, add source, location, experiencer, recipient, benefactive, theme and percept. Napoli [22] identi‐ fies beneficiary (benefactive of Cowper [16]), maleficiary and motive as well as some others already mentioned. Ndimele [23] adds path in addition to some others already outlined.

Cowper [16] is of the opinion that not all scholars are agreed on the issue of the theme role. Carnie [24] observes that the disagreement is more wide ranging than just the concern with the theme role. Napoli [22: 383] points out that for English 'the debate over how many and which theta roles we have is ongoing'. These roles are believed to be connected to the gram‐ matical functions (GFs) of the arguments [15, 16, 22]. This view of the close‐knit link between

*Theme*: the focus of the action or about what/whom the action is

*Goal*: the one that receives the action or towards which a movement is made

*Instrument*: the entity used to perform an action

*Source*: the point of origin of an entity *Location*: the position of an entity (abstract or concrete) *Beneficiary/Benefactive*: one for whose benefit or well‐being the action occurs *Maleficiary*: one to whose detriment the action occurs *Motive*: the propelling force behind the action *Experiencer*: the one who feels or perceives an event *Recipient*: this is a kind of goal of the action like 'give', 'donate', etc. *Percept*: an entity which is experienced *Path*: the route through which an entity moves

#### **7.2. The theme and rheme system**

The Halliday [27] describes the theme system as the major textual system at the clause rank which gives the clause its character as a message. Halliday and Matthiessen [28] suggest that in all languages 'the clause has the character of a message' (p. 88). Osisanwo [29: 81] emphasises that the theme system 'accounts for the positioning of elements of clause struc‐ ture within the clause. Specifically…the available choices in the initial position of the clause'. Brown and Miller [30] affirm that '"theme", "rheme" and "end focus" refer to structural posi‐ tions within the sentence' (p. 357). These positions are functional positions. James [31] opines, following Halliday [32], that the theme system is realised in the textual metafunction which brings together all the other metafunctions. Thematic status is assigned to an element in the English language by putting it first, while the remaining part of the message, called rheme, completes the procedure of forming a text [28]. Consequently, the theme is the point of depar‐ ture for a message in the structure; it is the focus of the clause.

According to Bloor and Bloor [33], the theme system has to do with the textual function of the text. They declare: 'A simple explanation of Theme in English is to think of it as *the idea represented by the constituent at the starting point of the clause'*, while rheme is '*the rest of the message'* contained in the latter part of the clause [(p. 72) original emphasis]. In this vein, the theme has to do with the element at the initial position in the clause and the rheme, the tail end of the clause. Usually, the theme is a subject element in a declarative clause. Therefore, it is referred to as an unmarked theme. But when other elements like a predicate, a complement or an adjunct fill this position, the initial position becomes marked. The information is being specially focused. Interestingly, a subject may be focused. In this case, the intonation structure is very vital in determining a subject position with a marked theme [27, 33].

Halliday [27] avows that when the message structure is organised with the subject position filled by an NP‐subject element in the initial position in the clause, it is called an unmarked theme. Conversely, when the receiver of the action fills this position, the theme is said to be marked, that is, occupying a position that makes it prominent and focused in the information structure. This position getting occupied by adverbial or prepositional elements also turns it into a marked thematic position. Halliday [27: 39] observes that 'the Theme is not necessarily a NOMINAL GROUP…It may also be an ADVERBIAL GROUP or PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE' (original capitalisation). The theme‐rheme structure summary is presented in **Figure 1**.


**Figure 1.** Theme‐rheme structure of English. Adapted from [34].

*Source*: the point of origin of an entity

100 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

*Location*: the position of an entity (abstract or concrete)

*Maleficiary*: one to whose detriment the action occurs

*Experiencer*: the one who feels or perceives an event

*Motive*: the propelling force behind the action

*Path*: the route through which an entity moves

ture for a message in the structure; it is the focus of the clause.

is very vital in determining a subject position with a marked theme [27, 33].

*Percept*: an entity which is experienced

**7.2. The theme and rheme system**

*Beneficiary/Benefactive*: one for whose benefit or well‐being the action occurs

*Recipient*: this is a kind of goal of the action like 'give', 'donate', etc.

The Halliday [27] describes the theme system as the major textual system at the clause rank which gives the clause its character as a message. Halliday and Matthiessen [28] suggest that in all languages 'the clause has the character of a message' (p. 88). Osisanwo [29: 81] emphasises that the theme system 'accounts for the positioning of elements of clause struc‐ ture within the clause. Specifically…the available choices in the initial position of the clause'. Brown and Miller [30] affirm that '"theme", "rheme" and "end focus" refer to structural posi‐ tions within the sentence' (p. 357). These positions are functional positions. James [31] opines, following Halliday [32], that the theme system is realised in the textual metafunction which brings together all the other metafunctions. Thematic status is assigned to an element in the English language by putting it first, while the remaining part of the message, called rheme, completes the procedure of forming a text [28]. Consequently, the theme is the point of depar‐

According to Bloor and Bloor [33], the theme system has to do with the textual function of the text. They declare: 'A simple explanation of Theme in English is to think of it as *the idea represented by the constituent at the starting point of the clause'*, while rheme is '*the rest of the message'* contained in the latter part of the clause [(p. 72) original emphasis]. In this vein, the theme has to do with the element at the initial position in the clause and the rheme, the tail end of the clause. Usually, the theme is a subject element in a declarative clause. Therefore, it is referred to as an unmarked theme. But when other elements like a predicate, a complement or an adjunct fill this position, the initial position becomes marked. The information is being specially focused. Interestingly, a subject may be focused. In this case, the intonation structure

Halliday [27] avows that when the message structure is organised with the subject position filled by an NP‐subject element in the initial position in the clause, it is called an unmarked theme. Conversely, when the receiver of the action fills this position, the theme is said to be marked, that is, occupying a position that makes it prominent and focused in the information structure. This position getting occupied by adverbial or prepositional elements also turns it Halliday sums up the relevance of the theme system to the textual function as follows:

The Theme is one element in a particular structural configuration which, taken as a whole, organizes the clause as a message; this is the configuration Theme + Rheme… Within that configuration, the Theme is the starting‐point for the message; it is what the clause is going to be about. So part of the meaning of any clause lies in which element is chosen as its Theme…First position in the clause is not what defines the Theme; it is the means whereby the function of Theme is realized, in the grammar of English [27: 39].

The implication is that it is not just the positioning of the element that determines whether it is a theme or not, but the function it is performing in that initial position. Consequently, the need for ascertaining the function of an element in the initial position is important in determining its thematic status rather than the element simply occupying the initial position. Halliday [27] also points out that some other languages like Japanese use other means to determine the thematic structure of clauses. Halliday and Matthiessen [28: 88] assert that the thematic structure in Japanese is marked with the use of a special postposition, *wa*, indicating that whatever immediately precedes it is thematic.

Levinson [35], conversely, sees the theme‐rheme structure as a confused enterprise as it is lim‐ ited to declarative structures and unable to account for the complex ones. We, however, believe this is not necessarily true as the possibility of the occurrence of an adverbial theme, espe‐ cially the subordinate clause, shows that the theme‐rheme structures are possible in complex sentences. Additionally, the theme‐rheme structure is usually about the information structure in a particular clause and, as such, may be able to account for the information structures pos‐ sible within a complex sentence, with many clauses or even show the interconnectivity of the information being expressed in the whole sentence or text. Halliday [27] and Halliday and Matthiessen [28] give such examples with subordinating clause themes or clause complex theme structures.

## **8. Data analysis and discussion**

The data ware sourced from the Facebook account of President Jonathan. He started his Facebook romance with young Nigerians in early 2010 with the intention of connecting with them and finding a way of getting direct access to the happenings in the Nigerian society from the members of the public. Eventually, it became a means of influencing the young to vote for him in 2011, it would seem. He seemed to have struck a chord with the young, while his wife seemed to convince the womenfolk to vote for her husband. The result of that election is now history.

An attempt to repeat this feat in 2015 failed woefully. Nonetheless, it appears that the fail‐ ure is actually a success in disguise [36]. President Jonathan avers in the post: 'Some may think it is ironic that perhaps my greatest achievement was not winning the 2015 Presidential Election…I proved to the ordinary man or woman in the country that I was his or her equal'. This is the pique that motivated this study.

The fact is that even though Dr. Jonathan lost the presidential elections, his readiness to hand over government to his successor without any protest or compulsion surprised many and seemed to affirm his mantra that his ambition is not worth the blood of any Nigerian. This is considered at variance with the usual reaction of some African leaders as shown by the wars on the continent that had been rooted in the sit‐tight leadership that had been the bane of the continent. Even his successor threw the nation into mourning after losing the 2011 elec‐ tions when his utterances and those of his supporters from his defunct party, CPC, seemed to have triggered off the postelections violence in Nigeria after the presidential elections of 2011. It would then be obvious that it is probably not the lack of faith in Jonathan's assurances of no Nigerian blood not being worth his ambition that was the reason for the palpable tension that surrounded the 2015 elections, but the antecedent of hate speeches that beclouded the cam‐ paigns leading up to it [2, 6].

#### **8.1. Theta theory application**

The choice of data used is purposively selected as structures that have direct bearing on the issues of public interest and consequence in their implications. Many posts were available on the page, but those chosen are comments with national import or appeal. In addition, sample data were used representatively as the number of posts is so extensive that all related to the criteria of choice could not reasonably be analysed. This is the approach in the analyses under the two theories applied (**Texts 1**–**3**).

#### *Text 1: FB 9 February 15*

sentences. Additionally, the theme‐rheme structure is usually about the information structure in a particular clause and, as such, may be able to account for the information structures pos‐ sible within a complex sentence, with many clauses or even show the interconnectivity of the information being expressed in the whole sentence or text. Halliday [27] and Halliday and Matthiessen [28] give such examples with subordinating clause themes or clause complex

The data ware sourced from the Facebook account of President Jonathan. He started his Facebook romance with young Nigerians in early 2010 with the intention of connecting with them and finding a way of getting direct access to the happenings in the Nigerian society from the members of the public. Eventually, it became a means of influencing the young to vote for him in 2011, it would seem. He seemed to have struck a chord with the young, while his wife seemed to convince the womenfolk to vote for her husband. The result of that election is now

An attempt to repeat this feat in 2015 failed woefully. Nonetheless, it appears that the fail‐ ure is actually a success in disguise [36]. President Jonathan avers in the post: 'Some may think it is ironic that perhaps my greatest achievement was not winning the 2015 Presidential Election…I proved to the ordinary man or woman in the country that I was his or her equal'.

The fact is that even though Dr. Jonathan lost the presidential elections, his readiness to hand over government to his successor without any protest or compulsion surprised many and seemed to affirm his mantra that his ambition is not worth the blood of any Nigerian. This is considered at variance with the usual reaction of some African leaders as shown by the wars on the continent that had been rooted in the sit‐tight leadership that had been the bane of the continent. Even his successor threw the nation into mourning after losing the 2011 elec‐ tions when his utterances and those of his supporters from his defunct party, CPC, seemed to have triggered off the postelections violence in Nigeria after the presidential elections of 2011. It would then be obvious that it is probably not the lack of faith in Jonathan's assurances of no Nigerian blood not being worth his ambition that was the reason for the palpable tension that surrounded the 2015 elections, but the antecedent of hate speeches that beclouded the cam‐

The choice of data used is purposively selected as structures that have direct bearing on the issues of public interest and consequence in their implications. Many posts were available on the page, but those chosen are comments with national import or appeal. In addition, sample data were used representatively as the number of posts is so extensive that all related to the criteria of choice could not reasonably be analysed. This is the approach in the analyses

theme structures.

102 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

history.

**8. Data analysis and discussion**

This is the pique that motivated this study.

paigns leading up to it [2, 6].

**8.1. Theta theory application**

under the two theories applied (**Texts 1**–**3**).

My friends (goal)/ on Facebook (location)/, I (source)/ want to remind/ us all (goal)/ that we (experiencer)/ have no other country other than Nigeria (theme)/ and as we (source)/ approach/ the election (goal)/, it (theme) is wise/ that we (agent) speak/ good and peaceable words (theme)/ over Nigeria (beneficiary)/ because we (agent)/ will have to eat our words (patient)/, so let us (agent) make/ them (patient)/ sweet rather than bitter.

We (experiencer)/ must see/ the coming polls (percept)/ as a contest (theme)/ amongst broth‐ ers and sisters from the womb of one Nigeria.

We (agent)/ must avoid/ threats and desperation (theme)/ as we (source)/ make/ our case (theme)/ to the electorate (goal).

Head or tale (source)/, Nigeria (beneficiary)/ wins.

Therefore, I (agent)/ urge all Nigerians (patient)/ to join me (goal)/ in saying/ it (theme)/ is well with Nigeria (beneficiary) and by the special grace of God (instrument), it (theme)/ shall continue to be well with our great country Nigeria (beneficiary).

#### *Text 2: FB 6 June 16*

I (source)/ said before the last election (theme)/[ that my political ambition (motive)/ was not worth the blood (theme)/ of one Nigerian (beneficiary)/] (theme).

I (experiencer)/ was true to my word (theme)/ when on March 16th, 2015, just after the elec‐ tion (source)/, when the results (theme)/ were still being collated by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) (agent)/, I (source)/ called my opponent, General Muhammadu Buhari (rtd) (goal)/ to concede, in order to avoid any conflict (theme)/ and ensure a peaceful transition of power (motive)/.

This (theme)/ was without precedent [sic] in my country and I (experiencer)/ am proud that it (agent)/ achieved my goal (patient)/ of [no conflict (goal)/ arising from the result of the elec‐ tion (source)] (motive).

Some (experiencer)/ may think it (theme)/ is ironic that perhaps my proudest achievement (percept)/ was not winning the 2015 Presidential Election (theme). By being the first elected Nigerian leader (agent)/ to willingly hand over power (patient)/ via the ballot box (path)/, to the opposition party (beneficiary)/, without contesting the election outcome (theme)/, I (source)/ proved to the ordinary man or woman (goal)/ in the country (location)/ that I (expe‐ riencer)/ was his or her equal (goal).

That his or her vote (theme)/ was equal to mine (theme)/, and that democracy is the "Government by the will of the people"™, and Nigeria, and indeed Africa (experiencer) is ripe for democracy (theme).

It (theme)/ is my sincerest wish (motive) that democracy (goal)/ continues to be consolidated/ in the continent of Africa (location)/ and it (theme)/ will even get better.

For it (theme) has always been my consistent desire (motive)/ to help consolidate/ peace (theme)/ and cultivate/ democracy (theme)/ in Nigeria and across the Continent (location).

The first transformation (source) / … must be … /a shift in our mindset (goal).

We (agent)/ have to make/ the decision (patient)/ to make the rights (theme)/ of our peo‐ ple (beneficiary)/ our priority (goal)/ when making government and investment decisions (theme).

Rather than spending money (patient)/ on resources (goal)/ that will run out, we (agent)/ should be investing it (patient)/ in people who (beneficiary)/ are/ the key constant elements (theme)/ in the socio‐economic transformation of society...

The constitution (experiencer)/ recognizes anyone (percept)/ born in Nigeria (location)/by Nigerian parents (agent)/ as a citizen (theme). We (agent)/ must go/ the next step (goal)/ and accept all Nigerians (theme)/ residing in/ any part of the country (location)/ as equal citizens (beneficiary)...

I (experiencer)/ am/ so very proud of my country (beneficiary).

And I (experiencer)/ believe [it (theme)/ is only right and proper for me] (percept)/, and every Nigerian (source)/ to be able to proudly proclaim, in our villages, in our towns, in our cities, in our country and anywhere in the world (location):

"Civis Nigerianus Sum" (theme)/

I (experiencer)/ AM A CITIZEN (theme)/ OF NIGERIA (location)

*Text 3: FB 17 June 16*

I (Source) / condole with /the families (beneficiary) of /those (maleficiary) killed in Adamawa (location)/by terrorists (agent).

Whenever it (theme)/ occurs, /terrorism (source)/ affects /all Nigerians (maleficiary), because none of us (maleficiary) are safe until /all of us (beneficiary) are safe.

s such /we (agent) must unite against /terror (theme). I (agent)/ urge all Nigerians (patient)/ to support the FG (beneficiary)/ in its fight (theme) /against terrorism (maleficiary).

I (agent)/ also salute /our security forces (beneficiary)/ who (agent)/are doing /so much (patient)/ to protect /us (beneficiary).

We (agent)/ owe them (beneficiary)/ a huge debt of gratitude (theme).

Looking at the different passages analysed here, it should be obvious that the agency is not very much with President Jonathan. In most cases, he is source of something positive or the experiencer who has desires that are good. He encourages as source and the goal is usually the Nigerian people. In most cases, the beneficiary of the positive energy and themes is usually the Nigerian people or society. In another case, it is the opposition party. We also have the agency being ascribed to the electoral umpire. His agency usually has the Nigerian people as beneficiary of the action. In one case, the maleficiary is the act of terror, which again has an agency that is negative to the Nigerian people.

In this wise, we note that when you have a case of maleficiary in the texts that has to do with the Nigerian people, it has terrorists as being source of such malevolence. He essentially asserts that the Nigerian people have been negatively affected by the terror acts and they need to also react against it and free themselves from its evil albatross.

In the same vein, when we compare the thread running through the formal speech and the ordinary Facebook posts, we can see that there is consistency of seeking the benefit for the Nigerian people and malevolence for anything that seeks their harm. It is also observed that consistently, his argument is for a better Nigeria. In the long run, he avers that being proud of the citizenship of Nigeria is fundamental to achieving the global benefit for all and sundry. Using his *experiencer* status, he encourages all to put on their gab of patriotism and don their citizenship to move Nigeria into the status of a worthy twenty‐first century nation. The only malevolence shown is directed towards the terror peddlers as seen throughout his speeches and posts.

The texts analysed above thus indicate that the trends in his linguistic choices are actually to lead the people into taking their place for the advancement of Nigeria and against anything at variance with the advancement of Nigeria. This leadership posture can thus be aligned with the Munroe [13] view that leadership is by inspiration. In addition, one could also see his calling on all Nigerians to take their place in the joint venture of advancing Nigeria as being in agreement with the assertion by Clare [10] that the twenty‐first century leadership will be about the people and not one great individual.

Quite clearly, the application of the theta theory easily helps see that the psychology of President Jonathan in relation to the kind of language he uses concerning Nigeria in his posts seems more conciliatory and seeking the common good. This reveals a consistency in his usage that affirms his tendency to reveal responsible leadership in his linguistic choices in his public comments on issues relating to Nigeria and her people.

#### **8.2. Theme‐rheme analysis**

For it (theme) has always been my consistent desire (motive)/ to help consolidate/ peace (theme)/ and cultivate/ democracy (theme)/ in Nigeria and across the Continent (location).

We (agent)/ have to make/ the decision (patient)/ to make the rights (theme)/ of our peo‐ ple (beneficiary)/ our priority (goal)/ when making government and investment decisions

Rather than spending money (patient)/ on resources (goal)/ that will run out, we (agent)/ should be investing it (patient)/ in people who (beneficiary)/ are/ the key constant elements

The constitution (experiencer)/ recognizes anyone (percept)/ born in Nigeria (location)/by Nigerian parents (agent)/ as a citizen (theme). We (agent)/ must go/ the next step (goal)/ and accept all Nigerians (theme)/ residing in/ any part of the country (location)/ as equal citizens

And I (experiencer)/ believe [it (theme)/ is only right and proper for me] (percept)/, and every Nigerian (source)/ to be able to proudly proclaim, in our villages, in our towns, in our cities,

I (Source) / condole with /the families (beneficiary) of /those (maleficiary) killed in Adamawa

Whenever it (theme)/ occurs, /terrorism (source)/ affects /all Nigerians (maleficiary), because

s such /we (agent) must unite against /terror (theme). I (agent)/ urge all Nigerians (patient)/ to

I (agent)/ also salute /our security forces (beneficiary)/ who (agent)/are doing /so much

Looking at the different passages analysed here, it should be obvious that the agency is not very much with President Jonathan. In most cases, he is source of something positive or the experiencer who has desires that are good. He encourages as source and the goal is usually the Nigerian people. In most cases, the beneficiary of the positive energy and themes is usually the Nigerian people or society. In another case, it is the opposition party. We also have the agency being ascribed to the electoral umpire. His agency usually has the Nigerian people as

support the FG (beneficiary)/ in its fight (theme) /against terrorism (maleficiary).

The first transformation (source) / … must be … /a shift in our mindset (goal).

(theme)/ in the socio‐economic transformation of society...

I (experiencer)/ am/ so very proud of my country (beneficiary).

I (experiencer)/ AM A CITIZEN (theme)/ OF NIGERIA (location)

none of us (maleficiary) are safe until /all of us (beneficiary) are safe.

We (agent)/ owe them (beneficiary)/ a huge debt of gratitude (theme).

in our country and anywhere in the world (location):

"Civis Nigerianus Sum" (theme)/

(location)/by terrorists (agent).

(patient)/ to protect /us (beneficiary).

*Text 3: FB 17 June 16*

(theme).

104 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

(beneficiary)...

This section analyses the data using the theme‐rheme instrument. The thematic structure basically presents the clause as a message. The first part is the focus of information, while the second part is the information provided about the theme. Essentially then, the focus of information is important in deciphering the intent of the speaker at this point. The analy‐ sis above has already shown a psychology of the collective good as the motivation for the linguistic choices of Dr. Goodluck Jonathan. We wish to see whether the SFG analysis of the speeches, using the textual metafunction, bears this out.

This section takes random samples from the texts above to enable us be faithful to the analysis (**Tables 1**–**3**).




```
Table 2. FB 6 June 16
```


**Table 3.** FB 17 June 16

Looking at the posts once again, the application of the theme‐rheme analysis seems to bear out the finding in the theta theory analysis. **Table 1** (FB 9 February 15) has the theme throwing up the collective NPs – complex NP and pronoun 'we' – serving as the theme in all occur‐ rences of the clauses. This table seems to represent a leadership of inclusiveness in which the leadership role involves everyone. What needs to be done to move Nigeria forward is not an exclusive of anyone. This shows a responsible and realistic use of language to get everyone involved in bringing about the needed success of the general elections.

**Table 2** (FB 6 June 16) has a mixture of the first person and some adjuncts serving as the theme. The interesting thing here is that the need for the person talking being an example of what is perfect as the way forward is clearly marked. Nonetheless, the example is expected to catch on and be the source of the forward movement that will be to the benefit of all and the country at large.

**Table 3** (FB 17 June 16) provides a very interesting scenario. The timing of the continued attacks on Nigeria gives concern to the speaker. He further takes the lead of appreciating those that have been at the forefront of destroying those that are working towards ending the unity of Nigeria. He ends the post by bringing together all Nigerians as being indebted to the efforts being made by the armed forces to end the activities of Boko Haram. He started with the sympathy for the loss of Nigerians to the North‐East insurgency and ended with the need for all Nigerians to be grateful and involved in the efforts to end the social and security malaise harming the Nigerian nation's advancement. In the same vein, he uses his influence as a former leader of Nigeria to call on all Nigerians to support the efforts of those presently in government to rout the Boko Haram group because until all Nigerians are safe, no one is actually safe in Nigeria.

## **9. Findings**

**Theme Rheme**

106 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Table 1.** FB 9 February 15

Rather than spending money on resources that

**Table 2.** FB 6 June 16

**Table 3.** FB 17 June 16

will run out,

**Theme Rheme**

My friends on Facebook, I want to remind us all that

I said before the last election that

The first transformation… must be … a shift in our mindset.

I am so very proud of my country.

I AM A CITIZEN OF NIGERIA

**Theme Rheme**

And I believe it is only right and proper for me,

Whenever it occurs, terrorism affects all Nigerians, because none of us are safe until all of us are safe. As such we must unite against terror

We owe them a huge debt of gratitude.

my political ambition was not worth the blood of one Nigerian.

We approach the election, it is wise that

We have no other country other than Nigeria and as

We speak good and peaceable words over Nigeria because

I was true to my word when on March 16th, 2015, just after the election,

government and investment decisions.

we should be investing it in people

We will have to eat our words, so let us make them sweet rather than bitter.

when the results were still being collated by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), I called my opponent, General Muhammadu Buhari (rtd) to concede, in order to avoid any

We have to make the decision to make the rights of our people our priority when making

and every Nigerian to be able to proudly proclaim, in our villages, in our towns, in our cities, in our country and anywhere in the world: "Civis Nigerianus Sum"

conflict and ensure a peaceful transition of power.

who are the key constant elements in the socio‐economic transformation of society.

I condole with the families of those killed in Adamawa by terrorists.

I urge all Nigerians to support the FG in its fight against terrorism. I also salute our security forces who are doing so much to protect us Looking through the Facebook posts of President Jonathan, one perceived trend is that he uses language for the purposes of bringing Nigerians together for the good of the country. He appears to believe more in keeping everyone in the country together rather than apart. He appears to take on the role of an inspirer, thus moving from the manipulative and managerial level of leadership to align to [13] 'spirit' of leadership realm. Munroe calls this sort of leadership that which inspires. The interesting thing about Jonathan's style is the fact that he tries to connect to the audience in a very direct manner, which gives them the opportunity to engage him. Even though one could not find evidence of his responding to comments on his posts, one still feels that the positive energy emanating from the kinds of linguistic choices he makes shows him as a very responsible leader. In addition, his attempt to make the whole citizens involved in the process of taking Nigeria to where she should be as a society seems to also affirm the assertion by Kruse [7] that leadership is not about a great personality but a collective responsibility.

What then is the practical implication of these? One could easily note that part of the prob‐ lem of the world today is that many of her leaders are not ready to take their place in the scheme of things. When the people to be led are seemingly in a dire situation, it makes a lot of sense that the leader should show that they can feel what the people feel and relate with what the people face. These can be achieved by choosing to speak a language that meets the needs of the people and that represents their position. Even when one does not sometimes agree with what the people want, it is important that the leader is able to let them see that you can relate to their issues.

## **10. Conclusion**

In essence, responsible leadership appears to be a spirit [7] that oozes through the linguis‐ tic choices of the speaker. In addition, using the theta theory of the GB syntax and theme‐ rheme instruments of analysis appears to confirm that the psychological base of the linguistic choices has reality in the message content as textually manifested in the thematic structure. The theta roles assigned to the arguments are borne out by the thematic realisations of the same. This once again shows that the TGG and SFG can actually help to uncover nuances of syntactic meanings that would otherwise have been quite hidden if and when they are combined as instruments of syntactic analysis [34]. Our conclusion is thus that there is a con‐ stancy in the positive and cautious statesmanship in linguistic choices of President Jonathan in his Facebook posts – formal and informal usages, thus showing him as taking seriously his responsibility as a leader in Nigeria and exhibiting the desire to keep Nigeria one as top prior‐ ity, which he also stated many times on his Facebook page.

At the international level, what is the implication of these findings and the conclusion drawn. Our view is that if the leaders of the world learn to take a position of responsibility in the type of language they speak, a lot of things that are wrong with the world could be avoided. This is why President‐elect Donald Trump's seeming conciliatory language after his surprising win of the American presidential elections is in order in our opinion. Whether he means this or not, going by his antecedents, is an entirely different matter. To a large extent, the linguistic choices of a man who will be the leader of the free world over the next four or so years will be important.

It has also been noted above that the kind of linguistic choices that led to the Rwandan mas‐ sacre could have been avoided if the interest of the Rwandan citizens had been the upper‐ most element in the mind of her leaders. In this regard, one has to give kudos to President Goodluck Jonathan for avoiding such chaos in Nigeria. The Kenyan experience of electoral violence has not been forgotten; the International Court of Justice continues to remind us. In the same vein, the Cambodia genocide is part of the world's dark history. All that led to the avoidable wars in history had usually been the issue of linguistic choices that are either wrong or a body language that followers misinterpreted and acted on. All these make it important that leaders need to develop the art of leadership that is responsible. Even the silence of the Russian leadership may not always be golden as the destruction of the city of Aleppo in Syria is proving to be in their contest with America over the control of the Syrian airspace while the United Nations helplessly look on.

All these show that the responsibility that comes with leadership goes beyond the one‐man hero, but requires the cooperation of all stakeholders while the arrow head becomes artistic in executing the will of the people and the group they lead. The world can only get better if her leaders get more responsible in language choices. In this way, another disaster could be avoided as the world is full of too many already.

#### **Appendix**

needs of the people and that represents their position. Even when one does not sometimes agree with what the people want, it is important that the leader is able to let them see that

In essence, responsible leadership appears to be a spirit [7] that oozes through the linguis‐ tic choices of the speaker. In addition, using the theta theory of the GB syntax and theme‐ rheme instruments of analysis appears to confirm that the psychological base of the linguistic choices has reality in the message content as textually manifested in the thematic structure. The theta roles assigned to the arguments are borne out by the thematic realisations of the same. This once again shows that the TGG and SFG can actually help to uncover nuances of syntactic meanings that would otherwise have been quite hidden if and when they are combined as instruments of syntactic analysis [34]. Our conclusion is thus that there is a con‐ stancy in the positive and cautious statesmanship in linguistic choices of President Jonathan in his Facebook posts – formal and informal usages, thus showing him as taking seriously his responsibility as a leader in Nigeria and exhibiting the desire to keep Nigeria one as top prior‐

At the international level, what is the implication of these findings and the conclusion drawn. Our view is that if the leaders of the world learn to take a position of responsibility in the type of language they speak, a lot of things that are wrong with the world could be avoided. This is why President‐elect Donald Trump's seeming conciliatory language after his surprising win of the American presidential elections is in order in our opinion. Whether he means this or not, going by his antecedents, is an entirely different matter. To a large extent, the linguistic choices of a man who will be the leader of the free world over the next four or so years will be important.

It has also been noted above that the kind of linguistic choices that led to the Rwandan mas‐ sacre could have been avoided if the interest of the Rwandan citizens had been the upper‐ most element in the mind of her leaders. In this regard, one has to give kudos to President Goodluck Jonathan for avoiding such chaos in Nigeria. The Kenyan experience of electoral violence has not been forgotten; the International Court of Justice continues to remind us. In the same vein, the Cambodia genocide is part of the world's dark history. All that led to the avoidable wars in history had usually been the issue of linguistic choices that are either wrong or a body language that followers misinterpreted and acted on. All these make it important that leaders need to develop the art of leadership that is responsible. Even the silence of the Russian leadership may not always be golden as the destruction of the city of Aleppo in Syria is proving to be in their contest with America over the control of the Syrian airspace while the

All these show that the responsibility that comes with leadership goes beyond the one‐man hero, but requires the cooperation of all stakeholders while the arrow head becomes artistic in executing the will of the people and the group they lead. The world can only get better if her leaders get more responsible in language choices. In this way, another disaster could be

ity, which he also stated many times on his Facebook page.

United Nations helplessly look on.

avoided as the world is full of too many already.

you can relate to their issues.

108 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**10. Conclusion**

#### **FB 9 February 15**


Source: Dr. Goodluck Jonathan's Facebook Page on 9 February, 2015 from https://m.facebook. com/story.php?story\_fbid=900959303287778&id=105479482835768.

#### **FB 6 June 16**

Source: Dr. Goodluck Jonathan's Facebook Page on 6 June, 2016 from https://m.face‐ book.com/story.php?story\_fbid=1171403292910043&id=105479482835768

#### **FB 17 June 16**

**FB 6 June 16**

110 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Source: Dr. Goodluck Jonathan's Facebook Page on 6 June, 2016 from https://m.face‐

book.com/story.php?story\_fbid=1171403292910043&id=105479482835768


Source: Dr. Goodluck Jonathan's Facebook Page on 17 June, 2016 from https://m.facebook. com/story.php?story\_fbid=1179031118813927&id=105479482835768

## **Author details**

Iyabode Omolara Akewo Daniel

Address all correspondence to: akewoauthe@gmail.com

Department of Languages, Faculty of Arts, National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja, FCT, Nigeria

## **References**


[11] Gameslearn.com. What is leadership? 10 ways to define it. [Internet]. Available from http://game‐learn/what‐is‐leadership‐ways‐to‐define/ [Accessed: 2016 September 21]

**Author details**

112 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Nigeria

**References**

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com. [Accessed: 2016 July 21].

Iyabode Omolara Akewo Daniel

Address all correspondence to: akewoauthe@gmail.com

Department of Languages, Faculty of Arts, National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja, FCT,

[1] Daniel, I. O. A. Language, leadership, power, and gender in Oyedepo's *The Rebellion of* 

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[7] Kruse K. What is leadership? [Internet]. 2013. Available from http://www.forbes.com/ sites/kevinkruse/2013/04/09/what‐is‐leadership/2/#4651cad6e825 [Accessed: 2016

[8] Smith S. M. What is leadership? [Internet]. 2010. Available from http://stevenmsmith.

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### **Critical Revision of Leadership Styles in Management and Company Cases Critical Revision of Leadership Styles in Management and Company Cases**

Beatriz Peña-Acuña Beatriz Peña-Acuña

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[30] Brown E. K., Miller J. M. Syntax: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure. London

[31] James I. O. A stylistic analysis of the articles of some female columnists in the Nigerian

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[33] Bloor T., Bloor, M. The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan Approach. London

[34] Daniel I. O. The Linguistic and Pictorial Representation of Nigerian Women's Assertiveness in Selected Nigerian Newspapers. [thesis] Ibadan: University of Ibadan; 2008.

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114 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

and New York: Arnold; 1995.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65952

#### **Abstract**

In this chapter, we expose from a critical point of view the main leadership styles and then three successful international case companies (Inditex, Santander, and Telefónica) that recognized their style and the strategies they developed. These cases will be the start point to discuss what kind of leadership seems to be more suitable for staff development and for a better management of human resources. Our hypothesis is that with these styles of leadership, effectiveness of human resources is enhanced, and productivity of enterprises is assured to remain competitive, adapted, and successful. Also, we assume that there are some cultures in which these styles of leadership are better prepared, as the culture predisposes employees to accept and assimilate them. We are aware that worldwide business culture has a long way to progress toward more evolved leadership styles. This business culture is partly linked, or it is concomitant to the value or condition that is given to citizens in societies.

**Keywords:** leadership styles, business, management, case studies, humanization

## **1. Introduction**

This approach has its origin in an international family background, after conducting several investigations during several years about leadership in companies, culture, and visiting some countries. This text, as some previous ones, comes from the passion for personal and business communication, and, if possible, the interest in contributing to the business world humanization—versus a materialistic view of this activity—after many years of study, teaching, and research. As Moreno-Jimenez states in his article "Psychosocial occupational factors and hazards," greater attention to the company human resources in the current global context from the legal and state point of view is urgently needed.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Globalization and its products have given birth to a huge area of economic and labor deregulation which has lead to inequality among people and societies, resulting in an increasing social, public, and health decline. Deregulation has never been behind the progress in health, and inequality has never favored the welfare progress, according to the labor one, even less. In this process, recovery requires political action involving an appreciation of public, social, and organizational matters [1].

The research is a qualitative paradigm [2–4] focused on descriptive aspects through methods as an analysis of content and study cases of companies. We will revise recent literature about leadership. We will also research about the leadership styles of the company cases on some sources such as web pages of companies, blogs, forums, news on events, etc.

This "analysis methodology of texts" (scientific texts, curricula, laws, etc.) developed throughout the study was located in the descriptive area, trying to discover the basic components of a phenomenon extracting a given content.

We will also use the methodology of study case: to be concrete, a multiple study of three company cases as instrumental cases and as a sample of research. Merriam [5] defines the case study as particularistic, descriptive, heuristic, and inductive from her point of view. We can also understand it as procedural, systematic, and thorough investigation of a particular case. A case can be a person, a company, an organization, a program, an event, etc. We intend to study and deepen on these three cases, and the conclusions will be minor, not in general, that is, concretely for these three cases.

## **2. Leadership in business**

A leader—from English—is the guide on the way, who goes ahead and who knows how to influence and motivate in order to achieve beneficial goals. It involves being capable of motivating people by means of authority, something very different from ordering them just by the mere exercise of power (*legal authority*) and different from manipulating. Rather, it involves making people move having their dignity and free consent. Leaders, rather than creating illusions, work on catalyzing the others' unrealized dreams, and to do so, first of all, they have to respect the relatives, and then they have to know them—what they have done and who they are—and know their potential and what they could do and become. The leader must be an expert in human resources, in knowing people, and in their complexity. A leader should be good at socializing and that he must be human because that way, he will know the psychological and social reality around him, he knows how to adapt to others, he designs positive workspaces, and he knows how to create emotional and social ties to achieve a good teamwork.

The previous researches which we have been carried out [6, 7] suggest that we should consider that the more the corporate social fabric of a company is humanized, the more productive and satisfied employees, middle managers, and directors will be. This depends on each of the actors and the climate that is created through the authentic experience of ethical values proposed by each company and the materialization through the tools and strategies available to it.

We think that being purely subordinate to materialist and speculative goals as a paradigm to address HR is a severe mistake in a company leadership style and a delay as a traditional approach. The working fluidity and creativity will be greater as managers get more instructed, they understand more what the human material is, and they know how to display leadership styles where the own working method and the employees' conditions are adequate.

Globalization and its products have given birth to a huge area of economic and labor deregulation which has lead to inequality among people and societies, resulting in an increasing social, public, and health decline. Deregulation has never been behind the progress in health, and inequality has never favored the welfare progress, according to the labor one, even less. In this process, recovery requires political action involving an appreciation of public, social,

The research is a qualitative paradigm [2–4] focused on descriptive aspects through methods as an analysis of content and study cases of companies. We will revise recent literature about leadership. We will also research about the leadership styles of the company cases on some

This "analysis methodology of texts" (scientific texts, curricula, laws, etc.) developed throughout the study was located in the descriptive area, trying to discover the basic components of a

We will also use the methodology of study case: to be concrete, a multiple study of three company cases as instrumental cases and as a sample of research. Merriam [5] defines the case study as particularistic, descriptive, heuristic, and inductive from her point of view. We can also understand it as procedural, systematic, and thorough investigation of a particular case. A case can be a person, a company, an organization, a program, an event, etc. We intend to study and deepen on these three cases, and the conclusions will be minor, not in general,

A leader—from English—is the guide on the way, who goes ahead and who knows how to influence and motivate in order to achieve beneficial goals. It involves being capable of motivating people by means of authority, something very different from ordering them just by the mere exercise of power (*legal authority*) and different from manipulating. Rather, it involves making people move having their dignity and free consent. Leaders, rather than creating illusions, work on catalyzing the others' unrealized dreams, and to do so, first of all, they have to respect the relatives, and then they have to know them—what they have done and who they are—and know their potential and what they could do and become. The leader must be an expert in human resources, in knowing people, and in their complexity. A leader should be good at socializing and that he must be human because that way, he will know the psychological and social reality around him, he knows how to adapt to others, he designs positive workspaces, and he knows how to create emotional and social ties to achieve a good teamwork.

The previous researches which we have been carried out [6, 7] suggest that we should consider that the more the corporate social fabric of a company is humanized, the more productive and satisfied employees, middle managers, and directors will be. This depends on each of the actors and the climate that is created through the authentic experience of ethical values proposed by each company and the materialization through the tools and strategies

sources such as web pages of companies, blogs, forums, news on events, etc.

and organizational matters [1].

116 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

phenomenon extracting a given content.

that is, concretely for these three cases.

**2. Leadership in business**

available to it.

Pettigrew [8], when analyzing the problems that arose in the management of strategic change, noted the following ones:


Carnota [9] explains that leadership is the act of organizing and directing the interests and activities of a group of people united for some project or company, by a person who encourages their cooperation by the fact of making all of them come to an agreement, more or less voluntarily, in relation to certain purposes and methods. Williams et al. [10] state: "It is Interpersonal influence exercised in a particular situation, through the process of communication, in order to achieve one or more objectives." According to Camacho and others [11], among the desirable features, we could find the following ones: creativity, initiative, tenacity, tolerance for uncertainty, self-esteem, flexibility, strategic vision, ability to self-criticism, ability to communicate and interact with others and with different cultures, commitment, and above all, honesty and respect for ethical values.

A leadership style that takes care of the upward vertical communication is the one which tries to promote social dialogue in the company. It is the channel through which workers come into contact with some other middle managers, etc. until they establish contact with managers to make them suggestions, possible improvements in processes, etc. The care that is taken for this kind of communication is a key point in relation to how to take care of employees, how the human social fabric is protected, and how a participatory work environment is created. According to its essential principles, this approach responds to a more modern and evolved leadership style (opposed to an autarkic or tyrannical style). Employees are involved, in a way that they feel protagonists and the experience of workers is something beneficial so that they are integrated—knowledge management. The main means that are employed are meetings with superiors, open-day offices to consult doubts, notes that must be answered, employee mailboxes, e-mail, etc.

Among the main pillars of knowledge management, according to Del Moral et al. [12], self-motivation of the different individuals within the organization is primarily placed; they are aware of their appreciated role as generators and users of knowledge, providing their individual talent, which mainly depends on the climate and the existing leadership in the company at all levels.

This is a very interesting section of the study that is worth mentioning for us, "European Communication Monitor," in 2014 [13] as a framework research in relation to the outlook. In this study, a factor that also interests us for this dissertation is to "communicate and demonstrate leadership" (p. 72). This is a new subject within the trends about communication strategies. It explains that communication professionals value in a very high degree effective communication as an organizational and personal leadership component [14, 15]. While this issue is still under discussion, we will say that it has not been identified yet which communication activities are more suitable ones to influence public opinion or among the stakeholders of the companies.

## **3. Types of business leadership**

In the following theories that will be presented, there is a chronological gradation, from the highest to the lowest, taking into account the progress about two variables: the power over decision-making and the participation of the employee. We have not made an exhaustive list but a selection of them. In order to get some more information, we will recommend the second chapter of the volume of *Business Leadership* [16].

We will start by exposing those theories that take into account the psychological qualities of the leader. As a recommended reading where a case study according to the three models that have been presented is analyzed, we recommend the article "leadership traits in Grey's Anatomy managers" prepared by Peña-Acuña [17].

(a) McGregor theories: task(X)- and people(Y)-oriented behaviors. Both styles should not be seen as opposite poles of a dimension, but they should be seen as two individual dimensions, according to Paños and others [18].

On the one hand, among the functions of a task-oriented leader, we can find that he assigns tasks to the group, he explains the working procedures that must be followed, he highlights that deadlines must be met, he also emphasizes competition, and he makes it clear what is expected of each of them.

Something characteristic from this kind of leader is that he knows everything, he is afraid of external initiatives, he decides everything, he does everything by himself, he sees his role as if he were a guard, he takes advantage of his authority to dominate the others, he remains above all the rest, and he is an inspector.

On the other hand, the functions of a people-oriented leader consist on that he listens to people, he is friendly and accessible, he helps subordinates in their personal problems, and he defends each member of the group.

There are also some other features that are typical from this kind of leader: he makes a lot of questions; he looks for external opinions; he helps the others to make decisions and share responsibility, acting through others; he sees his role as a driver of latent energy in others; he employs his authority to make people develop and improve; he gets integrated into the group; and he is a partner.

(b) Rensis Likert model [19]

with superiors, open-day offices to consult doubts, notes that must be answered, employee

Among the main pillars of knowledge management, according to Del Moral et al. [12], self-motivation of the different individuals within the organization is primarily placed; they are aware of their appreciated role as generators and users of knowledge, providing their individual talent, which mainly depends on the climate and the existing leadership in the

This is a very interesting section of the study that is worth mentioning for us, "European Communication Monitor," in 2014 [13] as a framework research in relation to the outlook. In this study, a factor that also interests us for this dissertation is to "communicate and demonstrate leadership" (p. 72). This is a new subject within the trends about communication strategies. It explains that communication professionals value in a very high degree effective communication as an organizational and personal leadership component [14, 15]. While this issue is still under discussion, we will say that it has not been identified yet which communication activities are more suitable ones to influence public opinion or among the stakeholders

In the following theories that will be presented, there is a chronological gradation, from the highest to the lowest, taking into account the progress about two variables: the power over decision-making and the participation of the employee. We have not made an exhaustive list but a selection of them. In order to get some more information, we will recommend the sec-

We will start by exposing those theories that take into account the psychological qualities of the leader. As a recommended reading where a case study according to the three models that have been presented is analyzed, we recommend the article "leadership traits in Grey's

(a) McGregor theories: task(X)- and people(Y)-oriented behaviors. Both styles should not be seen as opposite poles of a dimension, but they should be seen as two individual dimen-

On the one hand, among the functions of a task-oriented leader, we can find that he assigns tasks to the group, he explains the working procedures that must be followed, he highlights that deadlines must be met, he also emphasizes competition, and he makes it

Something characteristic from this kind of leader is that he knows everything, he is afraid of external initiatives, he decides everything, he does everything by himself, he sees his role as if he were a guard, he takes advantage of his authority to dominate the others,

mailboxes, e-mail, etc.

118 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

company at all levels.

of the companies.

**3. Types of business leadership**

ond chapter of the volume of *Business Leadership* [16].

Anatomy managers" prepared by Peña-Acuña [17].

sions, according to Paños and others [18].

clear what is expected of each of them.

he remains above all the rest, and he is an inspector.

Likert identified four kinds of leadership systems in which, as a key variable, he studies how authority is employed:


Rensis Likert considers that, in the short term, authoritarian and participatory styles are effective, but in the long term, the great dependence generated by the worker represents a waste of human capital.

(c) Blake and Mouton [20]

These two authors developed a methodology in order to classify the leadership style called management grid. According to these authors, leaders who are oriented to people and tasks get greater productivity than those who are less concerned about these issues. The participative style is the most effective for any type of situation.


#### (d) Participatory management

Here begins the paradigm shift for the valuing of people, taking into account the conditions of the employees. The beginnings of participation in the management arose from the investigations of Mayo [21], Roethlisberger and Dickinson [22]. In their researches they concluded that not only environmental factors influenced productivity but also social needs. The methodological aspect began with the simplest tools (queries, suggestion programs, researches), but they could not talk about participation if managers did not have the maturity nor the intention to accept the suggestions of the workers. The most difficult part was the creation of work teams or committees, for example, the Scanlon plan and quality circles that began in Japan in 1962 which spread across the USA and EU.

These are models dealing with participation: Blake and Mouton [20], Fiedler [23], House [24], Vroom and Yetton [25], Ouchi [26], and Hersey and Blanchard [27].

Among the following theories, we can find Fiedler's contingency ones (1967). This theory states that leadership success depends on the one hand on the leader's style and on the demands of the group or company. Therefore, there is not a unique style, but success is based on applying the appropriate style for the group at the right time. Thus, it is necessary to know the group, and on this basis, applying the appropriate style.

We can also find the situational leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard [27]. It supports that leadership attitudes should be based on the attitudes that are observed in the group, that is, the higher or lower disposition of the group. We would have a managerial behavior in just one direction when the leader orders some rules or tasks to the group, and secondly, we would have a support behavior; in this case it would be bidirectional, in which everyone listens and everyone is involved in decision-making. The level of disposition indicates the ability of the group to act in case of demanding but real to achieve goals, related to the will and interest of the group.

#### (e) Strategic management

Here begins the most advanced paradigms regarding the management delegation, teamwork in improvement processes, and employee involvement in decision-making. Management models are changed and an important weight is given to the participation of workers in decision-making and to leadership, also to the formation of solid values, where it is given precedence to a future view considering that productivity depends on the pride of belonging to the company and the enthusiasm for work.

Changes in the various fields of social matters, globalization, new technologies, and the need to achieve a sustained competitiveness have affected the determination of the essential factors in the search for competitive advantages that allow higher levels of performance. Nowadays, it is said that the main asset is the person we are in the knowledge society [28], and HR strategic planning techniques are introduced to provide for staff organizations capable of facing the challenges of today's society.

In relational leadership, three types are distinguished: transformational, transactional, and transcendent.


Transformational leaders pay more attention to their followers in relation to their development needs and interests, by helping them to see old problems in new ways and so that they are able to achieve an extra effort to get the group's goals. They make subordinates participate when making decisions in the organization. At the same time, workers are more independent and demanding so they need the leaders to be more dynamic in developing new skills, aptitudes, and abilities; they must be open to change.


The transactional leader affects the motivation of the follower due to the exchange of awards and the establishment of an atmosphere in which there is a perception of closer connections between efforts and the results desired. The effective leader, according to the criterion of this approach, is an expert in psychological diagnosis, discerning exactly the needs and expectations of their subordinates, and accordingly, he responds to them.


Transcendent leadership is defined by a relationship of contribution influence, in which the contributor interacts with the leader by means of extrinsic motivation (money, praise), intrinsic motivation (learning, satisfaction), and transcendent motivation (be aware that the action itself satisfies the others).

(f) Other current theories



Here begins the paradigm shift for the valuing of people, taking into account the conditions of the employees. The beginnings of participation in the management arose from the investigations of Mayo [21], Roethlisberger and Dickinson [22]. In their researches they concluded that not only environmental factors influenced productivity but also social needs. The methodological aspect began with the simplest tools (queries, suggestion programs, researches), but they could not talk about participation if managers did not have the maturity nor the intention to accept the suggestions of the workers. The most difficult part was the creation of work teams or committees, for example, the Scanlon plan and quality circles that began in Japan in

These are models dealing with participation: Blake and Mouton [20], Fiedler [23], House [24],

Among the following theories, we can find Fiedler's contingency ones (1967). This theory states that leadership success depends on the one hand on the leader's style and on the demands of the group or company. Therefore, there is not a unique style, but success is based on applying the appropriate style for the group at the right time. Thus, it is necessary to know

We can also find the situational leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard [27]. It supports that leadership attitudes should be based on the attitudes that are observed in the group, that is, the higher or lower disposition of the group. We would have a managerial behavior in just one direction when the leader orders some rules or tasks to the group, and secondly, we would have a support behavior; in this case it would be bidirectional, in which everyone listens and everyone is involved in decision-making. The level of disposition indicates the ability of the group to act in case of demanding but real to achieve goals, related to the will

Here begins the most advanced paradigms regarding the management delegation, teamwork in improvement processes, and employee involvement in decision-making. Management models are changed and an important weight is given to the participation of workers in decision-making and to leadership, also to the formation of solid values, where it is given precedence to a future view considering that productivity depends on the pride of belonging to the

Changes in the various fields of social matters, globalization, new technologies, and the need to achieve a sustained competitiveness have affected the determination of the essential factors

integrates the work-related activities.

1962 which spread across the USA and EU.

Vroom and Yetton [25], Ouchi [26], and Hersey and Blanchard [27].

the group, and on this basis, applying the appropriate style.

comfortable working pace.

120 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

(d) Participatory management

and interest of the group. (e) Strategic management

company and the enthusiasm for work.


According to Hochschild [30] jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those which at first require face-to-face or voice contact to talk to the public; secondly, they need the worker to produce an emotional state in another person' and thirdly, they allow the employer, by means of training and supervision, exercise some degree of control over the emotional activities of the employees.

In short, depending on how companies are based on services, a large variety of professional fields must learn how to manage their emotions according to the employers' demands, compared to what was required 60 years ago.


The fundamental task of the leader is to make the positive feelings of his subordinates arise, and that happens when a leader produces resonance—he gets on well with others, and also he establishes transparent relationships; the leader provides the others some guidelines for interpreting and having emotional reactions to certain situations. It is, by definition, the main "meaning manager" of a group. In situations of crisis or turmoil, everybody looks for the leader for guidance. He plays a key role in the collective emotional climate, as explicitly or implicitly; he determines the emotional rule of the group. One of the most obvious signs of the resonant leader is the optimism and enthusiasm their subordinates exhibit. This kind of leadership proves to be very effective in several business cases that publicly reveal it as we have discussed in two previous researches [32].


## **4. Business cases and types of leadership**

suppression of these emotions they feel, but they are not expressed. Professional roles that have been identified and which require emotional labor include those involved in jobs with customer contact: public administration, flight attendants, daycare workers, nursing home workers, nurses, doctors, shop assistants, call center workers, teachers, social workers, as well as most of the restoration jobs (hotels, motels, taverns, bars, pubs, restaurants, etc.),

According to Hochschild [30] jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those which at first require face-to-face or voice contact to talk to the public; secondly, they need the worker to produce an emotional state in another person' and thirdly, they allow the employer, by means of training and supervision, exercise some degree of control over the emotional activi-

In short, depending on how companies are based on services, a large variety of professional fields must learn how to manage their emotions according to the employers' demands, com-


The fundamental task of the leader is to make the positive feelings of his subordinates arise, and that happens when a leader produces resonance—he gets on well with others, and also he establishes transparent relationships; the leader provides the others some guidelines for interpreting and having emotional reactions to certain situations. It is, by definition, the main "meaning manager" of a group. In situations of crisis or turmoil, everybody looks for the leader for guidance. He plays a key role in the collective emotional climate, as explicitly or implicitly; he determines the emotional rule of the group. One of the most obvious signs of the resonant leader is the optimism and enthusiasm their subordinates exhibit. This kind of leadership proves to be very effective in several business cases that publicly reveal it as we


and also, those jobs related to the media, such as television and the radio.

ties of the employees.

122 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

pared to what was required 60 years ago.

such a deep effect on the people they lead.

have discussed in two previous researches [32].

In a previous study in 2014 about Spanish companies, we discovered that democratic leadership is the most used one among senior managers in the Spanish companies that had been studied, with 36.5% out of the cases. However, dictator leadership is still used, more typical of earlier periods, 17.3% out of the managers evaluated.

We found that leadership styles among senior managers were the following, taking into account the percentage variable: dictator leadership, 17.3%; autocratic leadership, 19.2%; democratic leadership, 36.5%; patronizing leadership, and 19.2%; liberal leadership, 7.8% [6].

Among the sample of Spanish companies with business success and international projection, we find three cases: Santander Bank, Inditex, and Telefónica.

The leadership style of Santander Bank, acknowledged on its website, is the Situational Leadership of Hersey and Blanchard [27]. This style is based on the attitudes which are observed in the workers of the company. It is performed as follows:

First of all, the management indicates the rules or tasks to the group; this is a one-way issue.

Secondly, all of them listen and get involved in decision-making; this part is bidirectional.

Then, the group's willingness to face the goals that had been established significantly affects their ability and willingness toward them.

In this research, we have identified some internal communication actions where we can appreciate this kind of leadership in many facts:


With this strategy, Santander Bank actively involves its employees; however, the problem that may arise through this kind of leadership is that management establish unrealistic and very complicated goals to achieve that can frustrate their employees.

We believe that the Inditex group conducts a participatory and group leadership, according to the Rensis Likert model. The large ascendant communication that the Inditex group has allows to generate confidence in all the departments that compose it. This is something beneficial for decision-making of each of the workers in particular and that of departments in general. This way, employees are more motivated, and thus, they manage to increase their productivity. Thanks to this, they can also evaluate their activities and receive an opinion from the head of each department sooner.

The group has a very good ascendant internal communication, and when a necessity arises, such as lack of materials or any doubt related to any aspect in any department, it is communicated to the person on whom it depends, and this person, in turn, communicates it to senior management. This type of leadership is directed to employees; it is based on the efficacy of the functioning groups closely linked to the structure of the organization. That is, the great communication the Inditex group has generates confidence in all its departments, and it makes it easier for decision-making between them. Thanks to this, they can evaluate their activities and receive an opinion from the head of each department soon. He is a leader who supports his subordinates, and he does not assume a dictatorial position. However, the final authority when important matters arise is still in his hands.

In the website of this Telefónica, it is stated that the transformational leadership model is used. Transformational leadership is a common leader, and workers process to advance to a higher moral and motivation level. It is a transformation that produces significant changes in the company and among the people who are part of it. It could be said that it is a more motivating and closer to the worker push and with a more important exercise in the transmission of the company goals than other leadership styles. Hence, its name is that of the charismatic leadership too.

Among the advantages of the transformational leadership we can find are:


These are some of the disadvantages we have considered:


## **5. Conclusions**

There are two drawbacks if we analyze the situational leadership: first, if the business culture of this country or that sector motivates inefficiently, employees only through salary and/or of working prestige in that sector and/or employees are saturated with a stressful job: the attitude that employees be found in little strong as the root of their motivation is inadequate. Second, perhaps employees could be more motivated, but if they come from other companies with autocratic leadership styles, they will not be motivated to start. The advantage is that the goals are provided by the employees themselves and may have greater involvement and responsibility in the process of work and that effort is proportional to the expected. On the other hand, if the values of corporate culture, brand image, and objectives are supported by effective internal communication tools, the process of change of attitude and motivation on employees is almost assured.

productivity. Thanks to this, they can also evaluate their activities and receive an opinion

The group has a very good ascendant internal communication, and when a necessity arises, such as lack of materials or any doubt related to any aspect in any department, it is communicated to the person on whom it depends, and this person, in turn, communicates it to senior management. This type of leadership is directed to employees; it is based on the efficacy of the functioning groups closely linked to the structure of the organization. That is, the great communication the Inditex group has generates confidence in all its departments, and it makes it easier for decision-making between them. Thanks to this, they can evaluate their activities and receive an opinion from the head of each department soon. He is a leader who supports his subordinates, and he does not assume a dictatorial position. However, the final authority

In the website of this Telefónica, it is stated that the transformational leadership model is used. Transformational leadership is a common leader, and workers process to advance to a higher moral and motivation level. It is a transformation that produces significant changes in the company and among the people who are part of it. It could be said that it is a more motivating and closer to the worker push and with a more important exercise in the transmission of the company goals than other leadership styles. Hence, its name is that of the charismatic


There are two drawbacks if we analyze the situational leadership: first, if the business culture of this country or that sector motivates inefficiently, employees only through salary and/or of working prestige in that sector and/or employees are saturated with a stressful job: the attitude

Among the advantages of the transformational leadership we can find are:




These are some of the disadvantages we have considered:


from the head of each department sooner.

124 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

when important matters arise is still in his hands.

leadership too.




**5. Conclusions**


The case of participatory and group leadership system is the classification of Rensis Likert, the most evolved regarding employee participation; however, we believe it is insufficient. The disadvantage we found is that decision-making is reduced to the evaluation and goal setting and decision-making is still very structured and in no position to consensus. Worker involvement is not full but partial. Yet, some companies still pay them to have better communication and collaborative environment if they manage with this style of leadership.

Transformational leadership makes the staff of the company improve, and it acts in a different way, innovating in how employees think and feel. This type of leadership requires a mental focus to get a new perception; this is necessary to have a radical change in the behavior, to be motivated when making permanent changes. Transformational leadership is the best way to make a change in the company, without affecting employee motivation and establishing interpersonal relationships. However, to operate the business culture, they must be prepared and have appropriate tools and evaluation systems to ensure it is running on the leaders, in middle management, and employees. We think this will be possible if they have a tool to communicate freely what they think, need, and want. By this all will have greater motivation and involvement in the business project and their tasks.

Strategic managements (transactional, transformational, and transcendent) are the most developed and most capable to face the new knowledge society in which the company must react more quickly to challenges and to the greater competitiveness of the global market and adaptation to new technologies. The example of economic performance is shown by these three case studies.

In addition, we highlight resonant leadership, which takes into account how emotional attitude of the leader affects the working atmosphere of the workers. Social constructive leadership brings a vision of teamwork, a mutual benefit mission that also encourages workers.

In all these leadership styles, we found freedom, autonomy, creativity, teamwork, personal growth of employees, and greater humanity in the culture. Human virtues and ethical values create stronger cultural ties with the company. Thus, these styles of leadership effectiveness of human resources are enhanced, and productivity of enterprises is assured to remain competitive. The culture of each country prepares leaders and employees to accept and assimilate them.

We consider that social improvement in this business context, at first, takes place from a cultural point of view, taking into account recent studies and leadership theories, if it is investigated and it seems that the humanization of labor and human conditions of business human tissue from more participatory leadership styles have more economic benefits. What will lately be expected is when the state will act and legislate in favor.

It is a pity that our civilization gives preference to material and economic matters, and, however, privilege does not reside in people yet, who are the source of wealth and for whom everything should be ready in order to get an optimal development. In this regard, it would be advisable to keep on disseminating a humanistic corporate culture that believes that the main value of a company is the human tissue that composes it; this is an approach on which we have insisted in previous publications [34, 35] in which we have deeply demanded a change to more advanced paradigms, where people are more likely to develop the potential they have.

## **Acknowledgements**

I thank my father for his vision, to impulse me to be as I am now: a woman, a professor, a leader, an intellectual, and a fighter for the human rights.

## **Author details**

Beatriz Peña-Acuña

Address all correspondence to: bpena@ucam.edu

University of Saint Anthony, Murcia, Spain

## **References**


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tissue from more participatory leadership styles have more economic benefits. What will

It is a pity that our civilization gives preference to material and economic matters, and, however, privilege does not reside in people yet, who are the source of wealth and for whom everything should be ready in order to get an optimal development. In this regard, it would be advisable to keep on disseminating a humanistic corporate culture that believes that the main value of a company is the human tissue that composes it; this is an approach on which we have insisted in previous publications [34, 35] in which we have deeply demanded a change to more advanced paradigms, where people are more likely to develop the potential they have.

I thank my father for his vision, to impulse me to be as I am now: a woman, a professor,

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University of Saint Anthony, Murcia, Spain

**Acknowledgements**

126 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Author details**

Beatriz Peña-Acuña

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#### **Ethical Leadership in Crisis Management: The Role of University Education** Ethical Leadership in Crisis Management: The Role of University Education

David A.L. Coldwell David A.L. Coldwell

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65497

#### Abstract

Ethical leadership is a necessary ingredient for successful crisis management. The study outlines generalizable prescriptive remedial steps that can be taken by business leaders faced by crises. But these remedial steps are simply the "bricks and mortar" of effective crisis management. The "pulsating soul" of ethical leadership is required to give such remedial steps the necessary moral compass for the initiation and sustained directional focus required for successful crisis management operationalization. The study's objective and purpose are twofold. First, it outlines a model of crisis management derived from recent case studies of best practice and briefly indicates how such practices reduce financial losses to the organizations concerned if correctly implemented by ethical leaders. Second, the study aims to show how ethical leadership required for effective crisis management might be nurtured through specific ethics-oriented postgraduate university instruction. The study suggests that these two aspects, ethical leadership and prescriptive steps to follow in the event of a crisis, are not only mutually reinforcing but also indispensable in effective crisis management.

Keywords: ethical leadership, crisis management, university education, prescriptive remedial steps, moral reasoning, ethical practice, moral identity

#### 1. Introduction

Recent financial and business crises have indicated repeatedly the poverty of ethical and responsible leadership behavior in high places. A most recent example of this phenomenon, with global repercussions, was the Volkswagen (VW) crisis, which was largely brought about through the unethical Business Behavior of its leaders. Since the company confessed that it had cheated on emissions' tests for its diesel vehicles, it has sent out ambiguous and sometimes contradictory statements. Muller, the new Chief Executive, recently visited the United States and said that VW did not lie when it clearly had done just that. VW's reputation has plummeted as a consequence, with a recent Harris Poll of American attitudes to the 100 most

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

visible companies, ranking VW last [1]. Salomon, a Vice President of Nielsen which conducted the poll, ndicated that the public has more tolerance for labor disruptions and vehicle recalls but regards lying, misrepresentation, and intentional wrongdoing with the utmost opprobrium [1].

The poverty of ethical leadership in business executives appears to be a widespread problem of global proportions of which the VW crisis is but the most recent example. The VW crisis and the myriad of others similar to it point to a dire need not only for producing leaders with the necessary ethical acumen to lead important national and multinational organizations but also those who are strategically able to deal with crises effectively. These two aspects are, of course, not mutually exclusive. Ethical leadership is necessary to make crisis management effective. Only ethical leadership has the ability to build reputational capital, consumer, and public confidence through its demonstrable honesty and trustworthiness. Generalized prescriptive remedial steps can be provided to deal with many business crises [2]; however, these need to be guided and implemented by strong ethical executive leadership.

Many studies skirt round the issue of generating ethical leaders per se by concentrating on descriptions of the positive effects such ethical leadership has in particular organizational outcomes. The real issue is not so much the show what ethical leaders are capable of, there is already a suffice of formal and informal data available to demonstrate this; the real issue, which so far has remained largely unattended, is to develop resources to generate/create ethical leaders and to ensure, where possible, that only such leaders are selected for senior leadership positions. There is little doubt that this is a very wide-ranging issue that begins with early socialization processes, which remain beyond the control or development of later educational influences. Nevertheless, educational attainment and intelligence have been shown to be associated with higher levels of moral development [3].

At the university educational level, the issue of leadership development becomes one of whether and to what extent emergent young business leaders benefit from specific forms of moral higher education in enhancing their moral reasoning (MR) and practical ethical decision-making skills, and in so doing, underline the strength of their individual moral identities.

The chapter takes the following form. First, it indicates the importance of leadership in successful crisis management by describing a seven-step ideal-type model devised for this purpose [2] and its beneficial outcomes for the selected business organizations that emanate from incremental and sequential implementations of the steps. The empirical data on which the stepwise model is built clearly show that firms that react quickly and are open and transparent in their crisis management actions, derive social capital and financial resilience from it. Second, it indicates how the ethical acumen of future South African business leaders might be developed further at university level. For this purpose, a mixed-methods pretest, posttest, quasiexperimental study of postgraduate commerce students' moral reasoning and ethical decisionmaking development in response to specific ethical instruction is conducted using quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques. The chapter concludes with a brief outline of practical implications and suggestions for further research in this critically important area.

## 2. Ethical leadership in crisis management

visible companies, ranking VW last [1]. Salomon, a Vice President of Nielsen which conducted the poll, ndicated that the public has more tolerance for labor disruptions and vehicle recalls but regards lying, misrepresentation, and intentional wrongdoing with the utmost oppro-

The poverty of ethical leadership in business executives appears to be a widespread problem of global proportions of which the VW crisis is but the most recent example. The VW crisis and the myriad of others similar to it point to a dire need not only for producing leaders with the necessary ethical acumen to lead important national and multinational organizations but also those who are strategically able to deal with crises effectively. These two aspects are, of course, not mutually exclusive. Ethical leadership is necessary to make crisis management effective. Only ethical leadership has the ability to build reputational capital, consumer, and public confidence through its demonstrable honesty and trustworthiness. Generalized prescriptive remedial steps can be provided to deal with many business crises [2]; however, these need to

Many studies skirt round the issue of generating ethical leaders per se by concentrating on descriptions of the positive effects such ethical leadership has in particular organizational outcomes. The real issue is not so much the show what ethical leaders are capable of, there is already a suffice of formal and informal data available to demonstrate this; the real issue, which so far has remained largely unattended, is to develop resources to generate/create ethical leaders and to ensure, where possible, that only such leaders are selected for senior leadership positions. There is little doubt that this is a very wide-ranging issue that begins with early socialization processes, which remain beyond the control or development of later educational influences. Nevertheless, educational attainment and intelligence have been shown to be

At the university educational level, the issue of leadership development becomes one of whether and to what extent emergent young business leaders benefit from specific forms of moral higher education in enhancing their moral reasoning (MR) and practical ethical decision-making skills, and in so doing, underline the strength of their individual moral

The chapter takes the following form. First, it indicates the importance of leadership in successful crisis management by describing a seven-step ideal-type model devised for this purpose [2] and its beneficial outcomes for the selected business organizations that emanate from incremental and sequential implementations of the steps. The empirical data on which the stepwise model is built clearly show that firms that react quickly and are open and transparent in their crisis management actions, derive social capital and financial resilience from it. Second, it indicates how the ethical acumen of future South African business leaders might be developed further at university level. For this purpose, a mixed-methods pretest, posttest, quasiexperimental study of postgraduate commerce students' moral reasoning and ethical decisionmaking development in response to specific ethical instruction is conducted using quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques. The chapter concludes with a brief outline of practical

implications and suggestions for further research in this critically important area.

be guided and implemented by strong ethical executive leadership.

associated with higher levels of moral development [3].

brium [1].

132 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

identities.

Coldwell et al. [2] in a recent study of crisis management in the South African industrial context use Weber's "ideal-type" methodology [4] by adopting Johnson & Johnson's widely recognized example of international best practice in crisis management in its dealing with the Tylenol crisis. The study focuses on reputational and financial effects of pre- and postcrisis remedial steps taken by selected South African companies in accordance with Johnson & Johnson's best practice ideal type, and by devising a "responsibility compass" management model for the systematic resolution of company crises.

The ideal type for crisis resolution was obtained from McNeilab, Inc., a Johnson & Johnson's subsidiary which best introduced Tylenol in 1961. Very briefly, Weber's ideal-type method incorporates an analytical process using historical case studies of particular phenomenon to build conceptual "best example" models that include the essential properties of the phenomenon being studied.

Tylenol was an aspirin-based medicine, which became popular and ultimately monopolized a large share of the market. In 1982, seven people in Chicago died after taking Tylenol because, as was subsequently found out, the tablets were contaminated by cyanide [5]. In response to this crisis, the company reacted swiftly and thoroughly. All bottles of Tylenol, worth around \$100 million, were recalled, and half a million letters were sent out comprehensively informing doctors, hospitals, and pharmacists of recommended action and the reasons for the crisis. Tollfree hotlines were set up to answer consumer problems and concerns. The company's thorough investigations ultimately found that the problem lay with tampering of the Tylenol bottles after manufacturing. In response to the crisis, the management decided to relaunch the product only after a tamper-proof container had been devised. As a result of this comprehensive and timely action by the management, Tylenol was quickly reestablished as a consumer favorite. In short, the ethical leadership at the Johnson & Johnson had clearly indicated that it puts the interest of public safety and health before company profits.

Coldwell et al. [2] combine a qualitative approach, using case studies and a quantitative time series analysis of company share prices to investigate South African firms which had recently suffered crises and had a strong propensity to undermine their corporate reputations. Coldwell et al.'s [2] stepwise model of crisis management is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 shows the basic schema of the step-by-step crisis model. The model indicates that a company crisis should be dealt with by seven prescriptive remedial steps derived from the best practice (ideal type) case of the Johnson & Johnson described earlier. The first step must be swift recognition of the problem by the company and an unequivocal acceptance of responsibility by its leadership team. This needs to be backed up by immediate and open communication with the media on the nature of the crisis and management actions taken to control it. Interaction with the media and public needs to be carried out by ethical leaders who are trusted and known to the public to be ethical in their business dealings, ideally built up through social capital formation over time or, if this is not possible, by their current trustworthiness, honesty, and reliability in their crisis' interfaces. The process of rebuilding consumer and public confidence in the company and its products proceeds from a firm base of trust. Next, the prescriptive remedial step management is taking to solve the crisis through restructuring, redesigning, and modifying the company and/or its products need to be widely communicated to rebuild its credibility. This should be linked with a clear statement of the company's awareness of its societal (economic, social, and environmental) responsibility and, finally, an open and unqualified management apology to its consumers, the community in which it operates and the public as a whole. The tendency has been in many cases for a company's leadership to distance itself from direct blame and responsibility for the crisis, to clamp down, or to severely restrict public communication and to be parsimonious in apology. Such actions by company management invariably heighten public anger and underline their growing suspicion that something is being deliberately hidden from them. Action of this kind tends to undermine consumer and public confidence and the ethicality of its leaders both of which reduce or in some cases, completely eliminate any social and reputation capital it may once have held.

Figure 1. The "responsibility compass" crisis management steps' model (Adapted with permission from Coldwell et al. [2]).

Correct stepwise actions by company leaders in the manner indicated by the model will generally lead, as shown in Figure 1, to positive perceptions of the company that will, in many cases, lead to an enhancement in its reputation and add to its stock of social capital. Social capital has been likened to a bank savings account which can be used in times of financial stress to bridge financial difficulties. Social capital provides a store of consumer and public goodwill that can help ride a crisis and maintain and add to its reputation "stock." The mutually reinforcing interlinkage between management actions and social capital is illustrated with the two-way arrow indicated in Figure 1.

and public confidence in the company and its products proceeds from a firm base of trust. Next, the prescriptive remedial step management is taking to solve the crisis through restructuring, redesigning, and modifying the company and/or its products need to be widely communicated to rebuild its credibility. This should be linked with a clear statement of the company's awareness of its societal (economic, social, and environmental) responsibility and, finally, an open and unqualified management apology to its consumers, the community in which it operates and the public as a whole. The tendency has been in many cases for a company's leadership to distance itself from direct blame and responsibility for the crisis, to clamp down, or to severely restrict public communication and to be parsimonious in apology. Such actions by company management invariably heighten public anger and underline their growing suspicion that something is being deliberately hidden from them. Action of this kind tends to undermine consumer and public confidence and the ethicality of its leaders both of which reduce or in some cases,

Figure 1. The "responsibility compass" crisis management steps' model (Adapted with permission from Coldwell et al.

[2]).

completely eliminate any social and reputation capital it may once have held.

134 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Coldwell et al. [2] in their study found that the full or substantive use of the seven steps in the model and the speed with which they were implemented was negatively associated with the size of share price that falls immediately after a crisis in the South African companies selected for the study. Share prices were also found to appreciate more rapidly 6 months after a company crisis in South African companies with higher levels of reputation capital and stronger product brands.

The seven-step approach to crisis management provides the "bricks and mortar" to successful crisis resolution, but for it to be fully effective, there is the need to find ethical managers to propel it. Like company codes of ethics, ethical practice (EP) cannot be motioned by specific rules, however, elaborate or detailed they might be. The drive and impetus for successful crisis management require honesty and integrity from company leadership if it is to convince an increasingly skeptical body of consumers and stakeholders of real, ethically driven socially responsible leadership aimed at benefiting society as a whole. The task then becomes the provision and identification of leaders who have the capacity for high-level moral reasoning and ethical practice and who individually hold strong empathetic moral self-identities, which tend to be essentially altruistic rather than narcissistic [6]. Plato's idea of leadership emphasizes self-knowledge and a checked ego traits that are crucially important in ethical leadership. Goldstein [7] points out that Plato's notion of leadership recognizes that self-knowledge and humility are factors that enable leaders to be open-minded and make decisions that are of general benefit to the community rather than those that simply help preserve the leader's power. Exactly how such business leaders can be identified and nurtured has been a topic of intellectual discourse and analysis since Plato who believed that leaders had to be identified and educated especially to take up positions of organizational power. Today it has become evident that the development of ethical leadership is multifaceted and complex, and stretches from early socialization influence initially within the nuclear family and broaden later in adulthood from influences and processes emanating from factors external to the family and from formal education system.

Although it is fully acknowledged that there is no singular socialization process or developmental program that can generate ethical leaders, it is evident that seemingly useful processes may turn out to be short-term ethical "cul-de-sacs" that wither quickly after development; it is the author's conviction that formal education, particularly at a university level, can play a significant part because of its direct interface with future business and societal leaders. With this possibility and potentiality in mind, the following section outlines an empirical quasiexperimental study of how a specific formal educational program of instruction in ethics can help generate future business leaders who have the necessary powers of moral reasoning and knowledge of ethical practice to be able to add substance and sagacity in the management of crises they will almost certainly have to deal with during the course of their business careers.

## 3. Ethical leadership development through university education

What actually comprises ethical leadership? Swaner [8] presents four main aspects of ethical leadership, namely, moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character.

Moral sensitivity is an ability to perceive ethical dilemmas through empathy. Moral judgment refers to an individual's ability to reason morally and make appropriate decisions on what needs to be done to solve specific ethical dilemmas. Moral motivation embraces an individual's personal commitment to moral action. Finally, the concept of moral character, that Swaner [8] considers to be individual courage and ethical persistence in any given compromising situation.

With regard to educational interventions to develop individual ethicality, possibly the most difficult would be the development of genuine moral sensitivity and empathy (e.g., it would be difficult/impossible to develop this in narcissistic individuals or in psychopaths) and moral character, because of the biological urge in human beings toward personal survival [9]. In short, biologically determined and personality aspects of moral behavior are unlikely to be directly malleable through education, particularly that of short-term duration. Nonetheless, it is maintained that more purely cognitive dimensions of moral behavior, such as those governing moral reasoning and ethical practice, are more open to instructional educational interventions. In other words, more technical aspects of moral behavior such as reasoning, moral judgment, and self-motivation may be open to development through specific, focused educational programs. An important aspect of being ethical is being technically competent and aware of what the ethical perspective entails and its purpose and importance. As Ciulla [10] points out, the Greek notion of virtue as portrayed by Aristotle embodies both technical competence and good will. For example, the purpose of a knife is to cut material, and from Aristotle's perspective of functionality, a good knife cuts easily and efficiently. Thus, a moral leader ought to be both competent and able to make effective decisions.

Moral reasoning is an important aspect of ethical leadership, and a high level of competency is required if leaders are to be effective in dealing with business crises as and when they arise. The association between moral reasoning and education has been widely studied, and contrasting findings have been reported in the literature. Some studies support and others reject the moral reasoning-education hypothesis [11, 12]. However, a meta-analytical study undertaken by Ketefian [13], which specifically investigated associations between education, moral reasoning, and ethical practice (with ethical practice and moral reasoning specified as dependent variables) found general supportive evidence for these associations.

Eight of the studies in Ketefian's [13] meta-analysis investigated the relationship between education and ethical practice, with a further five studies that addressed the relationship between moral reasoning and ethical practice. The meta-analysis' findings showed a small-tomiddling relationship between education and ethical practice, with an overall mean for effect sizes, d = 0.44, p = 0.000. Ketefian's [13] study also reported a small but significant relationship between moral reasoning and ethical practice (overall r = 0.2, p = 0.000). In general terms, Ketefian's [13] meta-analysis suggests that education affects ethical practice and moral reasoning positively with greater amounts of education being associated with higher levels of moral functioning.

help generate future business leaders who have the necessary powers of moral reasoning and knowledge of ethical practice to be able to add substance and sagacity in the management of crises they will almost certainly have to deal with during the course of their business careers.

What actually comprises ethical leadership? Swaner [8] presents four main aspects of ethical leadership, namely, moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character. Moral sensitivity is an ability to perceive ethical dilemmas through empathy. Moral judgment refers to an individual's ability to reason morally and make appropriate decisions on what needs to be done to solve specific ethical dilemmas. Moral motivation embraces an individual's personal commitment to moral action. Finally, the concept of moral character, that Swaner [8] considers to be individual courage and ethical persistence in any given compromising situation. With regard to educational interventions to develop individual ethicality, possibly the most difficult would be the development of genuine moral sensitivity and empathy (e.g., it would be difficult/impossible to develop this in narcissistic individuals or in psychopaths) and moral character, because of the biological urge in human beings toward personal survival [9]. In short, biologically determined and personality aspects of moral behavior are unlikely to be directly malleable through education, particularly that of short-term duration. Nonetheless, it is maintained that more purely cognitive dimensions of moral behavior, such as those governing moral reasoning and ethical practice, are more open to instructional educational interventions. In other words, more technical aspects of moral behavior such as reasoning, moral judgment, and self-motivation may be open to development through specific, focused educational programs. An important aspect of being ethical is being technically competent and aware of what the ethical perspective entails and its purpose and importance. As Ciulla [10] points out, the Greek notion of virtue as portrayed by Aristotle embodies both technical competence and good will. For example, the purpose of a knife is to cut material, and from Aristotle's perspective of functionality, a good knife cuts easily and efficiently. Thus, a moral

3. Ethical leadership development through university education

136 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

leader ought to be both competent and able to make effective decisions.

dependent variables) found general supportive evidence for these associations.

Moral reasoning is an important aspect of ethical leadership, and a high level of competency is required if leaders are to be effective in dealing with business crises as and when they arise. The association between moral reasoning and education has been widely studied, and contrasting findings have been reported in the literature. Some studies support and others reject the moral reasoning-education hypothesis [11, 12]. However, a meta-analytical study undertaken by Ketefian [13], which specifically investigated associations between education, moral reasoning, and ethical practice (with ethical practice and moral reasoning specified as

Eight of the studies in Ketefian's [13] meta-analysis investigated the relationship between education and ethical practice, with a further five studies that addressed the relationship between moral reasoning and ethical practice. The meta-analysis' findings showed a small-tomiddling relationship between education and ethical practice, with an overall mean for effect Undoubtedly, the most influential research in the area of moral reasoning development was conducted by Kohlberg [3], and since it forms an important theoretical cornerstone to the study reported in this chapter, a brief outline of its major aspects is required.

Kohlberg's theory describes three basic stages of moral development. The first and earliest stage he called the pre-conventional stage of moral development. The pre-conventional stage describes a level of moral development usually found in very young children at the primary school level of education and is characterized by its emphasis on obedience reinforced by punishment when this lapsed. Later in the pre-conventional stage of moral development, children develop their individuality, instrumentalism (i.e., ways of obtaining what they seek), and methods of exchange in their relationships with others and in their social interaction with the world as a whole. This later development at the pre-conventional level has been referred to the "seeking-of-rewards stage" [14]. The reward-oriented stage that arises in the pre-conventional stage of development is further augmented in the conventional stage, the most prevalent final stage for the majority of adults. The conventional stage is considered to have two distinct levels. The preliminary level of the conventional stage is characterized by approval-seeking behavior, sometimes referred to as the "good boy/nice girl" stage of moral development [14]. The second level of the conventional stage is identified by moral behavior, which focuses attention to keeping the law and upholding and supporting the maintenance of law and order. The post-conventional stage is regarded by Kohlberg [3] as the final stage of moral development in terms of his theory, most adults never attain. It is comprised of two subcategories. The first category is altruistic in orientation which Barger [15] (p. 1) suggests consists of "an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others." The final and most developed stage of moral awareness and behavior is recognizable in persons who believe in and apply universal moral principles and conscience-governed ethical control.

Crain [16] (pp. 118–136) presents a useful, if someone simplified, rendition of Kohlberg's [3] theory, which consists of six identifiable stages. These are summarized below:


The conventional morality stage characterized by living up to social expectations consists of:


The final stage of moral development, namely, the post-conventional stage, is characterized by behavior that adheres to that which conforms to specific moral principles and consists of two stages:


#### 3.1. The application of Kohlbergian theory to the current study

At this juncture, a brief note on how Kohlberg's [3] theory was operationalized in the current study aimed at measuring changes to student moral reasoning as the result of a course of instruction in ethics is required.

Rest et al. [17] provide a specific measuring instrument adopted in the current study because it presents a clear analytical platform for implementing the pretest, posttest research design.

Rest et al. [17] make an important conceptual moral definition when they distinguish between what they call "micro morality" and "macro morality" which correspond quite closely to the conceptual "micro" and "macro" aspects in economics.

Macro morality is regarded as the formal structure of morality as it is found in society in its institutions, role structures, and laws. Micro morality, on the other hand, is seen as the specific, face-to-face interpersonal moral encounters of people in their everyday lives. Macro morality affects persons through the existing rule systems and the application of the law. Micro morality is the enactment of individual moral behavior in their personal relationships with others, i.e., is a given individual trustworthy? Is this particular relationship an ethical relationship?

Both macro and micro morality are focused on the quality of interpersonal relationships and social cooperation. This conceptual distinction is important in Rest et al.'s [17] method for assessing individual moral judgment, which is discussed in more detail later in the paper and follows Kohlberg's more macro morality approach.

Rest et al. [17] developed a method of testing moral judgment based on the Kohlbergian approach which, Rest et al. [17] (p. 645) maintain: "follows Kohlberg's approach in four basic ways. (a) emphasizes cognition (in particular, the formation of concepts of how it is possible to organize cooperation among people on a society-wide scope); (b) promotes the self-construction of basic epistemological categories (e.g., reciprocity, rights, duty, justice, social order); portrays change over time in terms of cognitive development (i.e., it is possible to talk of 'advance' in which 'higher is better'), and (d) characterizes the developmental changes of adolescents and young adults in terms of a shift from conventional to post conventional moral thinking."

Rest et al.'s [18] Kohlbergian model is based on a similar stage-bound notion of moral development and uses three fundamental schemas related to five of Kohlberg's six stages. Rest et al.'s [18] model indicates gradual transition of moral reasoning development from the personal interest (S2 and S3 stages) to the "norm" maintenance (S4 stage) and then to the post-conventional stages of S5 and S6.

Rest et al.'s [18] approach to assessing moral judgment differs from Kohlberg [3] in that while the latter requires participants to solve ethical dilemmas and explain their choices for their "solutions" in detail, the former approach asks participants to assess and rank a standardized set of conventional and post-conventional items relating to a particular moral story. Rest et al.'s [18] multiple choice approach, particularly its ability to effectively encompass reality through its constrained pre-formulated content, has received criticism [19]. Rest et al. [17], however, maintain that their approach to moral judgment measurement is better able to articulate tacit understanding than the interview approach adopted by Kohlberg [3] since many people are unable to effectively articulate moral judgments through detailed verbal explanations.

Aquino and Reed [20] suggest that a moral identity, socio-cognitive approach may have certain advantages over Kohlberg's cognitive-development model in moral measurement. Aquino and Reed [20] (p. 1423) state: "one key difference between the cognitive-developmental model and the socio-cognitive model is that the former emphasizes moral reasoning, whereas the latter emphasizes self-regulatory mechanisms. Both aspects are important because in the absence of self-regulatory mechanisms, the ability to engage in complex moral thinking may have less of an effect on moral behavior."

Moral identity is regarded by many authors as one aspect of self-regulation that motivates people in their moral behavior; it is therefore able to give some indication of how individual personalities affect their moral behavior [21–23]. The moral identity approach is used in the study to supplement the Kohlbergian approach to get a socio-cognitive, self-regulatory perspective of student moral identity to obtain some idea of this aspect at the end of the course of ethics instruction.

#### 3.2. Method

The final stage of moral development, namely, the post-conventional stage, is characterized by behavior that adheres to that which conforms to specific moral principles and consists of two

v. Post-conventional stage 5 (S5) – oriented toward social contract and human rights, for example, doing what is best for society from a moral conviction such as a belief in democracy. vi. Post-conventional stage 6 (S6) – the application of universal principles, such as doing what is

At this juncture, a brief note on how Kohlberg's [3] theory was operationalized in the current study aimed at measuring changes to student moral reasoning as the result of a course of

Rest et al. [17] provide a specific measuring instrument adopted in the current study because it presents a clear analytical platform for implementing the pretest, posttest research design.

Rest et al. [17] make an important conceptual moral definition when they distinguish between what they call "micro morality" and "macro morality" which correspond quite closely to the

Macro morality is regarded as the formal structure of morality as it is found in society in its institutions, role structures, and laws. Micro morality, on the other hand, is seen as the specific, face-to-face interpersonal moral encounters of people in their everyday lives. Macro morality affects persons through the existing rule systems and the application of the law. Micro morality is the enactment of individual moral behavior in their personal relationships with others, i.e., is

Both macro and micro morality are focused on the quality of interpersonal relationships and social cooperation. This conceptual distinction is important in Rest et al.'s [17] method for assessing individual moral judgment, which is discussed in more detail later in the paper and

Rest et al. [17] developed a method of testing moral judgment based on the Kohlbergian approach which, Rest et al. [17] (p. 645) maintain: "follows Kohlberg's approach in four basic ways. (a) emphasizes cognition (in particular, the formation of concepts of how it is possible to organize cooperation among people on a society-wide scope); (b) promotes the self-construction of basic epistemological categories (e.g., reciprocity, rights, duty, justice, social order); portrays change over time in terms of cognitive development (i.e., it is possible to talk of 'advance' in which 'higher is better'), and (d) characterizes the developmental changes of adolescents and young adults in terms of a shift from conventional to post conventional moral

Rest et al.'s [18] Kohlbergian model is based on a similar stage-bound notion of moral development and uses three fundamental schemas related to five of Kohlberg's six stages. Rest et al.'s [18] model indicates gradual transition of moral reasoning development from the

a given individual trustworthy? Is this particular relationship an ethical relationship?

best for society from a universal principle such as that of universal justice.

3.1. The application of Kohlbergian theory to the current study

conceptual "micro" and "macro" aspects in economics.

follows Kohlberg's more macro morality approach.

instruction in ethics is required.

stages:

138 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

thinking."

A quasi-experimental pretest, posttest design, without control group and randomization [24], is adopted that incorporates a mixed-method approach to measure changes over time in student moral development. An "objective"-quantified nomothetic approach incorporating an abbreviated defining ethical issue (DIT2) and an idiographic, open-ended qualitative technique are used to elicit individual student perceptions of the effects of the course of ethics instruction on their moral reasoning and ethical practice. A mixed-method approach is adopted in the study to counter the problem of common method variance and to obtain nomothetic and idiographic perspectives bolstered the validity of the findings in an area notoriously difficult to measure effectively. IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 22 (SPSS) and ATLAS.ti were used for the quantitative and qualitative phases of analyses, respectively. Statistical analyses are limited to descriptive statistics and frequency distributions because the smallness of the sample precluded the use of statistically more powerful parametric techniques.

A purposive sample of 28 students studying the Business Behavior module of Management Honors is used, of which 21 chose to participate in the study. Purposive sampling requires the identification of populations and settings prior to data collection [25]. Bryman [26] (p. 31) suggests that "the goal of purposive sampling was to sample participants in a strategic way, to obtain a sample appropriate for the research question and to ensure that there was a variety in the resulting sample so that participants differed from each other in terms of key characteristics." Purposive sampling is generally used when the researcher is interested in informants who are regarded as having ontologically based specific knowledge regarding the research topic of interest [27], in this case mostly young, cross-cultural postgraduate students comprising a group of probable future business leaders. The sample consisted of 21 students, 17 (81%) of whom were 25 years old or younger. Approximately 86% of the students were black and 14% white. Eleven (52%) students were male and 10 (48%) female. Thirteen students indicated home language as English, and eight students spoke languages other than English at home, including French, Xhosa, Ndebele, Sotho, Tshwane, Sesotho, Swazi, Shona, and Zulu. The pretest, posttest sampling was conducted anonymously and used age, gender, and home language-specific combinations to identify the same student in the posttest situation. The measuring instruments were subjected to ethical and research protocol clearance process administered by the centralized University Research Ethics Committee.

#### 3.2.1. Defining ethical issues measuring instrument

Quantitative and qualitative measuring instruments are used in the study which implements a pretest, posttest research design. The quantitative measuring instrument used in the analysis incorporated an adapted and abbreviated defining ethical issues (DIT2) [28]. This scale was used as a formal measure of the effects of the course of ethical instruction on moral reasoning by considering whether students had developed a higher level of moral reasoning using Kohlberg's [3] categories. By measuring changes in moral reasoning at the beginning (pretest) and end (posttest) of the course, any formal developments in moral reasoning could be charted and analyzed. In addition, student perceptions of the effectiveness of the ethics course of instruction on their moral reasoning and practice were measured using qualitative open-ended questions and a quantitative two-item Likert-type scale. Students were requested to assess the course using a Likert-type scale ranging from "not at all" to "a great deal" the extent to which they felt it had improved their moral reasoning and ethical practice. The qualitative openended part of the questionnaire consisted of two items asking students to indicate in their own words the effects the Business Ethics course had on their moral reasoning and ethical decisionmaking practice.

The formal aspect of moral reasoning change in the student sample prior to and after receiving the course in ethics was measured using an adapted and abbreviated measuring instrument. The adapted measuring instrument adopted a single-case study (The Famine) taken from the DIT2. "The Famine" describes a small village in India faced by shortages of food in the past which is now faced by famine. The famine is so severe that some families in the village attempt to satisfy their hunger by concocting a soup made from the bark of trees. One of the families in the village headed by Mustaq Singh is now near starvation. Singh has heard that there is a rich man living in the village who has an ample supply of food which he is hoarding in a warehouse and is hoping, as the price for food goes up in response to its reduced supply, to collect a huge profit. Singh is desperation's door and even thinks of stealing some of the hoarded food from the rich man's warehouse. He feels that the small amount of food he needs for his family probably won't even be noticed by the rich man anyway.

At the beginning and end of the ethics course, students are instructed to read "The Famine" story and to indicate whether they are in favor of the action of stealing the food on a sevenpoint Likert-type scale ranging from "strongly favor" to "strongly disfavor."

Students are also asked to rank the four most important of 12 issues relating to the Famine story. The 12 issues include Kohlberg-based:


A "dummy item" "Does Mustaq Singh know a good recipe for preparing soup from tree bark?" is interspersed with the conventional and post-conventional items in the scale to test the validity of the responses by indicating the extent to which respondents were actually applying their minds to the ranking process. Although the DIT2 used in the study is modified and abbreviated, Rest et al. [17] indicate that in its full form the DIT2 attains high levels of concurrent and predictive validity and a high level of internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.90).

#### 3.2.2. The moral identity measuring instrument

31) suggests that "the goal of purposive sampling was to sample participants in a strategic way, to obtain a sample appropriate for the research question and to ensure that there was a variety in the resulting sample so that participants differed from each other in terms of key characteristics." Purposive sampling is generally used when the researcher is interested in informants who are regarded as having ontologically based specific knowledge regarding the research topic of interest [27], in this case mostly young, cross-cultural postgraduate students comprising a group of probable future business leaders. The sample consisted of 21 students, 17 (81%) of whom were 25 years old or younger. Approximately 86% of the students were black and 14% white. Eleven (52%) students were male and 10 (48%) female. Thirteen students indicated home language as English, and eight students spoke languages other than English at home, including French, Xhosa, Ndebele, Sotho, Tshwane, Sesotho, Swazi, Shona, and Zulu. The pretest, posttest sampling was conducted anonymously and used age, gender, and home language-specific combinations to identify the same student in the posttest situation. The measuring instruments were subjected to ethical and research protocol clearance process administered by the centralized University Research Ethics

Quantitative and qualitative measuring instruments are used in the study which implements a pretest, posttest research design. The quantitative measuring instrument used in the analysis incorporated an adapted and abbreviated defining ethical issues (DIT2) [28]. This scale was used as a formal measure of the effects of the course of ethical instruction on moral reasoning by considering whether students had developed a higher level of moral reasoning using Kohlberg's [3] categories. By measuring changes in moral reasoning at the beginning (pretest) and end (posttest) of the course, any formal developments in moral reasoning could be charted and analyzed. In addition, student perceptions of the effectiveness of the ethics course of instruction on their moral reasoning and practice were measured using qualitative open-ended questions and a quantitative two-item Likert-type scale. Students were requested to assess the course using a Likert-type scale ranging from "not at all" to "a great deal" the extent to which they felt it had improved their moral reasoning and ethical practice. The qualitative openended part of the questionnaire consisted of two items asking students to indicate in their own words the effects the Business Ethics course had on their moral reasoning and ethical decision-

The formal aspect of moral reasoning change in the student sample prior to and after receiving the course in ethics was measured using an adapted and abbreviated measuring instrument. The adapted measuring instrument adopted a single-case study (The Famine) taken from the DIT2. "The Famine" describes a small village in India faced by shortages of food in the past which is now faced by famine. The famine is so severe that some families in the village attempt to satisfy their hunger by concocting a soup made from the bark of trees. One of the families in the village headed by Mustaq Singh is now near starvation. Singh has heard that there is a rich man living in the village who has an ample supply of food which he is hoarding in a warehouse and is hoping, as the price for food goes up in response to its reduced supply, to collect a huge profit. Singh is desperation's door and even thinks of stealing some of the hoarded food

Committee.

140 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

making practice.

3.2.1. Defining ethical issues measuring instrument

The measuring instrument devised by Aquino and Reed [28] (p. 1425) is developed from "specific traits that have been empirically shown to be associated with what it means to be a moral person. For this reason, it is expected that a trait-based approach for measuring moral identity is less likely to invoke overlapping identities because it is content specific." The measuring instrument included adjectives caring, compassionate, fair, friendly, generous, helpful, hardworking, honest, and kind, to which respondents were asked to indicate the extent they identified in their moral self-identity reckoning.

#### 3.2.3. The course of ethics instruction and measuring instruments of postgraduate student perceptions of this on moral reasoning and ethical practice

An overriding objective in business ethics instruction for postgraduate commerce students at the University of the Witwatersrand is to broaden their knowledge and understanding of their likely economic, social, and environmental responsibilities as future business leaders in a turbulent and fast-changing business world. Deepening such future leaders' moral reasoning and developing tools for practical ethical decision-making is crucial if they are to be able to cope with the business crises they are likely to meet in their later roles in business. Few empirical studies have systematically analyzed postgraduate student moral identities and their development in moral reasoning and ethical practice in response to a specific ethical development program. The relationship between moral development and intelligence is well documented, but few studies have traced the development of a cognitively able, likely future leadership group in response to a specific university postgraduate ethical program of instruction aimed at developing moral reasoning and ethical practice.

The Business Behavior (BUSE4016) ethics course consisted of an intensive 7-week program of lectures and group work involving selected ethical dilemma case studies and presentations of student group answers to specific questions on the case studies during the classes. Each session lasted 3 hours or more. In addition, written documents from each group presenting group answers in detail were compiled after each session and marked by the lecturer. The marked answers were given with detailed feedback on the cogency of the moral arguments in students' interpretations of the case studies at each ensuing class before concentrating on a new ethical dilemma.

Presentations were made by a group member of one group in a class usually made up by about five groups with five students per group. Each presentation consisted of a 15-minute evaluation of a specific ethical dilemma and/or crisis. Students in groups were required to work out answers to the case study in consultation with other members in the group and prepare a short PowerPoint presentation of their combined deliberations. Group presenters and groups presented on a rotational basis at each class sequentially, so that everyone in the group presented at least once during the 7-week course giving their individual accounts of group-derived answers to specific ethical dilemma case studies. The presenter and the contents of the presentation are then cross-examined by class members and the lecturer, and the ethical motives and reasoning behind a group's "solutions" to the ethical dilemmas are subjected to detailed discussion and critique. Students also complete individually an open-book test comprising an ethical dilemma case study and/or a written class essay and have a formal written examination at the end of the semester. The case studies and lectures are focused primarily on business ethics issues that involve businesses' economic, social, and environmental triple bottom line. The overriding aim of the course of instruction in ethics is to develop moral reasoning competence through the exposure to various teleological and deontological ethical calculi and apply these in their ethical decision-making practices in class.

For purposes of the current paper, it is important to point out that many students, given their educational status and intellectual maturity, would be expected to have attained at least a conventional level of moral development with possibly some having reached the post-conventional level of moral development.

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, measuring instruments consisted of quantitative and qualitative sections. Students were requested to assess the course using a Likert-type scale ranging from "not at all" to "a great deal" the extent to which they felt it had improved their moral reasoning and ethical practice. The qualitative section of the questionnaire consisted of two open-ended items requesting students to indicate the effects of the Business Ethics course on their moral reasoning and ethical practice in their own words.

#### 3.3. Findings

systematically analyzed postgraduate student moral identities and their development in moral reasoning and ethical practice in response to a specific ethical development program. The relationship between moral development and intelligence is well documented, but few studies have traced the development of a cognitively able, likely future leadership group in response to a specific university postgraduate ethical program of instruction aimed at developing moral rea-

The Business Behavior (BUSE4016) ethics course consisted of an intensive 7-week program of lectures and group work involving selected ethical dilemma case studies and presentations of student group answers to specific questions on the case studies during the classes. Each session lasted 3 hours or more. In addition, written documents from each group presenting group answers in detail were compiled after each session and marked by the lecturer. The marked answers were given with detailed feedback on the cogency of the moral arguments in students' interpretations of the case studies at each ensuing class before concentrating on a new ethical

Presentations were made by a group member of one group in a class usually made up by about five groups with five students per group. Each presentation consisted of a 15-minute evaluation of a specific ethical dilemma and/or crisis. Students in groups were required to work out answers to the case study in consultation with other members in the group and prepare a short PowerPoint presentation of their combined deliberations. Group presenters and groups presented on a rotational basis at each class sequentially, so that everyone in the group presented at least once during the 7-week course giving their individual accounts of group-derived answers to specific ethical dilemma case studies. The presenter and the contents of the presentation are then cross-examined by class members and the lecturer, and the ethical motives and reasoning behind a group's "solutions" to the ethical dilemmas are subjected to detailed discussion and critique. Students also complete individually an open-book test comprising an ethical dilemma case study and/or a written class essay and have a formal written examination at the end of the semester. The case studies and lectures are focused primarily on business ethics issues that involve businesses' economic, social, and environmental triple bottom line. The overriding aim of the course of instruction in ethics is to develop moral reasoning competence through the exposure to various teleological and deontological ethical calculi and apply these in their ethical decision-making prac-

For purposes of the current paper, it is important to point out that many students, given their educational status and intellectual maturity, would be expected to have attained at least a conventional level of moral development with possibly some having reached the post-conven-

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, measuring instruments consisted of quantitative and qualitative sections. Students were requested to assess the course using a Likert-type scale ranging from "not at all" to "a great deal" the extent to which they felt it had improved their moral reasoning and ethical practice. The qualitative section of the questionnaire consisted of two open-ended items requesting students to indicate the effects of the Business Ethics course

on their moral reasoning and ethical practice in their own words.

soning and ethical practice.

142 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

dilemma.

tices in class.

tional level of moral development.

#### 3.3.1. Postgraduate student perceptions of the DIT "Famine" case study

Pretest, posttest findings regarding students' perceptions of the Famine case study indicated that while 42% of students were in favor of taking food before the course in ethics, 52% were in favor of taking the food after taking the ethics course, with the modal group in both before and after instances being slightly in favor of Mustaq stealing the food. This finding, along with the fact that students not in favor of Mustaq taking the food decline substantially after the ethics course (10 students or 43% > 9 students or 34%), suggests that some students became more critical of a straight forward conventional-type level response, which would be to condemn stealing because it conflicts with the law. This finding and interpretation are supported by the analysis below suggesting moral development in some students.

Aggregate students' rankings were used to obtain the overarching effects of the ethics course of instruction on student moral reasoning and ethical practice. Only the first ranking students' choice of the listed DIT rationale was used to assess changes in moral reasoning before and after the course in ethics as it is regarded as the most salient indicator of student choice.

For the modal group of students (five students or 24% before and after the course in ethics), the first rank of the 12 items changed from "Isn't it natural for a loving father to care so much for his family that he would steal" before ethics instructional course to "Shouldn't the community's laws be upheld" after the course in ethics. This change in ranking before and after the ethics course suggests that moral reasoning had developed among the modal group of students from conventional (Stage 3), good interpersonal relations and living up to expectations of those closest to us, to post-conventional (Stage 5), social contract and rights: doing what is best for society from a principle such as democracy. Although these changes are small in terms of the numbers involved and the size of the sample as a whole, changes in moral reasoning and ethical practice as a result of the ethics course are strongly supported by the qualitative findings.

#### 3.3.2. Students' moral identities

Students generally endorsed all nine of the adjectives (caring, compassionate, fair, friendly, generous, helpful, hardworking, honest, and kind), used to measure moral identity [28]. Mean scores ranged from 1.5 to 2.09 and indicate that most students identified with the listed adjectival moral characteristics.

#### 3.3.3. Postgraduate students' perceptions of the effectiveness of the ethical course in improving their ethical competencies

The quantitative findings of student perceptions of the efficacy of the ethics course on their moral reasoning and ethical practice are indicated in Table 1.

Table 1 shows that in general students felt the ethics course had improved their moral reasoning (MR) and ethical practice/decision-making (EP), respectively (MR: AM = 2.23, SD = 1.44, Mode = 1 and EP: AM = 2.28, SD = 1.05, Mode = 2), where 1 = "a great deal," 2 = "much," 3 = "some," 4 = "little," and 5 = "not at all."


Table 1. Student evaluations of the effects of ethics course on moral reasoning and ethical practice: descriptive statistics.

Frequency distributions were calculated to investigate this aspect further. Very briefly, it was found that 14 students, or 66% of the class, indicated that the ethics course had improved their moral reasoning "a great deal" or "much." Two students felt the course had improved moral reasoning "to some extent," while five students felt the ethics course had only "a little" or "not at all" effects on their moral reasoning. As regards improvement in ethical practice and decision-making, the frequency analysis revealed that 13 students, 62% of the class, considered the course to have improved this to a great extent. A further five students felt that the course had improved their ethical practice somewhat, while two students felt it had had no effect whatever in this regard.

The qualitative analysis generally supported the findings of the quantitative analysis with most students indicating in their individual responses that the course in ethics had been effective in improving their ethical competencies. Positive comments given by students indicating their feelings on ways in which the course of ethical instruction had improved their moral reasoning are given in Table 2.

Table 2 indicates several important comments on the effects on moral reasoning that the ethics course was deemed to have. Respondent 8 comment "Has a system I can work through to get an answer" suggests that the ethics course had been able to equip her with moral reasoning "systems" possibly from utilitarian teleological calculus of the greatest good to the greatest number and/or Kantian categorical imperatives. These moral theories among others were extensively discussed and critically analyzed as part of the ethics course. For example, an awareness of the social and environmental aspects of moral reasoning in addition to the traditional economic focus of business is indicated in Respondent 1's comment: "Helped to consider the environment and other people."


Despite the preponderant general view of postgraduate students that the ethics course had improved their ethical reasoning, there were a number of dissidents. For example, one respondent stated, "What's the right thing to do?" which suggests that for this student moral reasoning theories presented in the course had left her either confused or undecided on what moral theory to apply when faced by specific ethical dilemmas. Another respondent mentioned that "Sometimes the thing you feel is right is not always right as there are many factors to consider," which may suggest conflict between an earlier moral "intuition" and specific teleological and deontological systems of moral reasoning.

The ethics course also seemed by most students (11 students or 67%) to have improved their ethical decision-making. This would be expected with the development of greater moral reasoning competencies. Specific students' comments suggesting this are "The ethical texts were useful for guiding my behavior when taking decisions" and "(Ethics Course) comprehensively alluded to a number of considerations that one must recognize before making an ethical decision."

However, as indicated above, perceived benefits from the ethics course for practical decisionmaking were not unanimous, and there were a number of negative student views. For example, one student mentioned the weight of particular ethical calculi in trying to make ethical decisions: "Not everything you think is right is right as there are many factors to consider."

## 4. Conclusion

SD = 1.44, Mode = 1 and EP: AM = 2.28, SD = 1.05, Mode = 2), where 1 = "a great deal," 2

Extent Business Behavior course of ethics instruction improved moral reasoning (MR)

Missing 0 0

Extent Business Behavior course of ethics instruction improved

ethical practice (EP)

Frequency distributions were calculated to investigate this aspect further. Very briefly, it was found that 14 students, or 66% of the class, indicated that the ethics course had improved their moral reasoning "a great deal" or "much." Two students felt the course had improved moral reasoning "to some extent," while five students felt the ethics course had only "a little" or "not at all" effects on their moral reasoning. As regards improvement in ethical practice and decision-making, the frequency analysis revealed that 13 students, 62% of the class, considered the course to have improved this to a great extent. A further five students felt that the course had improved their ethical practice somewhat, while two students felt it had had no effect

Table 1. Student evaluations of the effects of ethics course on moral reasoning and ethical practice: descriptive statistics.

The qualitative analysis generally supported the findings of the quantitative analysis with most students indicating in their individual responses that the course in ethics had been effective in improving their ethical competencies. Positive comments given by students indicating their feelings on ways in which the course of ethical instruction had improved their

Table 2 indicates several important comments on the effects on moral reasoning that the ethics course was deemed to have. Respondent 8 comment "Has a system I can work through to get an answer" suggests that the ethics course had been able to equip her with moral reasoning "systems" possibly from utilitarian teleological calculus of the greatest good to the greatest number and/or Kantian categorical imperatives. These moral theories among others were extensively discussed and critically analyzed as part of the ethics course. For example, an awareness of the social and environmental aspects of moral reasoning in addition to the

= "much," 3 = "some," 4 = "little," and 5 = "not at all."

144 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

N Valid 21 21

Mean 2.2381 2.2857 Std. error of mean 0.31551 0.23035 Median 2.0000 2.0000 Mode 1.00 2.00 Std. deviation 1.44585 1.05560 Variance 2.090 1.114 Skewness 0.637 0.489 Std. error of skewness 0.501 0.501 Kurtosis −0.610 1.771 Std. error of kurtosis 0.972 0.972

whatever in this regard.

moral reasoning are given in Table 2.

The issue of ethical crisis leadership appears to be composed of three interactive layers. The first layer comprises the element of specific strategies that can be used in the event of a crisis. This aspect can be dealt with by building models of the kind displayed in this paper suggesting best practice in the remedial steps that provide the "moral compass" used to resolve particular company crises while, at the same time, maximizing the propensity to maintain company social capital. The second aspect in ethical crisis leadership is to present leaders with the necessary ethical and moral reasoning competencies to make effective practical ethical decisions—this is presented as the role for ethical instructional programs in the current paper. The third aspect and one clearly beyond the scope of the current study is individual leaders' ethical development through earlier socialization, progressive institutional contacts, and influences during the course of their lives and the outcome of these on their specific personality formation. Such aspects of moral development are beyond the scope of short-term ethical programs of the type described in this paper. For example, Post [29] (p. 110) states with regard to leaders with narcissistic-type personalities faced with a crisis situation and seeking an effective crisis resolution that "the special characteristics of narcissistic leaders' psychology and interpersonal relationships affect their leadership behavior and decision making in general but particularly in crisis situations. Response to such situations will largely be determined by whether a narcissistic leader is surrounded by sycophants or whether he or she has advisers who can help them accurately assess the nature of their adversary, evaluate the completeness of their premise, and make midcourse corrections." Ethical leaders need to have empathy and humility, and these characteristics are only evident among those who have less egocentric orientations than narcissistic leaders and who are at least as much concerned about others as they are about themselves. Maccoby [6] notes that narcissistic leaders tend to be sensitive to criticism, poor listeners, and short on empathy and to have an intense desire to compete. Such personality-based behavioral orientations are clearly potentially at odds with successful crisis management. However, the inclusion of moral identity measurement was able to give at least some preliminary insight into the moral motivation of students and their moral self-images without having a more detailed description of individual personalities, and this insight can provide a preliminary means identifying leaders with moral self-identities not inimical to effective crisis management. The seven-step model [2] indicates that to be able to recognize and take effective action in a specific company crisis, leaders need to be able to both listen to and accept criticism. They need to be empathetic to those consumers and members of society that have been negatively affected by the crisis, and a relentless pursuit of victory in such circumstances must not compromise their ability to show humility and admit wrongdoing and to apologize for such wrongdoing in a crisis situation unreservedly.

As mentioned earlier, the seven-step prescriptive remedial steps for dealing with reputational crises can only provide a blueprint or "moral compass" for effective business crisis leadership. Obviously, the type of crisis and its intensity and context also need to be taken into account. Clearly crises that focus on business issues lack the ethical intensity of crises endured by leaders required to deal with "mortal peril" situations, such as those encountered by leaders in military and emergency humanitarian aid contexts. In this regard, Nilsson [30] (p. 4) from the findings of a recent qualitative empirical study writes " … that future civil and military leaders need education in complex person and environment interactions in order to get a holistic picture of the underlying mechanisms, thus promoting the development of their adaptive capabilities." Nilsson [30] (p. 23) also notes that "In spite of relatively vast literature on military ethics, moral dilemmas appear to have gone on more or less unnoticed." In all circumstances, however, a holistic appreciation of contextual elements operating in particular crises can only be initiated by leaders who are genuinely ethical in their concern for the wellbeing of others and who have the necessary adaptive ethical competencies and understanding of moral dilemmas (and their resolution) to make effective ethical decisions [31].

The study has been able to show that although short-term courses of ethical instruction can aid in moral reasoning and ethical decision-making development, clearly there may be limitations in their effect and durability over time. The measurement of the effects of a university course in ethics on the moral competencies of a group of postgraduate students is a useful first step, but the durability and pervasiveness of such instruction need to be considered in a longitudinal research design. Specifically, it needs to be established whether ethical courses of instruction aimed at cognitive and decision-making competencies are able to provide leaders with the necessary ethical background to resolve crisis situations in different real-life contexts [31]. Future research is therefore recommended to focus on how and in what ways university ethical instruction can aid the moral development of leaders, and the extent to which this is both durable and applicable in real-world circumstances. And research should focus on ethical issues arising from crises in contexts with qualitatively distinct dilemmas and different moral intensities in order to better understand their particular teaching and learning requirements.

Finally, it must be said that despite the obvious difficulties in developing ethical leaders who have the necessary competencies and strategies to meet the challenges of crises they routinely have to confront and resolve in a complex and turbulent business world, it should not allow us to lose sight of the fundamental importance of doing this. We need to try to deal with more effectively than we are currently by marshaling our resources, educational and research to produce ethical captains able to steer us through company and other institutional crises that inevitably will emerge in the future.

## Author details

This aspect can be dealt with by building models of the kind displayed in this paper suggesting best practice in the remedial steps that provide the "moral compass" used to resolve particular company crises while, at the same time, maximizing the propensity to maintain company social capital. The second aspect in ethical crisis leadership is to present leaders with the necessary ethical and moral reasoning competencies to make effective practical ethical decisions—this is presented as the role for ethical instructional programs in the current paper. The third aspect and one clearly beyond the scope of the current study is individual leaders' ethical development through earlier socialization, progressive institutional contacts, and influences during the course of their lives and the outcome of these on their specific personality formation. Such aspects of moral development are beyond the scope of short-term ethical programs of the type described in this paper. For example, Post [29] (p. 110) states with regard to leaders with narcissistic-type personalities faced with a crisis situation and seeking an effective crisis resolution that "the special characteristics of narcissistic leaders' psychology and interpersonal relationships affect their leadership behavior and decision making in general but particularly in crisis situations. Response to such situations will largely be determined by whether a narcissistic leader is surrounded by sycophants or whether he or she has advisers who can help them accurately assess the nature of their adversary, evaluate the completeness of their premise, and make midcourse corrections." Ethical leaders need to have empathy and humility, and these characteristics are only evident among those who have less egocentric orientations than narcissistic leaders and who are at least as much concerned about others as they are about themselves. Maccoby [6] notes that narcissistic leaders tend to be sensitive to criticism, poor listeners, and short on empathy and to have an intense desire to compete. Such personality-based behavioral orientations are clearly potentially at odds with successful crisis management. However, the inclusion of moral identity measurement was able to give at least some preliminary insight into the moral motivation of students and their moral self-images without having a more detailed description of individual personalities, and this insight can provide a preliminary means identifying leaders with moral self-identities not inimical to effective crisis management. The seven-step model [2] indicates that to be able to recognize and take effective action in a specific company crisis, leaders need to be able to both listen to and accept criticism. They need to be empathetic to those consumers and members of society that have been negatively affected by the crisis, and a relentless pursuit of victory in such circumstances must not compromise their ability to show humility and admit wrongdo-

146 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

ing and to apologize for such wrongdoing in a crisis situation unreservedly.

As mentioned earlier, the seven-step prescriptive remedial steps for dealing with reputational crises can only provide a blueprint or "moral compass" for effective business crisis leadership. Obviously, the type of crisis and its intensity and context also need to be taken into account. Clearly crises that focus on business issues lack the ethical intensity of crises endured by leaders required to deal with "mortal peril" situations, such as those encountered by leaders in military and emergency humanitarian aid contexts. In this regard, Nilsson [30] (p. 4) from the findings of a recent qualitative empirical study writes " … that future civil and military leaders need education in complex person and environment interactions in order to get a holistic picture of the underlying mechanisms, thus promoting the development of their adaptive capabilities." Nilsson [30] (p. 23) also notes that "In spite of relatively vast literature David A.L. Coldwell

Address all correspondence to: david.coldwell@wits.ac.za

School of Economic and Business Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

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#### **Development of Leadership Competencies During Studies at an Institution of Higher Education: Students' Opinion Development of Leadership Competencies During Studies at an Institution of Higher Education: Students' Opinion**

Aelita Skarbalienė Aelita Skarbalienė

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65269

#### **Abstract**

In order for more professionals to take the role of leaders, the systematic attitude to this question is necessary and one of the aspects is that it is needed to begin preparing students for the leadership at a higher school. Although there are many facts about the importance of developing of leadership competences at higher schools, there is a lack of research on the subject of students' opinion about leadership development in Lithuania, as well as in other countries. That is why the research considering this issue is relevant practically and quite new scientifically. The aim of this study is to reveal students' opinion about developing leadership competences during the studies at an institution of higher education. For this purpose, in the year 2015 and 2016 the research involving 857 last year students from different Lithuanian higher education institutions was fulfilled. The research has shown that the demand of students to develop leadership competences is significantly high and it is realized only partially. The research also confirmed the idea that the development of the leadership competencies could not be based on only one subject, but the integrated strategy needs to be applied. Based on the findings, some recommendations for higher education institutions were formulated as well.

**Keywords:** leadership, leadership development, leadership education, higher educa‐ tion, students' opinion

## **1. Introduction**

In recent decade, in scientific literature, the significance of the leadership for efficiency and progress of different organizations and all society has been especially emphasized [1, 2]. For

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

a long time, decent results and success were related to the efficient leadership of the high‐level managers [3–5]. However, the idea of parallel (or shared) leadership which emerged under the influence of cognitive and social psychology (firstly, in studies of business and politics leadership, but later applied also in health sciences, public administration, education, etc.), which emphasizes the leadership as a process in which every person in an organization as a leader and formal managers increases work quality and improves results of an organization all together by mutual work [6], has revealed the significance of every person as a leader. In the parallel leadership process, responsibility is shared in two ways: managers are responsible for strategic leadership, whereas other persons who take non‐formal leadership role take responsibility for the leadership of organizational process and activity [6]. This idea about leadership involves a shared responsibility for creating a better world in which to live and work which manifests in a passion to engage others in bringing about purposeful change [7].

Yet in 1991, it was said that if society wants more professionals to assume the role of a leader, the systematic approach to this matter is needed and arguments that future professionals has to begin develop their leadership competences, while they are students at the institutions of higher education, i.e., universities and colleges [8].

Higher education plays a particularly large role in creating and shaping the quality of leadership in today's society, and the leadership is one of the most crucial results in higher education [9]. It has been determined by scientific researches that each person has the leader‐ ship potential and students not only may enhance, but actually enhance their leadership competences during the studying at the university or college [10, 11]. When leadership abilities improve, the social activeness of young people increases, energetic and positive character traits develop, and the participation in academic activity as well as in the activity of student organizations increases [12–14].

It has been noticed that in recent years, more and more attention has been paid for the issue concerning how students are trained for leadership; at the same time, it has been searched for most effective methods and activities [15–21].

However, in research works the lack of students' own opinion on the development of leader‐ ship competencies has been felt, i.e., there is the lack of data on how students themselves feel the need to develop leadership competencies at higher school, to what extent this demand has been realized and how students prefer to develop their leadership competences [22–24].

Although there are studies exploring leadership development at the universities and colleges done, most often they explore either students who study nature sciences [19, 25], students of social sciences, or students of humanities. And that might be the reason hindering effective implementation of a leadership development policy at the contemporary universities and colleges. Many higher education institutions across the Europe are multidisciplinary. Faculties of Social sciences, Humanities, Mathematics and STEM, Computer sciences, Maritime, etc., are held there. And the vision for students' leadership development is one for all. In order to create integrated vision for effective development of leadership competences that would be consis‐ tent with the needs of students from different faculties, systematic study is needed. The display of students' needs and preferences on leadership development is important because it could help to display factors for the improvement of an object researched as well as create possibilities to purposefully act, fulfill expedient intervention into the processes of development of leadership competencies in order to seek to improve them, and achieve better results in development of students' leadership competencies.

a long time, decent results and success were related to the efficient leadership of the high‐level managers [3–5]. However, the idea of parallel (or shared) leadership which emerged under the influence of cognitive and social psychology (firstly, in studies of business and politics leadership, but later applied also in health sciences, public administration, education, etc.), which emphasizes the leadership as a process in which every person in an organization as a leader and formal managers increases work quality and improves results of an organization all together by mutual work [6], has revealed the significance of every person as a leader. In the parallel leadership process, responsibility is shared in two ways: managers are responsible for strategic leadership, whereas other persons who take non‐formal leadership role take responsibility for the leadership of organizational process and activity [6]. This idea about leadership involves a shared responsibility for creating a better world in which to live and work which manifests in a passion to engage others in bringing about purposeful change [7].

Yet in 1991, it was said that if society wants more professionals to assume the role of a leader, the systematic approach to this matter is needed and arguments that future professionals has to begin develop their leadership competences, while they are students at the institutions of

Higher education plays a particularly large role in creating and shaping the quality of leadership in today's society, and the leadership is one of the most crucial results in higher education [9]. It has been determined by scientific researches that each person has the leader‐ ship potential and students not only may enhance, but actually enhance their leadership competences during the studying at the university or college [10, 11]. When leadership abilities improve, the social activeness of young people increases, energetic and positive character traits develop, and the participation in academic activity as well as in the activity of student

It has been noticed that in recent years, more and more attention has been paid for the issue concerning how students are trained for leadership; at the same time, it has been searched for

However, in research works the lack of students' own opinion on the development of leader‐ ship competencies has been felt, i.e., there is the lack of data on how students themselves feel the need to develop leadership competencies at higher school, to what extent this demand has been realized and how students prefer to develop their leadership competences [22–24].

Although there are studies exploring leadership development at the universities and colleges done, most often they explore either students who study nature sciences [19, 25], students of social sciences, or students of humanities. And that might be the reason hindering effective implementation of a leadership development policy at the contemporary universities and colleges. Many higher education institutions across the Europe are multidisciplinary. Faculties of Social sciences, Humanities, Mathematics and STEM, Computer sciences, Maritime, etc., are held there. And the vision for students' leadership development is one for all. In order to create integrated vision for effective development of leadership competences that would be consis‐ tent with the needs of students from different faculties, systematic study is needed. The display of students' needs and preferences on leadership development is important because it could

higher education, i.e., universities and colleges [8].

organizations increases [12–14].

152 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

most effective methods and activities [15–21].

Due to practical relevance, taking into account the lack of scientific research, the issue of students' opinion about development of leadership competencies during studies at an institution of higher education has been chosen for this study.

The aim of this study is to reveal students' opinion about developing leadership competences during the studies at an institution of higher education.

## **2. Integrating leadership development to the curriculum. Why is it important for students?**

Well‐trained professionals need disciplinary knowledge and skills, but also competencies that prepare them to lead in an increasingly complex world [25], competences that prepare them to be influential in their professions and in the society, and competences that prepare them to create added value of the professional activities. These are the leadership competences.

Actually, students when entering universities and colleges have a narrow view of leadership [25]. Usually, they think that leadership is based on the formal organizational position and formal authority. But as they deepen their professional competences during the study years, they can get wider view of what leadership is and how it works as well and of course realize that formal authority is not the only one the key to successful leadership. Ability to influence others is not less important. Scientifically trained people are called to lead in some points of their lives—in professional and/or social lives—and should be prepared to do that [25].

It needs to be taken into an account that not only scientists argue the importance of develop‐ ment of students' leadership competences. This approach is shared by some of the higher education institutions as well. For example, some universities recognize the importance of leadership, include leadership development to the objectives of the institution, encourage students to participate in the leadership, and with it encourage the growth of the society and its welfare [26, 27]. Recently, the leadership training in the study programs of higher schools as well as in non‐formal activities has become a tendency and is recognized as substantial regardless of what speciality students are going to acquire [28, 29].

Though person who leads in a professional or social life with or without formal leadership title should develop and strengthen his or her leadership competences continuously, there is one aspect why it is so important during the years at the higher school. According to Erik Erikson and his theory of psychosocial development stages, most of the students at the university are in their late adolescence—early adulthood age stage. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. The challenge of late adolescence—early adulthood age stage—is to create own identity. Thus, an institution of higher education has the potential to help young person discover and foster not only his or her professional, but leader's identity as well.

## **3. Integrating leadership development to the curriculum: activities**

Recently, the leadership training in the study programs of higher schools as well as in non‐ formal activities has become a tendency and is recognized as substantial regardless of what profession students are going to acquire [28, 29]. Thus, contemporary higher schools face the problem of how to help students to acquire and develop their leadership competencies during the study at an institution.

After the importance of leadership was emphasized, many higher schools included special leadership study subject to their educational curricula. But leadership researchers say that students' leadership skills and competences have not changed much due to that. It is mainly explained by the large gap between leadership theory and practice, i.e., students who get theoretical knowledge of leadership do not know how to apply this knowledge in practice [30, 31]. It is also denoted that the training of leadership competencies is a complex process since it works with the development and perfection of a personality [31]. Convictions and experi‐ ences of students have strong influence on the quality of this process [32, 33], whereas each student has frequently an individual understanding of the leadership as well as different competencies and abilities necessary for the expression of leadership [31]. It is problematic to find the strategy that would satisfy the needs and abilities of all students.

Leadership researchers notice that there is a lack of empirical research for the development of leadership competences at higher schools [22, 34]. Still, some researches find the tendency of growth of that kind of researches and studies. For example, J.P. Dugan and S.R. Komives revealed that the main tendencies and trends of leadership development at the higher school were formed over the past 15 years. This formation was influenced by the many reasons, for instance, leadership theories change from the traits model to relations‐based model, the emphasizing of team‐work principles, ideas of voluntary activities, establishing of socially active communities, professionalization of leadership trainers and educators, dissemination of leadership ideas, etc. [22].

Tree strategies for effective development of the leadership competences at the higher school can be listed after review of many studies on this topic was done:


There are various ideas on how the activities training the leadership competencies could be involved into formal education programs. For instance, some authors argue that the leadership study subject or program is necessary at higher school [19, 22, 34, 35]. This is argued by the idea that students firstly have to get familiar with the theory of leadership and also understand that leadership can be developed, educated, and trained. It is considered that leadership study subject could provide basic ideas about leadership and its theories, and also help students understand what leadership is needed for, what moral values leader should follow, and what skills need to be developed for effective leadership. It is noted that such study subject should be taught during the first study years.

the potential to help young person discover and foster not only his or her professional, but

Recently, the leadership training in the study programs of higher schools as well as in non‐ formal activities has become a tendency and is recognized as substantial regardless of what profession students are going to acquire [28, 29]. Thus, contemporary higher schools face the problem of how to help students to acquire and develop their leadership competencies during

After the importance of leadership was emphasized, many higher schools included special leadership study subject to their educational curricula. But leadership researchers say that students' leadership skills and competences have not changed much due to that. It is mainly explained by the large gap between leadership theory and practice, i.e., students who get theoretical knowledge of leadership do not know how to apply this knowledge in practice [30, 31]. It is also denoted that the training of leadership competencies is a complex process since it works with the development and perfection of a personality [31]. Convictions and experi‐ ences of students have strong influence on the quality of this process [32, 33], whereas each student has frequently an individual understanding of the leadership as well as different competencies and abilities necessary for the expression of leadership [31]. It is problematic to

Leadership researchers notice that there is a lack of empirical research for the development of leadership competences at higher schools [22, 34]. Still, some researches find the tendency of growth of that kind of researches and studies. For example, J.P. Dugan and S.R. Komives revealed that the main tendencies and trends of leadership development at the higher school were formed over the past 15 years. This formation was influenced by the many reasons, for instance, leadership theories change from the traits model to relations‐based model, the emphasizing of team‐work principles, ideas of voluntary activities, establishing of socially active communities, professionalization of leadership trainers and educators, dissemination

Tree strategies for effective development of the leadership competences at the higher school

**1.** involvement in various activities for the development of the leadership competencies into

There are various ideas on how the activities training the leadership competencies could be involved into formal education programs. For instance, some authors argue that the leadership study subject or program is necessary at higher school [19, 22, 34, 35]. This is argued by the

find the strategy that would satisfy the needs and abilities of all students.

can be listed after review of many studies on this topic was done:

**3. Integrating leadership development to the curriculum: activities**

leader's identity as well.

154 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

the study at an institution.

of leadership ideas, etc. [22].

the curricula;

**2.** the promotion in practical activities; and

**3.** non‐formal training of the leadership competencies.

But some authors replicate this opinion and argue that leadership cannot be developed with only one study subject. Corresponding activities should be involved into other study subjects as well [19, 22, 35]. Students need to be engaged in activities integrated into curricula that promote not only the development of leadership competences but—and that is very important —leader's behavior has to be trained [25]. The debate on social and cultural issues could contribute to the development of some of the leadership competencies in higher school. Discussions on various topics could help students to develop communication skills and develop a mind mapping. Debates also help to learn reason, the ideas, justify different opinions, evaluate the arguments, and seek a compromise [22, 34, 36]. It has to be mentioned that the activities have to be integrated in a way that directly relates to the practice [25].

Similarly, the importance of application of active teaching methods is emphasized [36–39]. It is quite effective when active teaching methods are applied for teamwork. Teamwork should be organized in the way that a greater number of students would have an opportunity to become a team leader in different activities for different tasks and would have an opportunity to assess the importance of leadership and responsibility [22, 34].

Another leadership development strategy is practical actions. These can be practical study activities during the lectures, study practice (practical work experience), internships, volunteer work in the communities, etc. Practical activities are important, because students get the opportunity to be leaders in action. It is based on the statement that students develop leader‐ ship by acting in it. Practical activities help students to experience taking the responsibility, to learn various principles of building the team and motivate team members to perform the tasks, to learn building the vision and strategy, trying different styles of leadership in action, and to compare leading in different situations and contexts. In this way, students develop their social and organizational skills, learn planning, and realize the importance of leader's moral values and the importance of teamwork [19, 22, 34, 35, 39]. Practical activities help students to bring theoretical professional knowledge to the real life and apply them purposefully in practical activities [40]. Therefore, it is important to ensure the interaction of theoretical and practical students' training because that is the basis of future professional's competencies.

In the debates about the practical activities, it is proposed to involve mentors in developing of leadership competences of students. In our case, older students, professors, supervisors, and other persons who have greater experience could take the mentor's role. Researches reveal that mentors influence students' leadership positively. Mentors motivate student to get involve into academic, sport, and artistic activities more active. So students get the opportunity to develop new skills, learn new behavior, and understand the specific of the chosen profession [22, 35, 39, 41].

It is indicated that leadership competences can be developed effectively not only by involving activities into formal education process, but also when students get involved into non‐formal education activities. Participation in students' and youth organizations helps students to understand the importance and meaning of working in a team. It is suggested to choose the organizations according to student's own preferences and interests; learn its vision and goals; try to combine own ambitions with organization's objectives; and also develop skills in teamwork [19, 22]. And formal leaders of student and youth organizations more frequently have stronger leadership abilities and more often have the features characteristic of leaders [22].

And there is one more idea of non‐formal leadership development founded and valued by the researchers. Cooperation between higher and high schools makes strong framework for students' leadership. Person's experience from the high school plays important role when he or she comes to university or college. If person understands leadership nature and importance as early as possible in the high school, the development of his or her leadership competencies is much more efficient. That is why it is proposed to higher schools to build cooperation with the high schools, run joint projects and organize seminars and conferences [22, 34].

Regardless of what ideas of leadership development are raised, it is necessary to build such an education environment that would be favorable for effective students' leadership develop‐ ment. This includes the organization of the study process, the active involvement of students, as well as the professionalism of teachers. If teachers are leaders, if they know leadership theory and practice and are able to motivate, students have much better learning outcomes and stronger leadership competencies as well. It is also important for students to feel safe in a moral way and be not afraid to express their points of view. This makes positive effect for the development of their leadership opinion [19, 22, 34]. Besides, (self)‐evaluation of the leadership competencies of students is significant [22, 34]. This could help to realize one's positive and negative features, systemize abilities and knowledge, and evaluate the lack of what knowledge and abilities is present.

## **4. Integrating leadership development to the curriculum: the research of students' opinion**

After theoretical literature analysis and justification of the assumption that it is appropriate to start educate people for leadership yet in a higher education institution, it was decided to carry out an empirical research and to determine the situation regarding the leadership development at the universities and colleges.

Scientific problem of this research has been detailed by raising the following questions:


Mixed method is used for the research [42]. This means that both quantitative and qualitative data are used to reveal the scientific problem of the study. Priority neither to the quantitative nor qualitative data is given. It is believed that both kinds of data complement each other to give the better results.

It is indicated that leadership competences can be developed effectively not only by involving activities into formal education process, but also when students get involved into non‐formal education activities. Participation in students' and youth organizations helps students to understand the importance and meaning of working in a team. It is suggested to choose the organizations according to student's own preferences and interests; learn its vision and goals; try to combine own ambitions with organization's objectives; and also develop skills in teamwork [19, 22]. And formal leaders of student and youth organizations more frequently have stronger leadership abilities and more often have the features characteristic of leaders

And there is one more idea of non‐formal leadership development founded and valued by the researchers. Cooperation between higher and high schools makes strong framework for students' leadership. Person's experience from the high school plays important role when he or she comes to university or college. If person understands leadership nature and importance as early as possible in the high school, the development of his or her leadership competencies is much more efficient. That is why it is proposed to higher schools to build cooperation with

Regardless of what ideas of leadership development are raised, it is necessary to build such an education environment that would be favorable for effective students' leadership develop‐ ment. This includes the organization of the study process, the active involvement of students, as well as the professionalism of teachers. If teachers are leaders, if they know leadership theory and practice and are able to motivate, students have much better learning outcomes and stronger leadership competencies as well. It is also important for students to feel safe in a moral way and be not afraid to express their points of view. This makes positive effect for the development of their leadership opinion [19, 22, 34]. Besides, (self)‐evaluation of the leadership competencies of students is significant [22, 34]. This could help to realize one's positive and negative features, systemize abilities and knowledge, and evaluate the lack of what knowledge

**4. Integrating leadership development to the curriculum: the research of**

After theoretical literature analysis and justification of the assumption that it is appropriate to start educate people for leadership yet in a higher education institution, it was decided to carry out an empirical research and to determine the situation regarding the leadership development

**1.** What is thea demand of students to develop leadership competencies and what is the

Scientific problem of this research has been detailed by raising the following questions:

**2.** What are the most preferred ways for effective leadership development?

the high schools, run joint projects and organize seminars and conferences [22, 34].

[22].

156 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

and abilities is present.

**students' opinion**

at the universities and colleges.

realization of it while studying at higher school?

Quantitative data are gathered via survey using questionnaires based on the model presented below in **Figure 1**.

**Figure 1.** Research model on demand of development of leadership competencies and its realization at higher school.

Random sample of Lithuanian higher education institution was done, and senior undergrad‐ uate students were invited to participate in the survey. Eight hundred and fifty‐seven ques‐ tionnaires were filled‐in by students who are studying nature sciences, social sciences, and humanities and sent back to the researcher.

The demand of development of leadership competencies at higher school was evaluated by analyzing percentage distribution of the answers; differences of demand expression were evaluated by using Friedman's criterion, whereas differences of demand expression according to sex, type of higher school, scientific field, and formal leadership position demand were evaluated using Mann‐Whitney test. The realization of demand to develop leadership competencies was analyzed by evaluating percentage distribution of answers, and differences of respondents' demands according to their sex, higher school type, scientific field, and intention to occupy leading work positions in the future were evaluated by using Chi‐square test and Mann‐Whitney test.

Qualitative data collection is intended to gather information about activities preferred for effective leadership development. Twenty students participated in two sessions of focus group interviews to gather qualitative data. Additionally, 53 students sent their feedback essays and explained their own experience about leadership development at the university/college. Content analysis was used when analyzing and interpreting the data.

#### **4.1. Students' demand to develop leadership competencies at higher school**

When analyzing students' responses (see **Table 1**), it is clear that students want to develop their leadership competencies. Majority of students marked that they want higher school to help them learn how to be a leader. Major part of the respondents expressed the willingness to have a special study subject devoted to development of leadership competences and students would like that each study subject would help them in leadership development as well. Only minor part of students thinks that the education of leadership competencies is their own concern and higher school should not care about it.


**Table 1.** Students' demand to develop leadership competences.

After the comparison of responses given by females and males students, it has emerged that their demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school partly differs (see **Table 2**). Females (comparing with males) have stronger willingness that higher school would help them to develop the leadership competencies, whereas males more often think that the development of leadership competencies is their own concern and higher school should not really care about it. Females as well as males' willingness to have a separate special study subject devoted to the education of leadership competencies and to develop the leadership competencies through other study subjects is similar.

The demand to develop the leadership competencies of students from different scientific fields does not differ (see **Table 2**). It does not really matters if young person study mathematics, chemistry, IT, social sciences, or humanities; most of the respondents expressed the willingness that higher school would help them to learn how to be a leader. They would like to learn leadership from the leadership study subject and also would like every study subject to help them to develop leadership competencies.

Although demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school is similar, both of those students who would like to occupy leading (formal) work positions in the future and of those who would not like, still those students who have the formal leadership demand express stronger demand to have a separate study subject at higher school devoted specially for this aim (see **Table 2**). However, students who do not have the formal leadership demand would like more to develop the leadership competencies while studying each subject.

**4.1. Students' demand to develop leadership competencies at higher school**

own concern and higher school should not care about it.

Willingness that higher school would help to learn how to be a leader

158 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

competencies

Willingness to have a separate study subject devoted to development of leadership

Willingness that each study subject would help

Development of leadership competencies is a personal concern of each person; accordingly, higher school should not care about that

**Table 1.** Students' demand to develop leadership competences.

competencies through other study subjects is similar.

them to develop leadership competencies.

to develop leadership competencies

When analyzing students' responses (see **Table 1**), it is clear that students want to develop their leadership competencies. Majority of students marked that they want higher school to help them learn how to be a leader. Major part of the respondents expressed the willingness to have a special study subject devoted to development of leadership competences and students would like that each study subject would help them in leadership development as well. Only minor part of students thinks that the education of leadership competencies is their

**Demand expression** x **Min Max SD Evaluation of demand**

After the comparison of responses given by females and males students, it has emerged that their demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school partly differs (see **Table 2**). Females (comparing with males) have stronger willingness that higher school would help them to develop the leadership competencies, whereas males more often think that the development of leadership competencies is their own concern and higher school should not really care about it. Females as well as males' willingness to have a separate special study subject devoted to the education of leadership competencies and to develop the leadership

The demand to develop the leadership competencies of students from different scientific fields does not differ (see **Table 2**). It does not really matters if young person study mathematics, chemistry, IT, social sciences, or humanities; most of the respondents expressed the willingness that higher school would help them to learn how to be a leader. They would like to learn leadership from the leadership study subject and also would like every study subject to help

Although demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school is similar, both of those students who would like to occupy leading (formal) work positions in the future and of those who would not like, still those students who have the formal leadership demand express stronger demand to have a separate study subject at higher school devoted specially for this

**expression (%)**

5.27 1 6 0.674 7.30 29.30 63.40

5.36 1 6 0.566 9.30 41.60 49.10

4.93 1 6 0.964 3.30 44.80 5180

2.57 1 6 1.458 44.00 38.90 17.20

**Absent Unclear Present**


**Table 2.** Students' demand to develop leadership competences.

#### **4.2. Realization of students' demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher schools**

Students' demand to develop the leadership competencies at higher school is realized partially. It is possible to judge as 58.5% of respondents signified that they acquired the leadership competencies during studies at higher school. Differences according to sex and type of higher school are not statistically significant (see **Table 3**). However, statistically significant difference was estimated in one case: those students, who would like to be formal leaders, comparing with those who do not endeavor to reach it, feel that they have developed leadership compe‐ tencies more at higher school.

While evaluating the leadership competencies acquired during studies at higher school, majority of respondents (75.2%) evaluated them as 'good' or 'rather good'. In this case, none of differences according to sex and the scientific field have not been determined. However, it has emerged that those students who would like to occupy formal leading work positions, in comparison with those who would not, evaluate better the leadership competencies acquired at higher school.


**Table 3.** Acquisition of leadership competencies at higher school.

However, only one sixth (14.8%) of respondent had a special subject on leadership studies. Students from social sciences and humanities more often stated that they studied this subject (χ2  = 11,823; df = 1, p = 0.001). Besides this special studies subject, in respondents' opinion, subjects such as psychology, organizational behavior, human resources, and organization management helped to develop their leadership competencies.

#### **4.3. Preferred activities for leadership development at the higher school**

Qualitative research results lead to the insights that the development of leadership compe‐ tencies receives quite attention in the study programs of higher education institutions of Lithuania. The respondents' replies allow discerning a systematic leadership competencies development model through various activities: participating in the lectures delivered by the university teachers and experts practitioners, workshops/seminars, study practice, students' scientific conferences, university projects, outings to various institutions, activities of students' organizations, reading study‐related literature, taking individual consultations with teachers, individually performing practical tasks, sharing learning experience with other students, and performing study‐related tasks collaboratively.

But, according to the research participants, the special leadership subject is still rare in Lithuania. Still, students would like to have such a subject. This opinion was reasoned by claiming that students would like to get acquainted with leadership theory as well as realize how leadership could be developed. Students would like leadership study subject to provide fundamental knowledge about leadership theory and practice, and knowledge concerning what leadership is necessary for, what value should leaders' activities be based on, what leadership styles are, and how they enable to act in one or another situation. Students also expressed willingness to learn leader's behavior aspects. They would like to learn the effective speaking, negotiating professionally, and not only learn how to manage stress, but how leader can help others (i.e., team members and followers) to manage stress in difficult situations.

The research helped to identify a unique role of practice in developing leadership competencies —namely this activity of studies was evaluated by the respondents as the most helpful activity in developing various leadership competencies during studies. It turned out that participation in the projects implemented at the university added the least to the development of leadership competencies. However, this is possibly due to the fact that students are simply too little engaged in such activities.

The research also revealed that different activities during studies have a different impact on the development of separate leadership competencies. The communication and teamwork competencies are developed in various activities the most, while the vision/goal setting competencies are developed the least.

Besides the different activities, students stressed the importance of teachers' professionalism. The participants of the research said that they see teacher as a model of the profession. Teachers' knowledge, passion, and leadership are transmitted to students.

## **5. Conclusions**

competencies during studies at higher school. Differences according to sex and type of higher school are not statistically significant (see **Table 3**). However, statistically significant difference was estimated in one case: those students, who would like to be formal leaders, comparing with those who do not endeavor to reach it, feel that they have developed leadership compe‐

While evaluating the leadership competencies acquired during studies at higher school, majority of respondents (75.2%) evaluated them as 'good' or 'rather good'. In this case, none of differences according to sex and the scientific field have not been determined. However, it has emerged that those students who would like to occupy formal leading work positions, in comparison with those who would not, evaluate better the leadership competencies acquired

**Respondent characteristics Respondent groups Yes (%) No (%) χ2 df p** Sex Females 59.98 40.02 0.157 1 0.695

Scientific field Nature sciences 63.43 36.57 0.577 1 0.456

Formal leadership demand Would like to be leaders in future 61.52 38.48 3.754 1 0.047

However, only one sixth (14.8%) of respondent had a special subject on leadership studies. Students from social sciences and humanities more often stated that they studied this subject

Qualitative research results lead to the insights that the development of leadership compe‐ tencies receives quite attention in the study programs of higher education institutions of Lithuania. The respondents' replies allow discerning a systematic leadership competencies development model through various activities: participating in the lectures delivered by the university teachers and experts practitioners, workshops/seminars, study practice, students' scientific conferences, university projects, outings to various institutions, activities of students' organizations, reading study‐related literature, taking individual consultations with teachers, individually performing practical tasks, sharing learning experience with other students, and

But, according to the research participants, the special leadership subject is still rare in Lithuania. Still, students would like to have such a subject. This opinion was reasoned by claiming that students would like to get acquainted with leadership theory as well as realize how leadership could be developed. Students would like leadership study subject to provide fundamental knowledge about leadership theory and practice, and knowledge concerning

 = 11,823; df = 1, p = 0.001). Besides this special studies subject, in respondents' opinion, subjects such as psychology, organizational behavior, human resources, and organization

Males 58.58 41.42

Social sciences and Humanities 57.64 42.36

Would not like to be leaders in future 47.35 52.65

tencies more at higher school.

160 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Table 3.** Acquisition of leadership competencies at higher school.

performing study‐related tasks collaboratively.

management helped to develop their leadership competencies.

**4.3. Preferred activities for leadership development at the higher school**

at higher school.

(χ2

**1.** The issue of development of students' leadership competences at the higher school started a couple of decades before. But there are only few years when it is analyzed actively. Both researchers and the institutions of higher education suggest agree on necessity of development of students' leadership competences and support such a learning and training by using strategies of formal and non‐formal education.

Though the strategies of development of the leadership competencies at different higher schools are basically similar and none of the ideas of training of the leadership competencies is considered as superior than others, integrated strategy is seen as the most effective way for leadership development.

**2.** Although more than half of students, who participated in the research, stated that they acquired the leadership competencies at higher school, there are more of those who would like to acquire such competencies. Only a little part of students (17.2%) thinks that the education of leadership competencies is their own concern and, consequently, higher school should not care about it. The rest of students more or less state that they would like higher school help them to develop the leadership competencies.

Comparing answers of students from universities and colleges, it has emerged that their demand to educate the leadership competencies differs partially. College students expect support from higher schools and wish that each subject studies would help them to educate the leadership competencies. However, the demand realization of the education of leadership competencies in both student groups statistically does not differ significantly.

Research results helped to identify the students' group that separates from other by its demand to educate the leadership competencies and realization of this demand; these are students who in future would like to occupy leading work positions. Such students feel themselves as being acquired the leadership competencies at higher school and evaluate them better. Consequently, it is possible to consider that their demand to develop the leadership competencies is more realized than of those students who in future are not planning to occupy leading work position. However, these students also have stronger demand to have a special study subject devoted to the leadership competencies at higher school.

The conclusions of exploratory research provide useful information about the situation concerning development of leadership competencies at contemporary Lithuanian higher education. As (1) Lithuania is modern country, facing the same problems and challenges as other modern countries do, and (2) the research had a big sample and was fulfilled nationwide, the results and insights of this research are significant and relevant not only in Lithuania, but can be taken into an account in other modern countries as well.

**3.** The idea of integrated strategy for effective leadership development at the institutions of higher education has been reasoned in the theoretical part of this study, and students' opinion about it was revealed together with the evaluation of the importance of various activities and usefulness of tasks for development of leadership competencies.

The research results have revealed the special significance of practical activities and the importance of it to the development of leadership competencies.

Due to the insights occurred from the research results, it becomes possible to form a few recommendations for the higher education institutions:


## **Author details**

the leadership competencies. However, the demand realization of the education of leadership

Research results helped to identify the students' group that separates from other by its demand to educate the leadership competencies and realization of this demand; these are students who in future would like to occupy leading work positions. Such students feel themselves as being acquired the leadership competencies at higher school and evaluate them better. Consequently, it is possible to consider that their demand to develop the leadership competencies is more realized than of those students who in future are not planning to occupy leading work position. However, these students also have stronger demand to have a special study subject devoted

The conclusions of exploratory research provide useful information about the situation concerning development of leadership competencies at contemporary Lithuanian higher education. As (1) Lithuania is modern country, facing the same problems and challenges as other modern countries do, and (2) the research had a big sample and was fulfilled nationwide, the results and insights of this research are significant and relevant not only in Lithuania, but

**3.** The idea of integrated strategy for effective leadership development at the institutions of higher education has been reasoned in the theoretical part of this study, and students' opinion about it was revealed together with the evaluation of the importance of various activities and

The research results have revealed the special significance of practical activities and the

Due to the insights occurred from the research results, it becomes possible to form a few

**•** According to contemporary and modern study program forming principles oriented to the education and development of competencies, it is recommended to prepare and offer students special subjects of leadership studies. The subjects should provide fundamental

**•** After the theoretical and empirical reasoning of the significance of applying the integrated strategy for effective leadership development, it is recommended to include various

**•** After research results revealed the importance of teachers' professionalism and teachers' leadership competencies, it is recommended to the institutions of higher education pay

**•** After the research has revealed the significance of practical activities for the development of leadership competencies, it is necessary to add different practical activities for the study

activities for leadership development to the other study subjects as well;

much attention to the qualification and professionalism of teachers;

competencies in both student groups statistically does not differ significantly.

to the leadership competencies at higher school.

162 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

can be taken into an account in other modern countries as well.

usefulness of tasks for development of leadership competencies.

importance of it to the development of leadership competencies.

recommendations for the higher education institutions:

theoretical knowledge about leadership theory;

process.

Aelita Skarbalienė Address all correspondence to: aelita.skarbaliene@gmail.com Klaipėda University, Klaipėda, Lithuania

## **References**


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#### **Chapter 10 Provisional chapter**

#### **Leadership in Non-Profit Organisations Leadership in Non-Profit Organisations**

Beste Gökçe Parsehyan Beste Gökçe Parsehyan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65268

#### **Abstract**

Emerging at the end of the twentieth century, non-profit sector has taken on a new significance. Non-governmental organisations, health institutions, educational institutions and museums are examples for the variety of non-profit organisations. Museums are defined as the symbols of national cultures and bridges uniting the past with the present. However, it may be suggested that this definition has lost its validity on a large scale due to globalism that penetrated into our lives in the twentieth century. Globalism and multiculturalism played an important role in the industrialisation of culture, and being the symbols of culture, museums assumed the form of dynamics within this industry. Accordingly, the concept of museum leadership gained importance. The increasing competition amongst museums makes leadership more crucial. Compared to other sectors, museums have not been studied enough in terms of leadership and the late, but the necessary attempt to improve museum leadership is of vital importance for cultural industry. This study first discusses leadership and nonprofit organisations separately, and afterwards, it investigates into leadership in nonprofit organisations. Lastly, it elaborates on museum leadership, which is a popular concept of the modern day.

**Keywords:** leadership, non-profit organisations, third sector, museums, museum leadership

## **1. Introduction**

Non-profit organisations emerged with their own features and dynamics all around the world towards the end of twentieth century. The sector, in which these organisations take place, especially in developed countries, is called non-profit sector, voluntary sector, non-governmental organisations or the third sector.

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

There has been a remarkable change regarding the number, employment shares and incomes of non-profit organisations after 1980s, and this acceleration has been revealed through researches [1]. Modern democratic countries are divided into three sectors in general. The first one is called the public sector whose employees are officials providing public service at municipalities and at general or annexed budget boards. The second one is the for-profit sector constituting the fundamental economic power of the state. The third and the last one comprises voluntary organisations such as foundations and unions which are also called citizen sector, voluntary organisations sector, the third sector or sector of non-governmental organisations.

The third sector affects both the public and the private sector, and its effects are social, economic and political. When the related literature is examined, it could be observed that sector-based studies use terms related to the third sector according to their subject matters and that the organisation-based studies use the terms of non-profit organisation. Corneulle defines this sector as an independent sector. Its first use as 'the third sector' dates back to 1970s. This definition was first used by American social scientists like Etzioni, Nielsen and Levitt. The European counterparts—Douglas, Reiehord, Ronge—however, started to use the term in 1980s. Salamon and Anheier consider the emergence of non-profit organisations as the greatest novelty of the twentieth century [2, 3].

Non-profit organisations operate in several fields such as education, culture, religion, health, politics, environment, public and prosperity works. Such organisations also have functions like raising the rate of employment, organising income-net worth and providing social security services. They usually serve to interests beyond the individual, and they collaborate with other non-profit organisations while competing with them. Either public or private, these non-profit organisations became a part of the knowledge society as the third sector.

Non-profit organisations, with their increasing number, go through various problems like any other organisation in public or private sectors [4]. These problems could be gathered under five titles:


When the above-mentioned problems are taken into consideration, it could be seen that the main problem stems from management. In his work titled 'Managing for the Future', Drucker's statement on how non-profit organisations are in need of effective leadership more than firms, as they do not have a good functioning administrative structure, is still valid [5]. It could be observed that the administrative committees of non-profit organisations are still deficient. The members should go through a training process, and new methods should be developed to evaluate their performances.

Leadership is one of the most controversial and investigated subjects. While there are several analytical and theoretical researches on leadership in private sector, studies on leadership in non-profit organisations are limited and most of the researches that have been done so far are on non-governmental organisations. However, being a new sector, leadership in charities and unions is very open to research.

## **2. Leadership**

There has been a remarkable change regarding the number, employment shares and incomes of non-profit organisations after 1980s, and this acceleration has been revealed through researches [1]. Modern democratic countries are divided into three sectors in general. The first one is called the public sector whose employees are officials providing public service at municipalities and at general or annexed budget boards. The second one is the for-profit sector constituting the fundamental economic power of the state. The third and the last one comprises voluntary organisations such as foundations and unions which are also called citizen sector, voluntary organisations sector, the third sector or sector of non-governmental organisations.

The third sector affects both the public and the private sector, and its effects are social, economic and political. When the related literature is examined, it could be observed that sector-based studies use terms related to the third sector according to their subject matters and that the organisation-based studies use the terms of non-profit organisation. Corneulle defines this sector as an independent sector. Its first use as 'the third sector' dates back to 1970s. This definition was first used by American social scientists like Etzioni, Nielsen and Levitt. The European counterparts—Douglas, Reiehord, Ronge—however, started to use the term in 1980s. Salamon and Anheier consider the emergence of non-profit organisations as the greatest

Non-profit organisations operate in several fields such as education, culture, religion, health, politics, environment, public and prosperity works. Such organisations also have functions like raising the rate of employment, organising income-net worth and providing social security services. They usually serve to interests beyond the individual, and they collaborate with other non-profit organisations while competing with them. Either public or private, these non-profit

Non-profit organisations, with their increasing number, go through various problems like any other organisation in public or private sectors [4]. These problems could be gathered under

**•** Absence of profit rate: evaluating the success of a firm in accordance with the profit rate is the common subject analysed within the definitions of business administration in social sciences. However, this is not the case when non-profit organisations are concerned. For this reason, the leaders of these organisations state that profit is a criterion used to control the

**•** Absence of competition: competition is considered to be an element raising the quality of service and enhancing the firm in for-profit organisations. However, competition is not common amongst non-profit organisations, and even if it occurs under certain conditions,

**•** Policies: policies have a significant role in public sector organisations. Even the establishment of public organisations can be based on policies. On the other hand, non-profit organisations tend to develop their own policies. They make effort to give their service

administration and they use it to evaluate the performance of organisations.

it is not a motivation tool that betters the organisations.

especially to receivers with the same policies.

organisations became a part of the knowledge society as the third sector.

novelty of the twentieth century [2, 3].

168 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

five titles:

Before a detailed investigation into leadership in non-profit organisations, it would be beneficial to mention how the concept of leadership has developed briefly.

The question 'whom the communities should be governed by' has been a discussion topic since the emergence of city-states. Related debates that had been initiated by Ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato could be based on a scientific basis by the twentieth century. The qualities that should be owned by community leaders and the leaders themselves were addressed in statements about leadership made before twentieth century.

It was Socrates who came up with the first argument. He opposed the idea that communities should be governed by nobles only, and he emphasised that people leading communities need to be virtuous and knowledgeable. Just like his master, Plato also took attention to the significance of education. Dividing the society into three as producers, auxiliaries and guardians, Plato stated that each class must receive education. Therefore, he took the guardians to war to exhibit their heroism. Candidates for guardianship were subjected to education until they got to their 20s. Following this education, Plato regarded another educational period of 10Â years in which the candidates were taught mathematics, geometry, harmony and astronomy necessarily. When they got to their 30s, candidates would start to study philosophy for a period of 20 years, and when they got to their 50s, they took an exam. The ones who passed the exam gained the right to be community leaders. Plato foresaw a tough education system and he demanded that community leaders be purified from all ambitions. He claimed that only philosophers who are virtuous and knowledgeable are capable of self-devotion for the state [6]. Regarding Socrates' and Plato's discourses, one could infer that leaders must be virtuous and knowledgeable, and a long process of education is needed in order to achieve wisdom and virtue.

Niccholó Machiavelli, an Italian Renaissance philosopher who is deemed to be the founder political science, stated that human beings are selfish, evil, self-seeker and acquisitive by nature. To him, leaders should be aware of these features while leading people and they should make use of every mechanism including religion. He argues that authority does not derive from God, but from man. Contrary to Socrates and Plato, he claims that political success is more important than morals. The society might be afraid of their leader and Machiavelli indicates that the fear stems from love and compassion [6]. The idea that leaders should possess virtue had lost its popularity during its journey from ancient Greece to Renaissance. Power became the most important feature to be a leader.

Religious beliefs started to be questioned with the commencement of French Revolution in eighteenth century. Philosophers like Kant and Voltaire claimed that humans could determine their own fate and control it through rationalism. Two separate beliefs were born out of rationalism in nineteenth century: the belief in humans' capability for perfection and advancement [7]. As the concept of god was put into question, humans were believed to be individuals who could display rational behaviours.

Sigmund Freud and Max Weber following him came up with ideas against rationalism; therefore, the beliefs it had provoked started to disappear. The reason why the concept of leadership cannot be defined clearly is attributed to Freud's and Weber's destructive approaches to rationalism. Freud discovered that the unconscious mind settled behind the rational mind and he theorised his idea that a significant amount of human behaviour stemmed from the unconscious. Weber, on the other hand, was intrigued by the limits of reason and he investigated rationalism devoid of morals, which he called technical rationalism. To him, bureaucracy is a solid example of technical rationalism. The most horrifying aspect of bureaucracy is that it dehumanises people and demolishes productivity. Weber believed that it was only the charismatic leadership that could stand against bureaucracy. However, Hitler, who was depicted as a charismatic leader in the twentieth century, overshadowed Weber's belief with the ferocious genocide he caused [7].

Disappearance of the belief in rationalism led to an acceleration in studies on leadership. Social scientists began to argue whether leadership was a trait gained through nurture or nature. They concluded that one might be born with certain characteristics suitable for leadership and that these characteristics could be improved by means of education.

Centres for leader training were first established in the USA and today one could find them everywhere. The initial reason of setting up such centres was to teach what leadership required. Organisations have made great effort to raise lead managers in recent years.

## **3. Leadership in non-profit organisations**

omy necessarily. When they got to their 30s, candidates would start to study philosophy for a period of 20 years, and when they got to their 50s, they took an exam. The ones who passed the exam gained the right to be community leaders. Plato foresaw a tough education system and he demanded that community leaders be purified from all ambitions. He claimed that only philosophers who are virtuous and knowledgeable are capable of self-devotion for the state [6]. Regarding Socrates' and Plato's discourses, one could infer that leaders must be virtuous and knowledgeable, and a long process of education is needed in order to achieve wisdom

Niccholó Machiavelli, an Italian Renaissance philosopher who is deemed to be the founder political science, stated that human beings are selfish, evil, self-seeker and acquisitive by nature. To him, leaders should be aware of these features while leading people and they should make use of every mechanism including religion. He argues that authority does not derive from God, but from man. Contrary to Socrates and Plato, he claims that political success is more important than morals. The society might be afraid of their leader and Machiavelli indicates that the fear stems from love and compassion [6]. The idea that leaders should possess virtue had lost its popularity during its journey from ancient Greece to Renaissance. Power

Religious beliefs started to be questioned with the commencement of French Revolution in eighteenth century. Philosophers like Kant and Voltaire claimed that humans could determine their own fate and control it through rationalism. Two separate beliefs were born out of rationalism in nineteenth century: the belief in humans' capability for perfection and advancement [7]. As the concept of god was put into question, humans were believed to be individuals

Sigmund Freud and Max Weber following him came up with ideas against rationalism; therefore, the beliefs it had provoked started to disappear. The reason why the concept of leadership cannot be defined clearly is attributed to Freud's and Weber's destructive approaches to rationalism. Freud discovered that the unconscious mind settled behind the rational mind and he theorised his idea that a significant amount of human behaviour stemmed from the unconscious. Weber, on the other hand, was intrigued by the limits of reason and he investigated rationalism devoid of morals, which he called technical rationalism. To him, bureaucracy is a solid example of technical rationalism. The most horrifying aspect of bureaucracy is that it dehumanises people and demolishes productivity. Weber believed that it was only the charismatic leadership that could stand against bureaucracy. However, Hitler, who was depicted as a charismatic leader in the twentieth century, overshadowed Weber's

Disappearance of the belief in rationalism led to an acceleration in studies on leadership. Social scientists began to argue whether leadership was a trait gained through nurture or nature. They concluded that one might be born with certain characteristics suitable for leadership and

and virtue.

170 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

became the most important feature to be a leader.

who could display rational behaviours.

belief with the ferocious genocide he caused [7].

that these characteristics could be improved by means of education.

Leaders must be eager to make choices. Organisations, whether they are for-profit or nonprofit, determine strategies and are shaped in accordance with these strategies. Leaders play a crucial role in designating the strategies of organisations. For this reason, it is important that they, leaders, do not hesitate while making decisions and that they use initiatives. Most of the organisations charge leaders only with keeping up with the recent developments and monitoring the process. However, one of the important responsibilities of leaders is to teach the organisational strategies to their staff and to make them embrace these strategies.

The absence of leaders could result in dramatic consequences. To illustrate, organisations might lose their ability to keep pace with the changes in their environment fast and consequently, they might lose their sustainability.

It would be wrong to consider leaders as officials working in senior manager positions. Leaders could be in any status of an organisation. On the contrary, most of the organisations today prefer that their middle-ranking staff take on a leadership role. The very reason for this preference is that the staff is supposed to compete with the rapidly changing circumstances in the sector.

Leaders of an organisation are able to cope with difficulties and come up with solutions against them. However, managers may not know what to do when they face changes. Contrary to them, leaders set a course for the future predicting any possible change to come. Apart from the rapid change in the environment, technological developments and the increase in specialisation also threaten the sustainability of organisations. Managerial skills on their own are not enough to lead groups. Therefore, organisations need leaders who would evoke groups. Some organisations, on the other hand, choose to work with lead managers.

Leaders of organisations are not only important for sustainability but also for the employees. Influencing the employees and leading them towards the target through motivation are amongst the responsibilities of leaders who also play an important role in arranging the internal and external environment of organisations. What is more, leaders are needed to benefit from the employees on an optimum level and to give organisations the success they need.

The related literature presents us different forms of leadership, which brings a question to mind: Is leadership in non-profit organisations different from leadership in for-profit ones? At the first glance, 'profit' seems to be the sole element distinguishing them from each other. However, there are several other differences in administrative terms. It would also be wrong to claim that only one type of leadership is suitable for non-profit organisations. Leaders of non-profit organisations are supposed to have different features. Therefore, one could observe that the recent form of visionary leadership is more integrative.

When museums are concerned within the scope of non-profit organisations in Turkey, the job adverts and one-to-one interviews reveal—especially using popular term 'vision holder'—that potential administrators are expected to have visionary leadership qualities.

The exact date when the concept of 'vision' got involved in the leadership literature for the first time is unknown, but it came into use after 1990s. Together with the works by Burns, Bennis, Bass and Tichy & Devanna, the outputs of related publications and studies grew in number; thus, subjects like 'the new century's approach to leadership', 'fundamentals of success', standpoints, components and definitions started to be revised with the contributions of different disciplines [8]. There are various interpretations of vision and visionary leadership produced by several authors. To Conger, vision stands for means providing success for future [9]. His definition is supported by Yukl [10, 11]. Boal and Bryson suggest that vision is the picture of the future that clearly displays the values and goals [9]. Using similar definitions, Snyder and Graves define vision as the energy of the leader and the employees, directing resources towards a specific target and an outstanding way of making, discussing and presenting the image completely [12].

The sustainability of organisations is in relation to vision carrying the future to the present. On the other hand, vision—in organisational terms—is designing, developing and sharing the future of the organisation together with picturing the organisational future. Senge backs up this description by saying that vision shapes and directs the future of an organisation and it is a means through which an organisation identifies its objectives [13]. A visionary statement shows the destination and it certifies what happens when the destination is reached.

Leaders are pioneers. They are the ones taking firms to new horizons, taking elusive opportunities and guiding the employees. What guides leaders is the vision. In this respect, vision is significant for leaders and visionary leadership is crucial for organisations. If the leader and his followers do not know where they are heading to, leadership does not mean anything. According to Taylor, however, a leader not only establishes the vision but also shares it with the employees [14]. Leadership is the ability to design a common pursuit and a process in which the vision and objectives of people, groups or organisations are influenced in their way to reaching targets. Visionary leadership is the ability to establish a vision that is realistic, trustworthy and interesting for a whole organisation or for a part of it and to express it. If this vision is chosen and applied properly, it strengthens all the sources together with the skills and abilities of the employees. A vision holder leader is the person who not only forms a vision but also possesses the ability to explain it to the employees. Accordingly, the employees should be informed about the way they will follow and their targets by means of clear, oral and written communication. Last of all, activities should be identified first and be classified according to their priorities in order to make vision applicable under different circumstances.

A visionary leader not only conveys the vision orally but also demonstrates it to the employees through his behaviours. As visionary leaders, business administrators of today should establish a vision that could bring success to their organisation and to the employees by foreseeing the future and through participative understanding of management. They need to develop strategies and make progress fast with a proactive approach that changes threats into opportunities. Being aware of the benefits constant learning provides visionary leaders must build up organisations that always learn and they need to believe in the necessity of training while catching up with the novelties and changes. They should inspire the employees and integrate them into the process by giving them authorities. Visionary leaders motivate employees with the help of the vision. The master of the organisation is the leader and he ensures that the employees focus on the future aims of the firm. Visionary leaders always pay attention to what the employees say and they respect the values while doing that which strengthens their position. When the employees feel that their views are appreciated, they embrace the vision appointed by the leader and sincerely make an effort to realise it.

When museums are concerned within the scope of non-profit organisations in Turkey, the job adverts and one-to-one interviews reveal—especially using popular term 'vision holder'—that

The exact date when the concept of 'vision' got involved in the leadership literature for the first time is unknown, but it came into use after 1990s. Together with the works by Burns, Bennis, Bass and Tichy & Devanna, the outputs of related publications and studies grew in number; thus, subjects like 'the new century's approach to leadership', 'fundamentals of success', standpoints, components and definitions started to be revised with the contributions of different disciplines [8]. There are various interpretations of vision and visionary leadership produced by several authors. To Conger, vision stands for means providing success for future [9]. His definition is supported by Yukl [10, 11]. Boal and Bryson suggest that vision is the picture of the future that clearly displays the values and goals [9]. Using similar definitions, Snyder and Graves define vision as the energy of the leader and the employees, directing resources towards a specific target and an outstanding way of making, discussing and

The sustainability of organisations is in relation to vision carrying the future to the present. On the other hand, vision—in organisational terms—is designing, developing and sharing the future of the organisation together with picturing the organisational future. Senge backs up this description by saying that vision shapes and directs the future of an organisation and it is a means through which an organisation identifies its objectives [13]. A visionary statement

Leaders are pioneers. They are the ones taking firms to new horizons, taking elusive opportunities and guiding the employees. What guides leaders is the vision. In this respect, vision is significant for leaders and visionary leadership is crucial for organisations. If the leader and his followers do not know where they are heading to, leadership does not mean anything. According to Taylor, however, a leader not only establishes the vision but also shares it with the employees [14]. Leadership is the ability to design a common pursuit and a process in which the vision and objectives of people, groups or organisations are influenced in their way to reaching targets. Visionary leadership is the ability to establish a vision that is realistic, trustworthy and interesting for a whole organisation or for a part of it and to express it. If this vision is chosen and applied properly, it strengthens all the sources together with the skills and abilities of the employees. A vision holder leader is the person who not only forms a vision but also possesses the ability to explain it to the employees. Accordingly, the employees should be informed about the way they will follow and their targets by means of clear, oral and written communication. Last of all, activities should be identified first and be classified according to

shows the destination and it certifies what happens when the destination is reached.

their priorities in order to make vision applicable under different circumstances.

A visionary leader not only conveys the vision orally but also demonstrates it to the employees through his behaviours. As visionary leaders, business administrators of today should establish a vision that could bring success to their organisation and to the employees by foreseeing the future and through participative understanding of management. They need to develop strategies and make progress fast with a proactive approach that changes threats into opportunities. Being aware of the benefits constant learning provides visionary leaders must

potential administrators are expected to have visionary leadership qualities.

presenting the image completely [12].

172 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

A visionary leader gives the employees responsibility by assigning authority to subordinates; however, he holds the utmost power to establish a vision and to plan it. Nonetheless, the vision should not be taken over by the senior ranks. It should be claimed by the whole organisation and checked regularly to make sure that its values are transmitted to each employee and the leader needs to evaluate the performance within the organisation according to competitors. Innovations and changes should be followed closely.

In sum, visionary leaders are people who draw the picture of the future together with the employees in organisation's way to success by taking the performance of employees to the peak point with high levels of motivation and collaboration. Being aware how essential change and development are, they build up a strong organisational culture and spread it within the organisation.

The foregoing description of leadership could be deemed as a synthesis of many others and it draws attention to the leader's capability of motivating and establishing a vision. Leader's power is attributed to the level at which his employees want and accept the vision he establishes. According to this approach, the leader symbolises the source of reason and authority. The employees hope to be attached to the leader and to his vision. As a result, visionary leadership today means a common understanding of management that is active and dependent on a team.

It gets more and more difficult for organisations to be sustainable within the third sector, which includes non-profit organisations. The competition environment is not as complicated as the private sector. Nevertheless, third sector organisations have difficulty in gaining income and the reason is that most of the non-profit organisations survive with the aid of external donations. Visionary leaders motivate and organise their employees well so that they can persuade them to make strategic moves in line with the vision of the organisation. To illustrate, when the histories of art organisations are investigated, it could be observed that they were state organisations exhibiting art only. The first step—taken in the USA—of transferring art organisations to foundations or the establishment of new art organisations by foundations got serious reactions. As it was all about art, art historians protested when some specific parts of museums started to be rented to restaurants or cafés or even to special occasions like fashion shows, premiere nights and when they multiplied as branches with museum shops in them. Despite all these, the leaders of such organisations were able to suppress the critiques with the vision they had, and although they could not do away with them, they managed to tone them down.

It is very challenging for museums to survive nowadays. The most distinguished and contradictive example for this is the Guggenheim Museums. The Guggenheim Foundation sets up branches similar to those of a fast food chain. For this reason, many people renamed it as 'McGuggenheim'. There are failures amongst the branches as well as those that achieved successful business.

It would be narrow-mindedness to think that tickets are the only income source for museums. Museums cannot afford their expense items such as administrative or personnel costs solely through visitors. The preliminary aim of museums is to make art works accessible to as many people as possible. Therefore, they provide service free of charge once a week. Museum leaders rent some spots to food or retail sector for extra income. What is more, they make deals with other brands of private sector and organise award ceremonies, special exhibitions and fashion shows (for example, Guggenheim-BMW collaboration). They offer workshops, in addition to online and onsite seminars. They put the works of the artists on the market at premiere nights. Museum cards provide them with membership income. They also accept sponsors and donations as works or cash.

Leaders use different methods each year to generate an income. There is no doubt that while visionary leaders soften the criticism they face with the help of those methods, some of them make strategic mistakes. For instance, renting a museum for wedding ceremonies is a wrong strategy and the leader who allows that has to face the results. Only highly qualified works of art can get into a museum collection and insuring such works is considerably expensive. When the value of art works and the organisational prestige is taken into consideration, letting museums used as wedding venues is unacceptable. Once an organisation is discredited, sustainability becomes impossible. This is the reason why decisions taken by the leader are vital and as mentioned before, the job adverts look for the quality 'vision holder' as a prerequisite.

Museum leadership became a subject matter in the last decades of 1990s. There are several universities around the world offering postgraduate programmes on museum leadership. In addition, certain institutions open up certificate programmes. Symposiums and conferences are arranged each year to host studies of museum leadership. When Turkey is concerned however, it has not become a topic to be researched yet since art organisations are still not popular study objects. It could be assumed that museum leadership will become a specific topic to work on only after a few years.

## **4. Museum leadership**

The professionals working at a museum—from the lowest ranks to the highest one—should adapt themselves to the external environmental conditions quickly. They should be able to use the technological equipment that they are supposed to possess. As a quality, leadership is a must for all the employees since each professional at museums is in the foreground no matter what their position is. For instance, everyone—from the managers to the assistants—at the curatorial department deals with the artists, visitors, donators and sponsors. A team performs the tasks, and there is only one leader organising and directing the team.

It is very challenging for museums to survive nowadays. The most distinguished and contradictive example for this is the Guggenheim Museums. The Guggenheim Foundation sets up branches similar to those of a fast food chain. For this reason, many people renamed it as 'McGuggenheim'. There are failures amongst the branches as well as those that achieved

It would be narrow-mindedness to think that tickets are the only income source for museums. Museums cannot afford their expense items such as administrative or personnel costs solely through visitors. The preliminary aim of museums is to make art works accessible to as many people as possible. Therefore, they provide service free of charge once a week. Museum leaders rent some spots to food or retail sector for extra income. What is more, they make deals with other brands of private sector and organise award ceremonies, special exhibitions and fashion shows (for example, Guggenheim-BMW collaboration). They offer workshops, in addition to online and onsite seminars. They put the works of the artists on the market at premiere nights. Museum cards provide them with membership income. They also accept sponsors and

Leaders use different methods each year to generate an income. There is no doubt that while visionary leaders soften the criticism they face with the help of those methods, some of them make strategic mistakes. For instance, renting a museum for wedding ceremonies is a wrong strategy and the leader who allows that has to face the results. Only highly qualified works of art can get into a museum collection and insuring such works is considerably expensive. When the value of art works and the organisational prestige is taken into consideration, letting museums used as wedding venues is unacceptable. Once an organisation is discredited, sustainability becomes impossible. This is the reason why decisions taken by the leader are vital and as mentioned before, the job adverts look for the quality 'vision holder' as a prereq-

Museum leadership became a subject matter in the last decades of 1990s. There are several universities around the world offering postgraduate programmes on museum leadership. In addition, certain institutions open up certificate programmes. Symposiums and conferences are arranged each year to host studies of museum leadership. When Turkey is concerned however, it has not become a topic to be researched yet since art organisations are still not popular study objects. It could be assumed that museum leadership will become a specific

The professionals working at a museum—from the lowest ranks to the highest one—should adapt themselves to the external environmental conditions quickly. They should be able to use the technological equipment that they are supposed to possess. As a quality, leadership is a must for all the employees since each professional at museums is in the foreground no matter what their position is. For instance, everyone—from the managers to the assistants—at the

successful business.

174 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

donations as works or cash.

topic to work on only after a few years.

**4. Museum leadership**

uisite.

Museum leaders should have a good grasp of business administration and finance in addition to their knowledge of art. Universities include 'arts management' into their graduate and postgraduates curricula in order to educate leaders with related qualifications because only individuals equipped with learning of both administration and art history can possess the vision that can lead an art organisation. A managerial approach to works on its own brings a museum down. Likewise, dealing with a museum through the standpoint of an artist or an art historian may result in a perfect museum, but after some time the lack of administrative knowledge causes gaps in administrative departments, which can bring the museum to an end.

Semmel stated that museum leaders—at any level—need six core skills as follows [15]:


Museums leaders should be efficient in making plans and they should identify the objectives and targets clearly while conducting plans or establishing the organisational schema. The business plans draw the course of action and they include personnel employment, the financial sources and the necessary equipment which are the instructive elements within it. On the other hand, strategic plans are significant in terms of the organisational development and just like in other organisations, the characteristics, vision, mission, the success criteria, aims, targets and the position of a museum within the sector are presented through its strategic plans. Setting up such plans requires team work. The interaction between the leader and his followers is another factor that determines the application and execution of the plans. Visionary leaders are good at putting the plans into use.

Private museums in Turkey are as prevalent as state museums. The most outstanding ones are Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Istanbul Museum of Modern Art and Pera Museum which are also active worldwide. Each of these museums operates according to the foundations they are affiliated to. Sakıp Sabancı Museum is connected to Sabancı University (a foundation university), Istanbul Museum of Modern Art is connected to Istanbul Modern Art Foundation and Pera Museum is affiliated with Suna and Inan Kıraç Foundation.

Private museums, which became popular after 1970s around the world, began to spread around Turkey after 2000s. The first private museum is Sadberk Hanım Museum, which was established in 1980 in connection with Vehbi Koç Foundation. The common point that makes Sabancı Museum (2002), Istanbul Modern (2004) and Pera Museum (2005) significant is that their permanent collections have been exhibited worldwide and that they have hosted important artists and visitors from all around the world for their temporary exhibitions. They all have similar organisational structures. As they are non-profit organisations, their income sources are donations, sponsors, special activities, museum shops, cafés and restaurants.

The establishment of private museums in Turkey is a tumultuous process due to bureaucratic obstacles. Turkey has private museums due to the decisive stance leaders have taken for the establishment of museums. The attitudes of leaders who get things are shaped due to their vision. Social scientists underline the importance of the need of visionary leaders to make a difference in a constantly changing environment [16]. Visionary leaders go beyond simply fulfilling common expectations; they are also a source of inspiration and encourage their employees to believe in the dream they put forth. Visionary leaders like Abraham Lincoln, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King are leaders who arouse feelings of solidarity in people, liven institutions and call upon the necessary resources in order to turn their vision into reality. Turkey's first modern art museum was also opened by this kind of visionary leader.

The establishment of the Istanbul Modern Art Museum was tumultuous. The chairman of the executive board Oya Eczacıbaşı took action to establish the museum in 1987; however, the museum was only opened in 2004. The attempts made at establishing a modern art museum were trumped by the government under the excuse that the country had to deal with more pressing issues. However, Eczacıbaşı did not give up on her dream and turned Turkey's membership into the EU negotiations into an opportunity by opening up the first modern art museum. On social media, the Istanbul Modern Art Museum is the 11th most followed modern art museum in the world, right after the New York Metropolitan Museum.

The establishment of the Pera Museum also has a similar story to that of the Istanbul Modern Art Museum. Inan Kıraç, the vice President of the Suna and Inan Kıraç Foundation, dreamt of establishing a museum in Taksim at the beginning of the 2000s. He even had Frank Gehry, one of the most famous architects in the world, prepare designs of the museum, paying a significant amount of money for these designs. However, the project could not be realised due to the fact that the necessary permissions could not be taken from the local authorities. The Pera Museum was established in 2005 in Taksim, but in a different location that intended.

During the same years, the Louis Vuitton Foundation started the construction of a museum in Paris, and it is now one of the central attractions of the city. The museum has seven thousand visitors every day. The Paris Municipality has leased the land to the Louis Vuitton Foundation without charge for 55 years. Through this example, it can be seen that the culture and art policies of Turkey are far behind those of the United States and Europe.

another factor that determines the application and execution of the plans. Visionary leaders

Private museums in Turkey are as prevalent as state museums. The most outstanding ones are Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Istanbul Museum of Modern Art and Pera Museum which are also active worldwide. Each of these museums operates according to the foundations they are affiliated to. Sakıp Sabancı Museum is connected to Sabancı University (a foundation university), Istanbul Museum of Modern Art is connected to Istanbul Modern Art Foundation and

Private museums, which became popular after 1970s around the world, began to spread around Turkey after 2000s. The first private museum is Sadberk Hanım Museum, which was established in 1980 in connection with Vehbi Koç Foundation. The common point that makes Sabancı Museum (2002), Istanbul Modern (2004) and Pera Museum (2005) significant is that their permanent collections have been exhibited worldwide and that they have hosted important artists and visitors from all around the world for their temporary exhibitions. They all have similar organisational structures. As they are non-profit organisations, their income sources are donations, sponsors, special activities, museum shops, cafés and restaurants.

The establishment of private museums in Turkey is a tumultuous process due to bureaucratic obstacles. Turkey has private museums due to the decisive stance leaders have taken for the establishment of museums. The attitudes of leaders who get things are shaped due to their vision. Social scientists underline the importance of the need of visionary leaders to make a difference in a constantly changing environment [16]. Visionary leaders go beyond simply fulfilling common expectations; they are also a source of inspiration and encourage their employees to believe in the dream they put forth. Visionary leaders like Abraham Lincoln, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King are leaders who arouse feelings of solidarity in people, liven institutions and call upon the necessary resources in order to turn their vision into reality. Turkey's first modern art museum was also opened by this kind of visionary leader.

The establishment of the Istanbul Modern Art Museum was tumultuous. The chairman of the executive board Oya Eczacıbaşı took action to establish the museum in 1987; however, the museum was only opened in 2004. The attempts made at establishing a modern art museum were trumped by the government under the excuse that the country had to deal with more pressing issues. However, Eczacıbaşı did not give up on her dream and turned Turkey's membership into the EU negotiations into an opportunity by opening up the first modern art museum. On social media, the Istanbul Modern Art Museum is the 11th most followed modern

The establishment of the Pera Museum also has a similar story to that of the Istanbul Modern Art Museum. Inan Kıraç, the vice President of the Suna and Inan Kıraç Foundation, dreamt of establishing a museum in Taksim at the beginning of the 2000s. He even had Frank Gehry, one of the most famous architects in the world, prepare designs of the museum, paying a significant amount of money for these designs. However, the project could not be realised due to the fact that the necessary permissions could not be taken from the local authorities. The Pera Museum

art museum in the world, right after the New York Metropolitan Museum.

was established in 2005 in Taksim, but in a different location that intended.

Pera Museum is affiliated with Suna and Inan Kıraç Foundation.

are good at putting the plans into use.

176 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Transactional behaviours are not sufficient to convince employees of organisations where hierarchal relations are intense of radical changes. This is why, especially for non-profit art institutions, visionary leaders will have to take personal risks outside of traditional behaviours in order to convince, motivate and gain the trust of their followers [17]. Nazan Ölçer, the manager of the Sakıp Sabancı Museum, is a risk taker. When they decided to exhibit the works of world famous artists such as Van Gogh and Matisse, the Museum had a low budget and limited advertising possibilities. Taking into consideration the limited interest in arts in Turkey, this can be seen as a risky decision outside of traditions. However, the exhibitions were met with enthusiasm, permitting many museums in Turkey to reserve higher budgets for the works of international artists. In this context, thanks to the vision of its leader, the Sabancı Museum was able to break new ground and serve as an example to other museums.

All three museums have added value to Turkey's artistic circles and will continue to do so. Museology as a profession in Turkey is newly gaining meaning. However, thanks to the successful leaders and their teams of art institutions, this process is gaining momentum, turning Istanbul into one of the leading cities in the field of art.

It is important that those working for non-profit art institutions have a specialised education in this field. There are very few Turkish universities offering undergraduate courses on the management of art organisations. When the curricula of departments like arts management and museum studies are investigated, it could be observed that both business administration and art history courses are included in them. There are five universities offering arts management as a degree and two on museum studies. There are no programmes or seminars on museum leadership.

Nowadays, museums are still not being managed by professionals of the field. Museums are mostly managed by people who have only undergone studies in art, or who have only undergone studies in management. If the structuring of museums does not change in the near future, I believe that they will put their sustainability in danger. If interdisciplinary studies such as art management and museology become more widespread, this will provide a basis for the institutionalisation of museums. This way, there will be more museums that will artistically have more quality work and will be more professional on an organisational level. We can define the museums that are established in this manner 'ideal museums'. Ideal museums today are limited in numbers. Especially in developing countries such as Turkey, where arts and culture policies are not developed enough, it is difficult for art institutions to find support. Museums are standing thanks to their own efforts, as opposed to government help. At this point, museum leaders have a big job to do.

The number of works concentrating on non-profit organisations is limited. Accordingly, museums—being a more specific topic—have not been studied enough but it could be suggested that this will change in the following years. Studies and education on museum leadership around the world are spreading rapidly, and at some point, Turkey will have to focus on them too. Otherwise, it will be very difficult to replace the aforementioned leaders in the near future.

## **Author details**

Beste Gökçe Parsehyan

Address all correspondence to: b.gokce@iku.edu.tr

Department of Arts Management, Istanbul Kultur University, Istanbul, Turkey

## **References**


[11] Yukl G. How Leaders Influence Organizational Effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly. 2008;19(6):708–722.

ed that this will change in the following years. Studies and education on museum leadership around the world are spreading rapidly, and at some point, Turkey will have to focus on them too. Otherwise, it will be very difficult to replace the aforementioned leaders in the

near future.

**Author details**

**References**

Beste Gökçe Parsehyan

178 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

1997;34(4):60–65.

Address all correspondence to: b.gokce@iku.edu.tr

Department of Arts Management, Istanbul Kultur University, Istanbul, Turkey

Organizations. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter; 1990. p. 7–20.

United Kingdom: Manchester University Press; 1996.

Administration Policy]. 2nd ed. Istanbul: Alfa; 1992.

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Leadership. The Leadership Quarterly. 2002;13(4):343–377.

Istanbul: Yeniyuzyil Yayinlari; 2008.

[5] Drucker P.F. Managing for the Future. London: Routledge; 2011.

[1] Salamon L.M., Anheier H.K. The Emerging Nonprofit Sector: An Overview. 2nd ed.

[2] Seibel W., Anheier H. Sociological and Political Science Approaches to Third Sector. In: Seibel W., Anheier H., editors. The Third Sector Comparative Studies of Nonprofit

[3] Salamon L.M., Anheier H. The Civil Society Sector: A New Global Force. Society.

[4] Dinçer Ö. Stratejik Yönetim ve İşletme Politikası [Strategic Management and Business

[6] Dural A.B. Atatürk'ün Liderlik Sırları [Secrets of Ataturk's Leadership Style]. 3rd ed.

[7] Goffee R., Gareth J. Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?: What It Takes To Be an

[8] Bass B.M. Bass & Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership, Theory, Research & Managerial

[9] Strange J.M., Mumford M.D. The Origin of Vision: Charismatic Versus Ideological

Authentic Leader. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press; 2006. p. 256 p.

[10] Yukl G. Leadership in Organizations. 5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall; 2002.


**Provisional chapter**

## **Industrial Leadership: Leading Within the Field of Construction and Design Industrial Leadership: Leading Within the Field of Construction and Design**

#### Esin Kasapoğlu Esin Kasapoğlu Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65680

#### **Abstract**

The structure of the design and construction organizations is different from that of the service or manufacturing industry. Although design and construction organizsations are parts of the construction industry, they are different from each other, also. This chapter is based on the researches investigating the leadership behaviours of construction professionals and consists basically of two main sections. In the first section, the concept of leadership and importance of leadership in design and construction processes will beis discussed. In this first section, firstlyinitially, as the leaders of the design teams, the importance of leadership skills of architects in both architectural design teams and other design teams, and, secondly, the importance of leadership skills of construction professionals will beis evaluated. In the second section, the focus of the study will befocuses on the evaluation of leadership behaviours of construction professionals with a literature review of previous researches. In this second section, initially, the leadership stiles in design teams, and secondly leadership stiles of construction teams will beis evaluated.

**Keywords:** design, construction, design team, construction team, construction project management

### **1. Introduction**

The importance of leadership in construction industry arises from the fact that construction professionals in variably work in teams. It is a reality that construction professionals often take on leadership roles as the design manager, construction manager, procurement manager, contract manager, or project manager. Team working is paramount in construction, perhaps more so than in any other service or manufacturing industries. Members of the construction industry have always worked in teams because of the practically total focus of the industry on projects. The use of interdisciplinary groups of specialists in a construction project team

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

is a necessity. It is the only rational way that projects could be designed, developed, and constructed in any other way [1].

Construction organizations are called project based or project oriented, because project is the primary business mechanism for coordinating and integrating all main business function of the organization. Project-based organizations rely heavily on human resources who work in teams over a period of time, to deliver clients' needs and requirements to the desired quality and within the budget. Project team participants from different project-based organizations are brought together on a temporary basis to deliver the production function that enables realization of project objectives and goals, since project is a temporary organizational form [2]. In the construction industry, teams are the primary unit. A project team in the construction industry is a group of construction professionals from one or more organizations who come together to fulfill the necessary design, detailing, and construction functions in the construction project [3]. In a construction project team, there are two or more people from different disciplines and organizations that, like the other teams, have a common objective, but with individual objectives. The construction project team can operate in different locations with multiple reporting relationships. The accountability of these relationships and leadership are significantly governed by the contractual arrangements [4].

The fragmented nature of the project teams, which often has individually defined objectives that are always in conflict with one another, is a peculiar problem. During the process, many problems, such as poor team interaction, low-quality workmanship, material unavailability, coworkers' incompetence, and the project itself among others, arise among the individual team members [2]. Integration of the related knowledge and ability is important because they are allocated among its members in the project team. It depends on their interpersonal relationships, such as the degree of trust and their way of work together. Many sub-tasks, with team members relying on the speciality of their colleagues, are interdependent; therefore, trust may be especially important. Work may be probably affected by the temporal aspects of relationships and consequently the success of the project may be influenced [5]. Developing trust between the leaders and the employees is generally an important aspect and has an impact on the project performance.

The purpose of this chapter is emphasizing the importance of leadership in design and construction. Design and construction are the two main processes of a construction project. The design process is concerned with the size, shape, and organization of the spaces within the building and defined by the nature and form of the building construction and its services. Construction is the production process. The construction process is concerned with the nature and consecution of the operations which are involved in the installation of the building and through which the resources for building are deployed [6].

## **2. Leadership in design**

#### **2.1. Leadership in design teams**

Although a design project team differs from other parts of the industry in many ways, it is part of the construction industry. In project-based organizations, organizations are disbanded; the case is similar in much of the construction industry, but upon completion of the task, design project teams are not disbanded. In a design project team, the task is temporary, but the organization is not a temporary organizational structure. Design project teams usually continue to work together on a different project and are not disbanded, after completion of the project. The structure of design project teams is characterized by permanent organizational structures differing from that in the manufacturing industries. In a design project team, a single project is undertaken that may need a large capital investment, unlike the manufacturing industry.

is a necessity. It is the only rational way that projects could be designed, developed, and con-

Construction organizations are called project based or project oriented, because project is the primary business mechanism for coordinating and integrating all main business function of the organization. Project-based organizations rely heavily on human resources who work in teams over a period of time, to deliver clients' needs and requirements to the desired quality and within the budget. Project team participants from different project-based organizations are brought together on a temporary basis to deliver the production function that enables realization of project objectives and goals, since project is a temporary organizational form [2]. In the construction industry, teams are the primary unit. A project team in the construction industry is a group of construction professionals from one or more organizations who come together to fulfill the necessary design, detailing, and construction functions in the construction project [3]. In a construction project team, there are two or more people from different disciplines and organizations that, like the other teams, have a common objective, but with individual objectives. The construction project team can operate in different locations with multiple reporting relationships. The accountability of these relationships and leadership are

The fragmented nature of the project teams, which often has individually defined objectives that are always in conflict with one another, is a peculiar problem. During the process, many problems, such as poor team interaction, low-quality workmanship, material unavailability, coworkers' incompetence, and the project itself among others, arise among the individual team members [2]. Integration of the related knowledge and ability is important because they are allocated among its members in the project team. It depends on their interpersonal relationships, such as the degree of trust and their way of work together. Many sub-tasks, with team members relying on the speciality of their colleagues, are interdependent; therefore, trust may be especially important. Work may be probably affected by the temporal aspects of relationships and consequently the success of the project may be influenced [5]. Developing trust between the leaders and the employees is generally an important aspect and has an impact on the project performance.

The purpose of this chapter is emphasizing the importance of leadership in design and construction. Design and construction are the two main processes of a construction project. The design process is concerned with the size, shape, and organization of the spaces within the building and defined by the nature and form of the building construction and its services. Construction is the production process. The construction process is concerned with the nature and consecution of the operations which are involved in the installation of the building and

Although a design project team differs from other parts of the industry in many ways, it is part of the construction industry. In project-based organizations, organizations are dis-

structed in any other way [1].

182 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

significantly governed by the contractual arrangements [4].

through which the resources for building are deployed [6].

**2. Leadership in design**

**2.1. Leadership in design teams**

Building projects are performed by a design team, which include the architecture, structure, and building services teams. The success of the project depends on the performance of each team. The design team is a major and the most prominent sub-team and will have an impact on project success [7]. A successful management of design is critical to quality, cost-effectiveness, and timelines of projects [8]. Design process requires a collective effort involving a team of specialists from different organizations [9]. The dynamic and complex nature of design tasks and the specialized knowledge of team members in design projects make it difficult to control members' behavior [10]. When a large number of people are working on a project, a high level of successful teamwork and social competence is required to work in a team and to be able to deal with all kinds of people [11]. Cheung et al. [9] highlighted that the works faced by the design team are unstructured, highly uncertain, and full of crises. Conflicts could occur among the team members, because of the fragmented nature of design tasks. A competent team leader could be helpful to improve the communication and mutual understanding when accomplishing the design tasks [9].

Success of a construction process depends on the performance of the overall design. Yet the architectural design forms the basis of most of the civil projects, especially the superstructures. Hence the architectural design team has a key role among the parties of a construction project. Oftentimes the designs of other disciplines such as structural, mechanical, and electrical evolve around the architectural design. Thus in that respect, the essential responsibility of the architectural design team is the development of a design in respect with the owner's needs and requirements and furthermore setting the criteria for the designs of other disciplines. Hence, first a schematic or conceptual design is prepared by this team. Then, the overall design team, normally under the coordination of the architect, produces a whole set of documents named design development documents, followed by the construction documents. Then these plans and specifications transformed into a finished facility by a constructor [12]. Hence, the success of a project heavily depends on the scope and the soundness of the architectural design. A good end-design product requires a team to have considerable technical knowledge and expertise as well as being visually imaginative and mutually inspirational [10]. Naturally, achievement of a sound design is directly related to the performance of the design team members and the team leader. Generally, architects are leaders of both the architectural design team and the design team. Coordinating design projects, structural projects, and building services projects is the responsibility of the architect as the team leader. The leadership style of the design team leader affects the productivity of the design team and therefore performance of the construction project [9].

Design project not only causes stress on designers but also comprises greater degree of thought and working process, personal identification with project goals, heavy workload, bureaucracy, focus on utmost value, and restricted deadlines set by the parties either the firm or stakeholders such as clients or other members of the design project team. Demotivation begins depending on whether they are compensated for the long hours worked or the employee has other responsibilities or preferred activities such as family, social, and sporting [2]. It is important how the leader architect deals with this problem, because it directly affects the success of the project. Coordinating design teams and maintaining the relationship between stakeholders are some of the responsibilities of the leader architect. Motivating employees is important because project success depends on the performance of both the leader and employee architects.

Leadership is important for all types of design teams, for instance, an engineering project design team, as a knowledge-intensive team, involves a wide range of team members who have different expertise backgrounds and possess distributed and specialized knowledge [13]. Development of one or a small set of ideas into a single design or problem solving can be a solution of such a team [14]. Ding et al. [10] suggested knowledge sharing as a precondition for translating the differentiated ideas or expertise into the design of a project to increase design performance. Zhang and Cheng [15] conducted a research among designers engaged in construction engineering project design. Providing continuous and ongoing knowledge sharing is stated as a key responsibility of leadership [15]. Design process is a hard and trouble phase that consists creativity. Creativity has been recognized as one of the most important factors ensuring prosperity for existence of a company [16]. Kratzer et al. [16] investigated engineering design teams and verified that leadership supports creativity when it is moderately centralized in the workflow network. According to the results of this research, engineering design teams decentralized in the problem-solving network, moderately centralized in the awareness network, and are very central in the external information network [16].

According to contingency theories of leadership, project team leaders in construction industry need the ability to vary their leadership style depending on the type of issue and its context. For design teams, Walker [1] suggests that relationship-oriented leadership would be better when there is a challenging design problem in an architectural design team. When task is unstructured and relationship with employer is moderate because of the new appointment, relationship-oriented leadership would be better [1]. Walker [1] suggests that task-oriented leadership would get better results when a conventional structural solution is needed in an engineering design team. When task is highly structured, the leader is the senior partner or director, and relationship with boss is high, task-oriented leadership get good results [1]. Project team leaders are continually in receipt of information from their teams and must interact with the teams. The information constantly exchanged by project team leaders contains large volumes and has a creative, technical, and financial nature. The nature of the work to be undertaken within each stage should determine the most appropriate leadership style, the best outcome for each stage [1].

#### **2.2. Leadership in architectural design teams**

Design project not only causes stress on designers but also comprises greater degree of thought and working process, personal identification with project goals, heavy workload, bureaucracy, focus on utmost value, and restricted deadlines set by the parties either the firm or stakeholders such as clients or other members of the design project team. Demotivation begins depending on whether they are compensated for the long hours worked or the employee has other responsibilities or preferred activities such as family, social, and sporting [2]. It is important how the leader architect deals with this problem, because it directly affects the success of the project. Coordinating design teams and maintaining the relationship between stakeholders are some of the responsibilities of the leader architect. Motivating employees is important because project success depends on the performance of both the

Leadership is important for all types of design teams, for instance, an engineering project design team, as a knowledge-intensive team, involves a wide range of team members who have different expertise backgrounds and possess distributed and specialized knowledge [13]. Development of one or a small set of ideas into a single design or problem solving can be a solution of such a team [14]. Ding et al. [10] suggested knowledge sharing as a precondition for translating the differentiated ideas or expertise into the design of a project to increase design performance. Zhang and Cheng [15] conducted a research among designers engaged in construction engineering project design. Providing continuous and ongoing knowledge sharing is stated as a key responsibility of leadership [15]. Design process is a hard and trouble phase that consists creativity. Creativity has been recognized as one of the most important factors ensuring prosperity for existence of a company [16]. Kratzer et al. [16] investigated engineering design teams and verified that leadership supports creativity when it is moderately centralized in the workflow network. According to the results of this research, engineering design teams decentralized in the problem-solving network, moderately centralized in the awareness network, and are very central in the external information

According to contingency theories of leadership, project team leaders in construction industry need the ability to vary their leadership style depending on the type of issue and its context. For design teams, Walker [1] suggests that relationship-oriented leadership would be better when there is a challenging design problem in an architectural design team. When task is unstructured and relationship with employer is moderate because of the new appointment, relationship-oriented leadership would be better [1]. Walker [1] suggests that task-oriented leadership would get better results when a conventional structural solution is needed in an engineering design team. When task is highly structured, the leader is the senior partner or director, and relationship with boss is high, task-oriented leadership get good results [1]. Project team leaders are continually in receipt of information from their teams and must interact with the teams. The information constantly exchanged by project team leaders contains large volumes and has a creative, technical, and financial nature. The nature of the work to be undertaken within each stage should determine the most appropriate leadership style, the

leader and employee architects.

184 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

network [16].

best outcome for each stage [1].

Architectural design teams perform planning and architectural design phase of construction. Architects have a complex role that they are responsible from building space use, appearance, relationships among users and spaces and finishes, as well as the overall coordination of all parties to the planning and design process. Architects will probably be in charge of the process to select the contractor and, during construction, may be involved in quality control inspections and other activities on behalf of the client, in addition [12].

When we compare architectural design teams with other organizations, there are some differences. Generally both the employers and employees are architects; the task is changeable and consisting creativity in architectural design teams. Leadership is needed to maintain communication and the team spirit with the group members. Followers of a leader architect expect also their leaders to be true to their stated values and beliefs. Leader effectiveness will lack as well, when authenticity is lacking [17]. It is a reality that organizational variables, such as size, technology, organizational environment, strategic approach, and organizational structures, impose different demands on leaders. Specific leadership behaviors can be necessary for the success of the project. It is probably that either different behaviors or differential importance of behaviors will be reconciled with differences in organizations [18].

It is essentially because most of the architectural practices are small; these are largely informal organizations in which control and coordination are achieved through empathy between organizational members and through direct personal contact. The managing director, probably the founder or a founding partner, plays a key role in coordination. Administrative tasks in these organizations are generally considered as being unimportant relative to the professional tasks [19]. Architectural design teams have a significant role in the construction management process, and one of the necessities for improving the performance of the project is uniting employees around team objectives. As in all teams, the architectural design teams also have a leader. Oftentimes, this role is assumed by the owner or the partner of the architectural firm, who is an architect also. Thus an architectural firm's owner is the formal leader of the design team, and the lead architect's behaviors are a main contributor to the performance of the architectural design team. However, simply being the owner is not enough to ensure effective team leadership; members of the architectural design team must also trust and believe in the owner. The main purpose of the leader is achieving design project, but being the owner makes naturally the team leader. So it does not mean that a good architect will be a good leader. Sometimes architects are not aware that they are team leaders, and leadership is significant in achievement of the design project. This is the main difference between the architect-leader and the leader in managerial positions.

#### **2.3. Architect as the leader of design team**

Architects are naturally expected to be the leader of both architectural design team and design team. As the leader of both groups, the relationship between the leader architect and the groups directly relates overall performance of the project. Coordinating design projectarchitectural design, structural design, and installation design projects—is generally among the responsibilities of the architect as the team leader. Success of the project depends on the performance of both groups. In design teams, architect is the leader of a team whose members are from different expertise and expected to unite them around team objectives and create an atmosphere enabling team members to perform better [20].

Coordination is a fundamental aspect of design management not just within the firm but also with other consultants and designers from other firms [2]. It is the design team leader who is responsible for the overall control, monitoring, and coordination of the design [9]. The architect plays the role of a project manager especially when there is no separate appointment of one, traditionally, on most construction project [21]. The project team, as do all working groups, goes through various social action phases. There may be professional and personal conflicts. In this phase it is necessary to reach the mutual understanding that everyone is working toward the same goal, and this can be achieved only by working together and maintaining respectful forms of interaction and behavior. It is an essential part of the architect's work, along with effective project management, to direct the planning team with this end clearly in sight, and without it the planning team may lose sight of its goals. Thus, the project team can work effectively, powerfully, and purposefully toward realizing the project aim [11].

The relationship between client and architect affects the success of the project. As the leader of the design team and architectural design team, it is the architect who deals with the client. Architect is a coordinator between the design teams and the client. Satisfaction and needs of the clients must be met throughout the project process. Clients can range from occasional and uninformed clients to knowledgeable clients [2]. If the clients are occasional and uninformed, problems can arise for architects trying to understand and develop a comprehensive brief that meets client's needs. Some of these clients' needs are idiosyncratic and tacit in nature and hence hard to accurately develop and comprehensibly implement. On the other hand, knowledgeable clients can demand for more or radical innovation in design to meet their needs [2]. Clients can also make unrealistic demands particularly in relation to cost, time, and project requirements from design point of view [22]. Clients are notable for frequent design changes apart from their needs, which could lead to dilution of strong design concepts [23]. The leader of the architectural design project, with a single point of contact with the clients, is responsible for satisfying their requirements and managing all aspects of a project [10]. Architects as the leader of design teams are expected to be a mediator between not only the architectural team but also the design teams and clients.

#### **2.4. Effects of leadership on the success of design project**

Design team, in order to produce successful projects, should be a team; in this context the objective of employees and team must be overlapped. Leader architect plays the main role here. Being the owner is not enough to be an effective leader on employee architects. Architecture is a profession that requires teamwork, carried out coordination of teams from different fields of expertise. Coordinating these teams successfully is needed, to make continuity of success of design during both design and production processes. It is important to bring team members' objectives as common objectives of the organization. Employer architect, except for small-scale projects, without creating a team of good architects, cannot expect yield from design. In this process, employer architects undertake the main task as the leader and upgrade design quality of their offices. Architectural design teams have an important part in the construction management process. It is a reality that the performance of the overall design affects the success of entire construction process. The success of design and the quality of the project depend on the performance of design project team. In this context, leadership become crucial, because effective leadership is needed to enable effective team management. Thus, design faults which can cause important delays in time, waste of money, and poor quality in construction can be prevented.

## **3. Leadership in construction**

architectural design, structural design, and installation design projects—is generally among the responsibilities of the architect as the team leader. Success of the project depends on the performance of both groups. In design teams, architect is the leader of a team whose members are from different expertise and expected to unite them around team objectives and create an

Coordination is a fundamental aspect of design management not just within the firm but also with other consultants and designers from other firms [2]. It is the design team leader who is responsible for the overall control, monitoring, and coordination of the design [9]. The architect plays the role of a project manager especially when there is no separate appointment of one, traditionally, on most construction project [21]. The project team, as do all working groups, goes through various social action phases. There may be professional and personal conflicts. In this phase it is necessary to reach the mutual understanding that everyone is working toward the same goal, and this can be achieved only by working together and maintaining respectful forms of interaction and behavior. It is an essential part of the architect's work, along with effective project management, to direct the planning team with this end clearly in sight, and without it the planning team may lose sight of its goals. Thus, the project team can work effectively, powerfully, and purposefully toward realizing the project aim [11]. The relationship between client and architect affects the success of the project. As the leader of the design team and architectural design team, it is the architect who deals with the client. Architect is a coordinator between the design teams and the client. Satisfaction and needs of the clients must be met throughout the project process. Clients can range from occasional and uninformed clients to knowledgeable clients [2]. If the clients are occasional and uninformed, problems can arise for architects trying to understand and develop a comprehensive brief that meets client's needs. Some of these clients' needs are idiosyncratic and tacit in nature and hence hard to accurately develop and comprehensibly implement. On the other hand, knowledgeable clients can demand for more or radical innovation in design to meet their needs [2]. Clients can also make unrealistic demands particularly in relation to cost, time, and project requirements from design point of view [22]. Clients are notable for frequent design changes apart from their needs, which could lead to dilution of strong design concepts [23]. The leader of the architectural design project, with a single point of contact with the clients, is responsible for satisfying their requirements and managing all aspects of a project [10]. Architects as the leader of design teams are expected to be a mediator between not only the architectural team

atmosphere enabling team members to perform better [20].

186 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

but also the design teams and clients.

**2.4. Effects of leadership on the success of design project**

Design team, in order to produce successful projects, should be a team; in this context the objective of employees and team must be overlapped. Leader architect plays the main role here. Being the owner is not enough to be an effective leader on employee architects. Architecture is a profession that requires teamwork, carried out coordination of teams from different fields of expertise. Coordinating these teams successfully is needed, to make continuity of success of design during both design and production processes. It is important to bring team members' objectives as common objectives of the organization. Employer Differences between the construction and manufacturing industries include the geographically distributed nature of construction, dynamic nature of site management, highly mobile and itinerant workforce, and large number of companies and organizations that have to work together in the project. The timescale involved is, maybe, the most significant difference. A construction project has a fixed duration lasting, whereas manufacturing provides a longterm stable environment [24]. The size and cost of the product and its custom-designed, oneof-a-kind features are the most significant differences between the construction industry and most other product industries. The product required by any construction contract is a manufactured product. In response to the needs of the customer, it can be a residential building, road, office building, factory, church, or dam. Although the product of construction is not a service, contractors must service the needs of their customers. The product of construction is built properly in accordance with the plans, specifications, and expectations of the owner [25].

The product is immobile in the construction industry and it is produced at the point of consumption. The production process is affected by site and weather conditions. Production depends on the climatic conditions. Depending on the weather conditions, additional precautions can be needed. Each product is produced for once, durable, long lasting, and complex. There may be big value differences among the products. Cooperation of experts from different fields is required. Demand is not regular, it is volatile. Construction industry is one of the industries which are the most affected by the economic crisis. During economic crisis, demand decreases. Production can be realized in different parts of the country/world. Uncertainty in decision-making related with the different production methods of projects such as dam, highway, and high-rise building is built at the same time. Every project requires different design study and production results. A large number of labor specialties are needed. The experience of experts is required, since it is hard and long way for a contractor to gain this expertise through project experiences. Production systems in construction are nonroutine. Coordination of resources is significant for the success of the project.

The organizational structure on a construction site is usually based on a large percentage of subcontract staff. The ability to fine-tune labor flexibility, bargain down labor cost, encourage quicker completion of tasks, externalize less rewarding and dangerous activities, transfer financial risk, avoid workers' compensation cost, and rapidly meet changing product market demands is the reason of subcontracting in construction [26]. The increased use of subcontractors makes the situation more difficult. It is because the higher levels are likely to be employees of the main or prime contractor, whereas the lower levels are likely to be employees of subcontractors rather than the main contractors. It is the project managers' responsibility to create a single project culture, unifying the cultures of prime contractor and subcontractors [24].

Teams in construction are temporary groups and comprise a set of diversely skilled people who are expected to work collaboratively on a complex task often under time constraints [27], and there is no time to engage in the usual forms of confidence-building activities. Temporary groups challenge conventional understanding of effective organization and developing and maintaining trust in traditional, enduring forms of organization [28]. Trust-based relationships create advantages such as improving performance, lowering cost, and shortening duration in conducting business [29]. It is important for the leaders of the construction industry to develop trust among the team members. A different method that may be suited to temporary groups such as design and construction teams is the concept of swift trust. Traditional form of trust building that often develops and strengthens over time is based primarily on personalities and interpersonal relationships [30]. Traditional trust developing elements such as familiarity, shared experience, reciprocal disclosure, threats and deterrents, fulfilled promises, and demonstrations of nonexploitation of vulnerability are not obvious in temporary groups [31]. Meyerson et al. [31] suggested swift trust based on presumptive foundations beyond evidence of direct contact between individuals and defined as a practice that involves the collective perception and ability to relate matters that are capable of addressing topics pertaining to vulnerability, uncertainty, risk, and expectations in short-lived temporary organizations [27]. Swift trust, based on feelings of confidence without having prior mutual experience, leaders in the construction industry rely on defined roles rather than personalized sources to develop trust [5]. An initial condition for developing swift trust is that members perceive that they belong to a team and share a goal [32]. Third party information based on their prior reputation, the general disposition of an individual to trust other people, the presence of rules and the adherence to them enable individuals to behave in a predictable way, membership of the individuals in the same social groups or categories, assumptions about an individual's ability to fulfill a particular role rather than through specific knowledge are of significance in the development of swift trust [33]. Swift trust is a concept especially related to lack of time. In a temporary group such as construction teams, there is often little time to develop trust in traditional ways, and a leader, to gain trust from subordinates, must make most of it under time pressure [34].

It is important to be aware of how to lead people for a construction project manager, in order to arrive at a successful construction project. For many technical professionals, people aspects of project management are the most challenging aspect of construction projects. It is the reason that most professionals who enjoy designing things, building things, and solving problems go into construction industry. These same people may seek project management responsibilities or have these responsibilities thrust upon them. However, as these same people grow in their organization, an increasing amount of their work will involve leading others to succeed the many project functions [35].

#### **3.1. Leadership in construction teams**

market demands is the reason of subcontracting in construction [26]. The increased use of subcontractors makes the situation more difficult. It is because the higher levels are likely to be employees of the main or prime contractor, whereas the lower levels are likely to be employees of subcontractors rather than the main contractors. It is the project managers' responsibility to create a single project culture, unifying the cultures of prime contractor and

Teams in construction are temporary groups and comprise a set of diversely skilled people who are expected to work collaboratively on a complex task often under time constraints [27], and there is no time to engage in the usual forms of confidence-building activities. Temporary groups challenge conventional understanding of effective organization and developing and maintaining trust in traditional, enduring forms of organization [28]. Trust-based relationships create advantages such as improving performance, lowering cost, and shortening duration in conducting business [29]. It is important for the leaders of the construction industry to develop trust among the team members. A different method that may be suited to temporary groups such as design and construction teams is the concept of swift trust. Traditional form of trust building that often develops and strengthens over time is based primarily on personalities and interpersonal relationships [30]. Traditional trust developing elements such as familiarity, shared experience, reciprocal disclosure, threats and deterrents, fulfilled promises, and demonstrations of nonexploitation of vulnerability are not obvious in temporary groups [31]. Meyerson et al. [31] suggested swift trust based on presumptive foundations beyond evidence of direct contact between individuals and defined as a practice that involves the collective perception and ability to relate matters that are capable of addressing topics pertaining to vulnerability, uncertainty, risk, and expectations in short-lived temporary organizations [27]. Swift trust, based on feelings of confidence without having prior mutual experience, leaders in the construction industry rely on defined roles rather than personalized sources to develop trust [5]. An initial condition for developing swift trust is that members perceive that they belong to a team and share a goal [32]. Third party information based on their prior reputation, the general disposition of an individual to trust other people, the presence of rules and the adherence to them enable individuals to behave in a predictable way, membership of the individuals in the same social groups or categories, assumptions about an individual's ability to fulfill a particular role rather than through specific knowledge are of significance in the development of swift trust [33]. Swift trust is a concept especially related to lack of time. In a temporary group such as construction teams, there is often little time to develop trust in traditional ways, and a leader, to gain trust from subordinates, must make most of it under

It is important to be aware of how to lead people for a construction project manager, in order to arrive at a successful construction project. For many technical professionals, people aspects of project management are the most challenging aspect of construction projects. It is the reason that most professionals who enjoy designing things, building things, and solving problems go into construction industry. These same people may seek project management responsibilities or have these responsibilities thrust upon them. However, as these same people grow in their organization, an increasing amount of their work will involve leading others to succeed the

subcontractors [24].

188 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

time pressure [34].

many project functions [35].

There are various joining organizations on a construction project. These organizations must operate together as a team to deliver a high-quality product to the client within budget and on time. The various participants bring to this team different ways of thinking and different attitudes, practices, and approaches to work and in some cases different and divergent objectives [19]. The task of a construction project leader is to manage the whole production process according to client's objectives from start to completion.

The project leader of a construction project may be referred to as the project manager or project coordinator depending on the level of authority given to him by the client. He is referred to as a project manager, if he is charged with full responsibility for the selection of the professional team, the procurement system and contractor, as well as setting up the maintenance program after commissioning. He is referred to as the project coordinator if he is appointed with very few delegated powers. Any of the construction-related professionals, an architect, a structural engineer, and a builder, might make a good project manager, provided that he/she has a good overall knowledge and experience of the industry and possesses the ability to lead and coordinate [21]. The fact that the production phase focuses more on the employee in construction makes leadership more important. Toor and Ofori [36] underline several financial, social, technical, political, and cultural aspects of the construction industry. Since construction professionals invariably work in teams, they point out the need for leadership development in construction professionals [36].

On a construction project, there are different participant organizations, and they should operate together as a team and deliver a high-quality service and product to the client on time and within budget. These different groups, who have to work together, may imply different ways of team working, formality, and achieving control and coordination. On a construction project, there are various participating organizations, and they should function together as a team where these different groups have to work together, and these differences may have implications for team working, formality, and how control and coordination are achieved [19]. The leadership skills of design manager, construction manager, procurement manager, contracts manager, or project manager are important to the overall performance of the construction industry [37].

Construction production is a complicated process; it is important to be managed by educated specialists having necessary knowledge and education related to legal, economical, and management subjects. Pries et al. [38] highlighted that firms in the construction industry need to become more client and market oriented as in other industries. However, it is a fact that the construction industry is not good at following the variances as have occurred in other industries. Construction industry did not become more market oriented and see an influx of managers with a legal, economical, business, and other professional degrees, which is the case in those industries. It seems that the management paradigm is still mainly technical and the management profile still mainly engineer-manager in construction, but it is now aware of the need for more client and market focus business strategies [38].

Zerjav et al. [39] propose an alternative perspective on the role of leadership in the context of collaborative practices in architecture, engineering, and construction domain which are often planned, designed, built, operated, and used in complex interdisciplinary and interfirm organizational arrangements. They suggested a leadership-as-practice perspective for collaborative design of architecture, engineering, and construction projects. Zerjav et al. [39] said that the conceptual position that their study adopts is one that considers leadership personalities as a feature of leadership practices, while the bulk of mainstream leadership studies considers leadership practices as a feature of remarkable leadership personalities. Leadership is as a practice rather than a leader-focused instrumental strategy. According to the findings of their study, leadership as practice emerged through specific patterns of domain knowledge ownership, frequency of interactions, actor responsiveness, and cross-disciplinary knowledge brokering. Leadership can and should be viewed as an opportunity, a situated and emergent interactive phenomenon rather than an inherent characteristic of invariably charismatic individuals and their supposedly heroic achievements [39].

## **4. Effects of culture on the preferences for leadership styles**

Many parts of organization theory shows that leadership studies are unlikely to be of any additive value unless they take into account the organizational culture. The relationship between leadership and culture represents an ongoing interplay in which the leaders shape the culture and is in turn shaped by the existing culture [40, 41]. Bass [42] demonstrated the relationship between the two concepts by examining the impact of different styles of leadership on culture. He claims that transformational leaders change organizational culture in line with their vision, whereas transactional leaders tend to work within their organizational cultures [42]. The ability to understand and work within a certain culture is a prerequisite to leadership effectiveness [41].

Different cultures have different ideas of the nature and different models of management of organizations. Hence, every organization has its own culture or shared systems of meanings. An organization can differentiate its members from other organizations' members with its own culture [43]. The effectiveness of leaders considerably differs across cultures [44]. Hofstede [45] argues that cultural dimensions differ between Western and Eastern nations. Attributes of Western cultures are task oriented, with relatively low power distance, individualistic, and uncertainty avoidant. On the other hand, Eastern societies are high in people orientation, collectivism, and long-term orientation and also have high power distance [45].

Chen et al. [46] investigated similarities and differences between Chinese and Western construction project managers' conceptions of their work. The results show that Chinese conceptions are dominated by attention to relationships. Chinese always attach personal feelings, in their efforts to build and maintain long-term good relationships with people involved in the project. On the other hand, Westerns separate work and personal relations and have greater emphasis on contract conditions and utilizing contracts. Chinese have a greater concern about dependence on their work [46]. However, Wong et al. [47] found that Hong Kong Chinese and Western expatriate project managers did not differ significantly in leadership perceptions. Both manager groups emphasize project time deadlines and efficient task performance, value high productivity. It is also reported that both manager groups have a strong emphasis on interpersonal relationships, preferred to negotiate, avoid conflict, and maintain good relationships with external parties [47].

planned, designed, built, operated, and used in complex interdisciplinary and interfirm organizational arrangements. They suggested a leadership-as-practice perspective for collaborative design of architecture, engineering, and construction projects. Zerjav et al. [39] said that the conceptual position that their study adopts is one that considers leadership personalities as a feature of leadership practices, while the bulk of mainstream leadership studies considers leadership practices as a feature of remarkable leadership personalities. Leadership is as a practice rather than a leader-focused instrumental strategy. According to the findings of their study, leadership as practice emerged through specific patterns of domain knowledge ownership, frequency of interactions, actor responsiveness, and cross-disciplinary knowledge brokering. Leadership can and should be viewed as an opportunity, a situated and emergent interactive phenomenon rather than an inherent characteristic of invariably charismatic indi-

Many parts of organization theory shows that leadership studies are unlikely to be of any additive value unless they take into account the organizational culture. The relationship between leadership and culture represents an ongoing interplay in which the leaders shape the culture and is in turn shaped by the existing culture [40, 41]. Bass [42] demonstrated the relationship between the two concepts by examining the impact of different styles of leadership on culture. He claims that transformational leaders change organizational culture in line with their vision, whereas transactional leaders tend to work within their organizational cultures [42]. The ability to understand and work within a certain culture is a prerequisite to

Different cultures have different ideas of the nature and different models of management of organizations. Hence, every organization has its own culture or shared systems of meanings. An organization can differentiate its members from other organizations' members with its own culture [43]. The effectiveness of leaders considerably differs across cultures [44]. Hofstede [45] argues that cultural dimensions differ between Western and Eastern nations. Attributes of Western cultures are task oriented, with relatively low power distance, individualistic, and uncertainty avoidant. On the other hand, Eastern societies are high in people orientation, collectivism, and long-term orientation and also have high power distance [45]. Chen et al. [46] investigated similarities and differences between Chinese and Western construction project managers' conceptions of their work. The results show that Chinese conceptions are dominated by attention to relationships. Chinese always attach personal feelings, in their efforts to build and maintain long-term good relationships with people involved in the project. On the other hand, Westerns separate work and personal relations and have greater emphasis on contract conditions and utilizing contracts. Chinese have a greater concern about dependence on their work [46]. However, Wong et al. [47] found that Hong Kong Chinese and Western expatriate project managers did not differ significantly in leadership perceptions. Both manager groups emphasize project time deadlines and efficient task performance, value high productivity. It is also reported that both manager groups have a strong emphasis on

viduals and their supposedly heroic achievements [39].

leadership effectiveness [41].

190 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**4. Effects of culture on the preferences for leadership styles**

Management models of Western societies might not be compatible with the culturally derived job attitudes and values of employees in developing countries [48]. Van de Vliert [49] studied the relationship between autocratic and democratic leadership and economy, geo-climate, and bio-climate. The results show that autocratic leadership is less effective in economically richer countries with colder geo-climates but more effective in poorer countries with colder geo-climates. Similarly, autocratic is less effective in economically richer countries with colder or hotter bio-climates but more effective in poorer countries with colder or hotter bio-climates [44]. Low and Leong [50] found that the culture of an organization is predominantly influenced by the national culture. Organizational values that are in conflict with national values and beliefs are likely to be met with resistance [50]. Organizational culture is of particular consequence to the interactions of the leaders and their subordinates [51]. The organizational culture includes different constructs and is composed of different elements from those of national culture [52]. On the other hand, Ozorhon et al. [53] studied the effect of cultural similarity/difference relative to the national and organizational characteristics of partner companies on international joint ventures' performance. The results show that differences in organizational culture have a greater impact on international joint ventures' performance than differences in national and host country culture [53].

Cheng et al. [54] investigated how leadership operates, the nature of the power of leaders, and the organizational cultural environments among project quantity surveyors in consultancies in Hong Kong. Results show that they are relationship oriented and the basic leadership style is supportive. Supportive style, the actual leadership style employed mostly, is compatible with a low individualism society and one in which harmony and paternalism are important behavioral components [54].

Giritli et al. [55] demonstrate that managers in the contracting companies with different cultural characteristics tend to adopt different leadership styles to lead their employees to succeed in their business. Their findings showed that there is a significant relationship between specific leadership practices and specific cultural profiles within the Turkish construction industry, exhibiting high ratings in clan and hierarchy culture. Significant relations were found between the clan culture and paternalistic and consultative leadership styles. Paternalistic and consultative styles with respect to autocratic style are more likely to be clan culture characterized by concepts such as mutual trust, cooperation, team spirit, commitment, and individual growth [55].

## **5. Leadership behaviors in design teams**

Negative leadership behaviors within an organization can cause demotivation among the design team members. A competent team leader is required to manage various tasks among design team members, because of the fragmented nature of design tasks [2]. Oyedele [2] citing Cheung et al. [9] highlighted that if design team members are not satisfied with their team leader, the morale of a design team can be adversely affected. Being ruthless, asocial (self-centered), irritable (malevolent), loner (self-centered), egocentric, non-explicit (face saver), noncooperative (malevolent), and dictatorial (autocratic) contribute to inept leadership behavior that causes demotivation to employees. Inadequate leadership support, lack of open interaction between superior and subordinates, display of no interest in subordinates' work and nonrecognition of effort, lack of synergy between organizational goals and leadership behaviors, and changing project priorities by supervisors are other relevant criteria [2].

Cheung et al. [9] suggested the use of charismatic and participative leadership behaviors by design team leaders. Their results found charismatic and participative leadership behaviors as the most critical leadership behaviors as far as satisfaction is concerned. Charismatic leadership behavior includes acting as a role model for the subordinates and enables them to feel proud to be affiliated with team. Participative leadership behavior includes the use of appropriate delegation, value, and reward constructive alternatives, to encourage participation from design team members. It is significant for the success of the project that the design team leaders should make every endeavor to set a good example in team working with the other members and provide the design team members with more opportunities to participate throughout the design process [9].

According to the results of the research conducted by Rowlinson et al. [56] among construction managers in Hong Kong, most design team leaders used at least two different management styles in each phase of the project. Although in the feasibility and precontract phases a supportive style was most regularly used, during the post-contract phase, a directive style was most popular. According to Rowlinson et al. [56], it is possible for the leader of the design teams to prefer a much more open style of leadership due to the nature of the task, absolutely in the design process and, to a lesser extent, in the documentation and construction phases. An interesting finding of their research was the use of an achievement-oriented style was rarely recorded, even in the feasibility stage. This may be because of a need to retain some control over a subordinate's work [56].

Kasapoğlu [57] focussed on determining the leadership behaviors of architects and on how leadership behaviors affect the performance of the design team. In the context of this study, behaviors of leadership fall into two main groups, based on the level of authority delegation and managerial orientation. Delegation of authority, which reflects the level of freedom of the employee architects in the office, is divided into three subgroups: authoritarian, participative, and free-rein leadership behaviors. The managerial orientation is also divided into three subgroups: achievement-oriented, employee-oriented, and task-oriented leadership behaviors. Kasapoğlu [57] found that the significant positive correlations were between authoritarian and task-oriented leadership and between participative, achievement-oriented, and employee-oriented leadership. On the other hand, the position of leader architects and the age and size of offices were directly related to leadership behaviors. According to results of the research, they actually preferred task-oriented leadership. Architects behave in a more achievement-oriented manner and increase creativity, motivation, and spirituality of their followers, when they are owners of the office. When they are older, architects behave in a more autoritative manner and they are very directive, allow little participation, and make decisions alone. The behavior of an architect-leader is more employee oriented and less achievement oriented when the size of the office increases [57].

Kasapoğlu [58] focused on determining which of the two leadership styles predominantly architects prefer in Turkey and adopted the leadership styles from Automated Management Assessment Profile (AMAP) [59]. AMAP based on the work of David McClelland and fellow researchers at McBer and Company. The study presented in this paper is based on the study by Giritli and Topçu Oraz [60] on leadership styles in Turkish construction industry. Burns defined transformational leadership as a creative form of interaction between leaders and followers in which both sides play a dynamic role in influencing the other's perceptions and actions. Conversely, transactional leadership style is making mutually beneficial (but scheming) arrangements with followers [61]. According to Hay/McBer [59], leadership styles can be classified into six groups based on the two main styles. Coercive and authoritative are the two styles that fall under transactional leadership. Coercive leaders are the least effective and flexible and expect immediate obedience with their directions. Authoritative leaders maximize commitment to goals and strategy, define standards, and provide flexibility in accomplishing tasks. Affiliative, democratic, coaching, and pacesetting are the four styles falling under transformational leadership. Affiliative leaders' key task is to maintain a pleasant working environment and provide job security and other benefits and amenities to employees. Democratic leaders are known for their participative style, and they hold many meetings, reward adequate performance, and dislike punishing employees. Pacesetting leaders focus on the tasks to be achieved rather than those people who must achieve them. Coaching leaders are concerned about high performance and standards and develop people for the future. According to the results of Kasapoğlu [58], Turkish leader architects prefer pacesetting, affiliative, and authoritative leadership styles. However, the results show that when two of the styles need to be united, their choice is the affiliative-democratic and affiliative-coaching leadership styles. Architects prefer to use affiliative leadership style with democratic leadership style, although the mean of democratic leadership style is low. This means that Turkish leader architects focus on employee first, prefer participation, and create sensual bonds with the team members [58].

### **6. Leadership behaviors in construction**

team leader, the morale of a design team can be adversely affected. Being ruthless, asocial (self-centered), irritable (malevolent), loner (self-centered), egocentric, non-explicit (face saver), noncooperative (malevolent), and dictatorial (autocratic) contribute to inept leadership behavior that causes demotivation to employees. Inadequate leadership support, lack of open interaction between superior and subordinates, display of no interest in subordinates' work and nonrecognition of effort, lack of synergy between organizational goals and leadership behaviors, and changing project priorities by supervisors are other relevant criteria [2]. Cheung et al. [9] suggested the use of charismatic and participative leadership behaviors by design team leaders. Their results found charismatic and participative leadership behaviors as the most critical leadership behaviors as far as satisfaction is concerned. Charismatic leadership behavior includes acting as a role model for the subordinates and enables them to feel proud to be affiliated with team. Participative leadership behavior includes the use of appropriate delegation, value, and reward constructive alternatives, to encourage participation from design team members. It is significant for the success of the project that the design team leaders should make every endeavor to set a good example in team working with the other members and provide the design team members with more opportunities to participate

According to the results of the research conducted by Rowlinson et al. [56] among construction managers in Hong Kong, most design team leaders used at least two different management styles in each phase of the project. Although in the feasibility and precontract phases a supportive style was most regularly used, during the post-contract phase, a directive style was most popular. According to Rowlinson et al. [56], it is possible for the leader of the design teams to prefer a much more open style of leadership due to the nature of the task, absolutely in the design process and, to a lesser extent, in the documentation and construction phases. An interesting finding of their research was the use of an achievement-oriented style was rarely recorded, even in the feasibility stage. This may be because of a need to retain some

Kasapoğlu [57] focussed on determining the leadership behaviors of architects and on how leadership behaviors affect the performance of the design team. In the context of this study, behaviors of leadership fall into two main groups, based on the level of authority delegation and managerial orientation. Delegation of authority, which reflects the level of freedom of the employee architects in the office, is divided into three subgroups: authoritarian, participative, and free-rein leadership behaviors. The managerial orientation is also divided into three subgroups: achievement-oriented, employee-oriented, and task-oriented leadership behaviors. Kasapoğlu [57] found that the significant positive correlations were between authoritarian and task-oriented leadership and between participative, achievement-oriented, and employee-oriented leadership. On the other hand, the position of leader architects and the age and size of offices were directly related to leadership behaviors. According to results of the research, they actually preferred task-oriented leadership. Architects behave in a more achievement-oriented manner and increase creativity, motivation, and spirituality of their followers, when they are owners of the office. When they are older, architects behave in a more autoritative manner and they are very directive, allow little participation, and make decisions

throughout the design process [9].

192 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

control over a subordinate's work [56].

Lansley et al. [62] examined the patterns of leadership styles in the construction industry and investigated the relationship between leadership style and organizational structure and their impact on effectiveness. Ogunlana et al. [63] citing Lansley et al. [62] highlighted that poor performance was associated with low-task low-people consideration, while high performance was primarily associated high-task orientation. Monaghan [64] studied the influence of leadership styles of project managers on organizational structure and project performance. Ogunlana et al. [63] citing Monaghan [64] highlighted those leaders who were high in task and low in people consideration, produced an acceptable-level commercial performance. The importance of contextual factors upon the relationship between leadership styles and effectiveness on a construction project was investigated by Bresnen et al. [65, 66]. According to the results of their research, Bresnen et al. [65, 66] found a positive association between the construction project manager's leadership orientation and effectiveness. However, this association was contingent upon labor force composition, the duration of the project, and the size of the project [65, 66].

Mustapha and Naoum [67] used Blake and Mouton's [68] Managerial Grid to evaluate the site manager's preferred leadership style. Five types of leadership styles that Managerial Grid includes are impoverished management (1,1), country-club management (1,9), organization-man or middle-of-the-road management (5,5), task management (9,1), and team management (9,9). Mustapha and Naoum [67] found that high-performing site managers are more likely to prefer the team management leadership style (9,9). Team management style of leadership is considered to be most ideal leadership style. Odusami et al. [21] identified and used four leadership styles, as suggested by Slevin and Pinto [69]. Among shareholder leadership, autocrat leadership, consensus leadership, and consultative autocratic leadership, consultative autocrat was found to be the best leadership style in terms of all performance. Consultative autocrat project leaders absorb the information input from the team members but make the ultimate decision. Team management, the most appropriate leadership style found by Mustapha and Naoum [67], is similar to consultative autocrat, found by Odusami et al. [21]. Yang et al. [70] investigated the associations between project manager's leadership style and teamwork and the impact of teamwork on project performance. According to their findings, the project managers who adopt transactional and transformational leadership may improve team communication, team collaboration, and team cohesiveness. In other words, when the levels of leadership increase, relationships among team members may enhance [70].

Toor and Offori [36] suggest authentic leadership for the solution of leadership crisis and so as to maximize the positive outcomes and achieve a veritable organizational performance. Authentic project leaders possess positive energy, high sense of integrity, moral character and self-discipline, clear purpose, concern for others, confidence, hope, optimism, resilience, and personal values. They are able to motivate people and accomplish challenging tasks and capitalize on the environment of trust. According to Toor and Offori [36], organizations with authentic project leaders will have a sustainable competitive advantage over their competitors in the form of veritable performance and sustained growth. Ofori and Toor [44] presented an overview of cross-cultural leadership and management research in construction and underscored the importance of objective measurement of performance of authentic leaders and analyzed the psychological benefits that leaders may get from being authentic in Singapore construction sector. Toor and Ofori [71] suggested authentic leadership as a solution to the construction industry to address the challenges it faces. Hence, research in the construction industry needs to explore new forms of leadership which can enable the construction industry to face the challenges of the global business world. Toor and Ofori [71] indicate that by inspiring mutual trust, helping people find meaning in their work, arousing self-awareness, building optimism and confidence, engaging in connected relationships, and promoting transparency and ethical practices, authentic leaders can bring the best out of their teams and organizations. In construction industry, authenticity of leaders enhances their personal autonomy, desire for positive relationships with others, sense of purpose in leadership, mastery over their environments, and motivation to grow as leaders [71].

Dainty et al. [72] developed a competency-based framework for performance in projects at the construction industry. Functional competencies measure performance against predetermined minimum occupational standards, but competency-based systems are founded on the key behavioral competencies that underlie superior levels of performance. According to the results they revealed, some of the variables are also found in the competency school of leadership, such as achievement orientation, analytical thinking, as well as impact and influence [72]. Dainty et al. [73] found in another study that superior performing project managers demonstrate 11 generic leadership behaviors: customer service orientation, initiative, conceptual thinking, information seeking, achievement orientation, teamwork and cooperation, team leadership, analytical thinking, impact and influence, flexibility, and self-control [73]. Construction industry is conventional in nature and remains technology and project oriented. It becomes a necessity for the industry leaders to take appropriate initiatives to change the old paradigms and make the construction industry more flexible to adapt to the modern business environment. Construction leaders need to develop necessary capabilities to accomplish the future challenges [38]. Leaders with their leadership competencies can make the project more sustainable and achieve better productivity. Tabassi et al. [74] highlighted that project managers should possess the necessary leadership competencies, skills, and knowledge to be able to achieve sustainability in building projects. Their study showed that project manager's leadership competencies as well as their qualities of transformational leadership in the construction industry have considerable impacts on the success of sustainable building achievements [74]. Transformational leaders are able to influence the employee's constructive reaction, which accordingly results in high employee performance, and those who exhibit individualized consideration behavior [75].

construction project manager's leadership orientation and effectiveness. However, this association was contingent upon labor force composition, the duration of the project, and the size

Mustapha and Naoum [67] used Blake and Mouton's [68] Managerial Grid to evaluate the site manager's preferred leadership style. Five types of leadership styles that Managerial Grid includes are impoverished management (1,1), country-club management (1,9), organization-man or middle-of-the-road management (5,5), task management (9,1), and team management (9,9). Mustapha and Naoum [67] found that high-performing site managers are more likely to prefer the team management leadership style (9,9). Team management style of leadership is considered to be most ideal leadership style. Odusami et al. [21] identified and used four leadership styles, as suggested by Slevin and Pinto [69]. Among shareholder leadership, autocrat leadership, consensus leadership, and consultative autocratic leadership, consultative autocrat was found to be the best leadership style in terms of all performance. Consultative autocrat project leaders absorb the information input from the team members but make the ultimate decision. Team management, the most appropriate leadership style found by Mustapha and Naoum [67], is similar to consultative autocrat, found by Odusami et al. [21]. Yang et al. [70] investigated the associations between project manager's leadership style and teamwork and the impact of teamwork on project performance. According to their findings, the project managers who adopt transactional and transformational leadership may improve team communication, team collaboration, and team cohesiveness. In other words, when the levels of leadership increase, relationships among team members

Toor and Offori [36] suggest authentic leadership for the solution of leadership crisis and so as to maximize the positive outcomes and achieve a veritable organizational performance. Authentic project leaders possess positive energy, high sense of integrity, moral character and self-discipline, clear purpose, concern for others, confidence, hope, optimism, resilience, and personal values. They are able to motivate people and accomplish challenging tasks and capitalize on the environment of trust. According to Toor and Offori [36], organizations with authentic project leaders will have a sustainable competitive advantage over their competitors in the form of veritable performance and sustained growth. Ofori and Toor [44] presented an overview of cross-cultural leadership and management research in construction and underscored the importance of objective measurement of performance of authentic leaders and analyzed the psychological benefits that leaders may get from being authentic in Singapore construction sector. Toor and Ofori [71] suggested authentic leadership as a solution to the construction industry to address the challenges it faces. Hence, research in the construction industry needs to explore new forms of leadership which can enable the construction industry to face the challenges of the global business world. Toor and Ofori [71] indicate that by inspiring mutual trust, helping people find meaning in their work, arousing self-awareness, building optimism and confidence, engaging in connected relationships, and promoting transparency and ethical practices, authentic leaders can bring the best out of their teams and organizations. In construction industry, authenticity of leaders enhances their personal autonomy, desire for positive relationships with others, sense of purpose in leadership, mas-

tery over their environments, and motivation to grow as leaders [71].

of the project [65, 66].

194 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

may enhance [70].

Fellows et al. [76] investigated leadership practices and power sources within quantity surveying teams on construction projects in Hong Kong and the effects of power distance in the leader-follower relationship. The basic (highest) "preferred leadership style" of the project quantity surveyors was the supportive style. They highlighted that supportive leadership style is valuable in the stress reduction of subordinates but the reciprocal aspects of behavior required to preserve harmony must be absorbed. According to the findings of Fellows et al. [76], the second scoring style differs between consultants and contractors, with consultants tending to be directive and contractors tending to be participative. They highlighted that working on very large projects, where financial and other stakes are higher, encourages project quantity surveyors to be less participative and more achievement oriented [76].

Famakin and Abisuga [77] evaluated the impact of path-goal leadership styles on the commitment of employees in the construction projects. Path-goal theory of leadership is built on specifying the leadership behavior that fits the employee and work environment through enhancing employee commitment to productivity in the organization [78]. Directive, participative, supportive, and achievement-oriented are the basic styles of path-goal leadership style. Famakin and Abisuga [77] defined organizational commitment, citing Porter et al. [79] and Batemen and Strasser [80], as a multidimensional concept involving the employee's loyalty to the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization and maintain a degree of goal and value congruency with the organization, and desire to maintain organizational membership. Famakin and Abisuga [77] found that supportive style of leadership influences the affective commitment of employees, meaning that in friendly and psychologically supportive work environment, employees will develop an emotional attachment and identification. Achievement-oriented leadership style influences the continuing commitment of employees, indicating that an employee continues in an organization when he works with an achievement-oriented leader [77].

#### **6.1. Leadership behaviors of construction project managers**

Müller and Turner [81] examined the leadership competency profiles of successful project managers in different types of projects. In order to develop leadership profiles, they adopted the competency school perspective as the currently most advanced understanding of leadership. Competence school is a specific combination of knowledge, skills, and personal characteristics. Dulewicz and Higgs are representatives of this school, and they identified three leadership profiles for organizational change projects, which they call goal oriented, involving, and engaging [81]. Müller and Turner [81] found that an involving leadership profile might be slightly better suited for engineering and construction projects. Involving leadership is a style for transitional organizations which face significant, but not necessarily radical, change of their business model or way of work [81].

Slattery and Sumner [82] analyzed the leadership characteristics of construction project managers identified as rising stars by senior management of their organizations. In today's more team-based project environment, the project manager must lead teams that may consist of members from different fields. Slattery and Sumner [82] citing Katz [83] indicated that finding rising stars who possess the combination of technical skills, conceptual skills, and people skills may be critical to the success of construction organizations. Their findings indicate that outwardly visible characteristics such as providing support to subordinates and modeling expected behaviors are more highly valued than less tangible behaviors such as providing emotional support in the form of encouragement and inspiration. The high value placed upon tangible leadership skills is probably due to the dynamics of managing projects within the construction industry. These results show that successful management of projects and attaining tangible results can be achieved by managing the team through cooperation and collaboration [82].

According to the study of Hwang and Ng [84], leadership is one of the essential skills of project managers and is crucial to the success of the projects. Zhao et al. [85] identified critical leadership characteristics and styles of project managers for green building projects. They found that 13 leadership characteristics are the most important ones for the project managers in the Singaporean green building projects. The top three positions among these characteristics are "strive for work performance and productivity," "have high concern for work tasks," and "direct subordinates with clear roles and goals." Zhao et al. [85] categorized the 13 characteristics into two groups: directive and task-oriented leadership and relationship-oriented leadership. Their results showed that the leadership style of project managers in green building projects was more toward "directive and task-oriented leadership." It is probably because it was not uncommon that most of the staffs were still unfamiliar with green technologies and construction processes, which were usually more complicated than those of traditional projects [84, 86]. Although project managers, who are accountable for their projects, should highlight the achievement of project objectives, thus being more task oriented, they do not overlook their subordinates' roles. The interpersonal relationships within a project team are also worth the attention, because harmonious relationship can greatly contribute to the project's success [87].

influences the affective commitment of employees, meaning that in friendly and psychologically supportive work environment, employees will develop an emotional attachment and identification. Achievement-oriented leadership style influences the continuing commitment of employees, indicating that an employee continues in an organization when he works with

Müller and Turner [81] examined the leadership competency profiles of successful project managers in different types of projects. In order to develop leadership profiles, they adopted the competency school perspective as the currently most advanced understanding of leadership. Competence school is a specific combination of knowledge, skills, and personal characteristics. Dulewicz and Higgs are representatives of this school, and they identified three leadership profiles for organizational change projects, which they call goal oriented, involving, and engaging [81]. Müller and Turner [81] found that an involving leadership profile might be slightly better suited for engineering and construction projects. Involving leadership is a style for transitional organizations which face significant, but not necessarily radical,

Slattery and Sumner [82] analyzed the leadership characteristics of construction project managers identified as rising stars by senior management of their organizations. In today's more team-based project environment, the project manager must lead teams that may consist of members from different fields. Slattery and Sumner [82] citing Katz [83] indicated that finding rising stars who possess the combination of technical skills, conceptual skills, and people skills may be critical to the success of construction organizations. Their findings indicate that outwardly visible characteristics such as providing support to subordinates and modeling expected behaviors are more highly valued than less tangible behaviors such as providing emotional support in the form of encouragement and inspiration. The high value placed upon tangible leadership skills is probably due to the dynamics of managing projects within the construction industry. These results show that successful management of projects and attaining tangible results can be achieved by managing the team through cooperation and collabo-

According to the study of Hwang and Ng [84], leadership is one of the essential skills of project managers and is crucial to the success of the projects. Zhao et al. [85] identified critical leadership characteristics and styles of project managers for green building projects. They found that 13 leadership characteristics are the most important ones for the project managers in the Singaporean green building projects. The top three positions among these characteristics are "strive for work performance and productivity," "have high concern for work tasks," and "direct subordinates with clear roles and goals." Zhao et al. [85] categorized the 13 characteristics into two groups: directive and task-oriented leadership and relationship-oriented leadership. Their results showed that the leadership style of project managers in green building projects was more toward "directive and task-oriented leadership." It is probably because it was not uncommon that most of the staffs were still unfamiliar with green technologies and construction processes, which were usually more complicated than those of traditional

an achievement-oriented leader [77].

196 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**6.1. Leadership behaviors of construction project managers**

change of their business model or way of work [81].

ration [82].

Liu and Fang [88] examined the supervisory styles of project leaders who come from design institutes and client project organizations in China according to P-M leadership theory developed by Misumi [89]. The P-style is performance oriented and the function of contributing toward goal achievement or problem solving. M-style is maintenance oriented and promoting a group's self-preservation or of maintaining and strengthening the group process itself. P-M leadership styles can be classified into the four subsets of pm, pM or M, Pm or P, and PM. The pm leaders show no conscious management, while pM leaders emphasize M-oriented activities and show less P-oriented activities. On the contrary, PM style leaders display both P-oriented and M-oriented behaviors, while Pm style leaders emphasize M-oriented activities and show less P-oriented activities. The results of the research conducted by Liu and Fang [88] show that client organizations' project supervisors when facing a number of temporal organized professionals tend to be P oriented and design organizations tend to be pm oriented. According to the results of the research project, supervisors of client organizations tend to focus more on the mechanistic planting and monitoring aspects of the project. However, supervisors of design organizations are more stable and homogenous in terms of their constitutive members in the organizations [88].

Toor and Ofori [36] declared that there is a need to equip the professionals with hard (technical) as well as soft (management and leadership) skills in construction. Construction professionals deal with various project stakeholders and often get involved in sensitive decision-making and dispute resolution processes. Toor and Ofori [36] citing Pries et al. [38] highlighted that the mainstream paradigm of construction industry leaders largely remains technology and project oriented and the management profile is yet mainly that of the engineer manager. Since leadership is a key element in meeting the needs of the civil engineering profession [90], hard (technical) skills is insufficient to enable the professionals to cope with the leadership challenges that will face construction organizations [36]. Wong et al. [47] explored leadership perceptions and power relationships of both Chinese and Western expatriate project managers in multinational construction firms in Hong Kong. Their findings implied that a "third leadership style" which equally considers the importance of task performance and interpersonal relationships might also exist. Hence, the modernization and economic development led many Asians to focus on work schedules as much as Westerners. Asians have become more "westernized" with increasing contact with Western artifacts and many people [47].

It is inevitable not to prefer more than one style of leadership in complex business life, because distinct styles are possible on distinct situated contexts. It is a reality that there is no best leadership style for all situations and different leadership styles can be more effective in different situations. It is hard to adjust single leadership behavior in variable conditions of the business life. Senior managers in the construction industry lead by example yet exert tight control over poor performance [60]. Giritli and Topcu Oraz [60] explored and compared the leadership styles of managerial personnel in the construction industry. They adopted Hay/McBer's [59] leadership style typology, which is based on the work of David Mc Cleland [59]. Hay/McBer [59] categorizes leadership styles into six groupings, each of which stems from different aspects of emotional intelligence, based on two major classes or styles, namely, transactional and transformational [91]. Coercive and authoritative styles are under the transactional leadership style. Affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, and coaching are under the transformational leadership style. Their focus was primarily to examine whether there is a difference in the leadership styles of managers in construction settings and extent of the ability to use a variety of leadership styles. Authoritative leadership style is more frequently preferred than all other styles. According to the findings of Giritli and Topcu Oraz [60], managerial personnel in the construction industry performs authoritative style with affiliative style most frequently. In addition, they perform the coaching style more frequently than affiliative, democratic, and pacesetting style. Another interesting finding was the high power distance prevalent in the Turkish society makes democratic leadership a rare practice [60].

## **7. Conclusion**

In recent years, although leadership has always been a topic of interest in every field, a broad range of discussions and growing interest continued on this subject, from politics to organizational behavior. In design and construction organizations, effective team management becomes important, since achieving a complex, labor-intensive production process and working with numerous teams from different teams are among the primary problems of the industry. Effective leadership is needed to enable effective team management. Depending on the characteristics of industry, employee, and the culture, the development of different leadership approaches is needed. In recent years, it has emerged that productivity is not simply a technological problem and effective leadership behaviors are needed to achieve employee productivity. Leadership styles of the managers directly affect the productivity of team members. There is no common best leadership style preference for the organizations, even if they are in the same industry and having similar culture. The suitable leadership behavior for the statement due to the working environment and circumstances is a key to motivate employees for achieving productivity.

## **Author details**

Esin Kasapoğlu

Address all correspondence to: ekasapoglu@iku.edu.tr

Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, İstanbul Kültür University, Atakoy, Bakırköy, İstanbul

## **References**

exert tight control over poor performance [60]. Giritli and Topcu Oraz [60] explored and compared the leadership styles of managerial personnel in the construction industry. They adopted Hay/McBer's [59] leadership style typology, which is based on the work of David Mc Cleland [59]. Hay/McBer [59] categorizes leadership styles into six groupings, each of which stems from different aspects of emotional intelligence, based on two major classes or styles, namely, transactional and transformational [91]. Coercive and authoritative styles are under the transactional leadership style. Affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, and coaching are under the transformational leadership style. Their focus was primarily to examine whether there is a difference in the leadership styles of managers in construction settings and extent of the ability to use a variety of leadership styles. Authoritative leadership style is more frequently preferred than all other styles. According to the findings of Giritli and Topcu Oraz [60], managerial personnel in the construction industry performs authoritative style with affiliative style most frequently. In addition, they perform the coaching style more frequently than affiliative, democratic, and pacesetting style. Another interesting finding was the high power distance prevalent in the Turkish society makes democratic leadership

In recent years, although leadership has always been a topic of interest in every field, a broad range of discussions and growing interest continued on this subject, from politics to organizational behavior. In design and construction organizations, effective team management becomes important, since achieving a complex, labor-intensive production process and working with numerous teams from different teams are among the primary problems of the industry. Effective leadership is needed to enable effective team management. Depending on the characteristics of industry, employee, and the culture, the development of different leadership approaches is needed. In recent years, it has emerged that productivity is not simply a technological problem and effective leadership behaviors are needed to achieve employee productivity. Leadership styles of the managers directly affect the productivity of team members. There is no common best leadership style preference for the organizations, even if they are in the same industry and having similar culture. The suitable leadership behavior for the statement due to the working environment and circumstances is a key to motivate employees

Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, İstanbul Kültür University, Atakoy,

a rare practice [60].

198 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**7. Conclusion**

for achieving productivity.

Address all correspondence to: ekasapoglu@iku.edu.tr

**Author details**

Esin Kasapoğlu

Bakırköy, İstanbul


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**Chapter 12**

**Provisional chapter**

## **Leadership Requirements for Successful Implementation of Lean Management in Health Care: A Systematic Review of the Literature Leadership Requirements for Successful Implementation of Lean Management in Health Care: A Systematic Review of the Literature**

Kjeld H. Aij and Marion E. Veth Kjeld H. Aij and Marion E. Veth Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65653

#### **Abstract**

Lean is a management philosophy aimed at increasing value for end users by controlling waste. As such, it is a promising approach for health-care organizations to improve quality and control costs. Yet the transition to Lean management often fails in health-care organizations, commonly due to a lack of specific Lean leadership skills. This research addresses a gap in the knowledge about leadership requirements for successful Lean implementation in health-care organizations. A systematic literature search was performed using the MEDLINE, EMBASE and Emerald databases, resulting in the selection of 23 articles. Analysis of these articles confirmed the five Lean leadership principles identified in the manufacturing literature—improvement culture, self-development, employee training, going to the *gemba*, and *hoshin kanri*—and identified specific leadership behaviors, skills, characteristics, and attitudes for each principle. A sixth leadership principle, that of customer value, was also identified. This research contributes to existing Lean literature by providing new insights into leadership requirements for Lean transitions in health care. A new leadership framework is suggested for Lean leadership requirements during Lean implementation. In practice, this research provides healthcare leaders with a practical framework and guidance with which to successfully implement Lean in a health-care institution.

**Keywords:** lean, leadership, healthcare, review, leadership skills

## **1. Introduction**

Lean is a management philosophy aimed at increasing value for end users by controlling waste [1]. It is a promising approach with which health-care institutions can improve quality and control costs. Lean has been used successfully in manufacturing and other

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

industries to improve processes, increase end user satisfaction, and reduce costs. Yet the majority of health-care institutions engaged in Lean practices do not implement Lean management successfully [2–4]. Lean implementation often fails when organizations begin to use Lean initiatives without understanding the importance of leadership in successful implementation [2, 5]. Too often, Lean principles are equated with Lean tools and implementation falls short of the cultural and behavioral changes required for comprehensive Lean implementation [6]. Effective leadership, however, can bridge the gap between Lean tools and Lean thinking [2, 3, 6, 7].

No scientific consensus has yet been reached on the leadership requirements for Lean implementation in health care [4, 8]. Several important principles of Lean leadership have been identified for the application of Lean in manufacturing and other industries. However, health care differs notably from manufacturing and other industries in its revenue models, structure, and environment. It is not known whether the principles of Lean leadership that are established in manufacturing apply to Lean transitions in health care.

As more health-care organizations attempt Lean transformation, the need to define Lean leadership principles in the health-care setting has become acute. This research seeks to fill that gap through a systematic literature review on leadership requirements important for implementation of Lean management in health-care systems. The study addresses the following research question: what are the leadership requirements needed for successful Lean management implementation in health-care organizations?

To our knowledge, a systematic literature review of leadership requirements in Lean transitions in health care has not been performed. Thus, this investigation has both practical and theoretical applications for practitioners and academics concerned with Lean transitions in health care.

## **2. Theoretical background**

Lean, developed by the Toyota Motor Corporation in the 1970s, is a management philosophy that focuses on creating value for customers by eliminating waste and improving flow in processes [1, 9]. Lean is both a continuous improvement approach and an overall philosophy; hence, it is sometimes referred to as "lean thinking" [1]. When implemented well, Lean results in increased operational efficiencies, quality, customer value, and profits [9].

Lean is radically different from traditional production methods, since it focuses on adding value from the customer's perspective, as opposed to the volume-oriented approach of mass production methods. The core principle of Lean is the removal of steps that do not add value, also referred to as "waste" [10]. Womack and Jones [1]. identified five principles of Lean manufacturing: (1) define value precisely from the perspective of the customer; (2) identify the entire value stream for each product family and eliminate waste; (3) make the remaining value-creating step flow; (4) design and provide what the customer wants only when the customer wants it; and (5) pursue perfection.

When followed, these five principles eliminated waste, added value, and facilitated continuous improvement by the use of an ongoing iterative process [2]. Radnor et al. [10] added less process variation and good working conditions as two key elements of waste reduction, leading to an inclusive definition of Lean as "a management practice based on the philosophy of continuously improving processes by either increasing customer value or reducing non-value adding activities, process variation, and poor work conditions".

## **3. Lean in health care**

industries to improve processes, increase end user satisfaction, and reduce costs. Yet the majority of health-care institutions engaged in Lean practices do not implement Lean management successfully [2–4]. Lean implementation often fails when organizations begin to use Lean initiatives without understanding the importance of leadership in successful implementation [2, 5]. Too often, Lean principles are equated with Lean tools and implementation falls short of the cultural and behavioral changes required for comprehensive Lean implementation [6]. Effective leadership, however, can bridge the gap between Lean

No scientific consensus has yet been reached on the leadership requirements for Lean implementation in health care [4, 8]. Several important principles of Lean leadership have been identified for the application of Lean in manufacturing and other industries. However, health care differs notably from manufacturing and other industries in its revenue models, structure, and environment. It is not known whether the principles of Lean leadership that are estab-

As more health-care organizations attempt Lean transformation, the need to define Lean leadership principles in the health-care setting has become acute. This research seeks to fill that gap through a systematic literature review on leadership requirements important for implementation of Lean management in health-care systems. The study addresses the following research question: what are the leadership requirements needed for successful Lean manage-

To our knowledge, a systematic literature review of leadership requirements in Lean transitions in health care has not been performed. Thus, this investigation has both practical and theoretical applications for practitioners and academics concerned with Lean transitions in

Lean, developed by the Toyota Motor Corporation in the 1970s, is a management philosophy that focuses on creating value for customers by eliminating waste and improving flow in processes [1, 9]. Lean is both a continuous improvement approach and an overall philosophy; hence, it is sometimes referred to as "lean thinking" [1]. When implemented well, Lean results

Lean is radically different from traditional production methods, since it focuses on adding value from the customer's perspective, as opposed to the volume-oriented approach of mass production methods. The core principle of Lean is the removal of steps that do not add value, also referred to as "waste" [10]. Womack and Jones [1]. identified five principles of Lean manufacturing: (1) define value precisely from the perspective of the customer; (2) identify the entire value stream for each product family and eliminate waste; (3) make the remaining value-creating step flow; (4) design and provide what the customer wants only when the cus-

in increased operational efficiencies, quality, customer value, and profits [9].

lished in manufacturing apply to Lean transitions in health care.

ment implementation in health-care organizations?

health care.

**2. Theoretical background**

tomer wants it; and (5) pursue perfection.

tools and Lean thinking [2, 3, 6, 7].

208 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Health-care organizations face significant challenges, including rising numbers of chronically ill patients, infectious and environmental diseases, and aging populations, coupled with increasing demand for quality and decreased funding [11–13]. Simultaneously, health-care costs are rising [11], partly due to high prevalence of chronic and infectious diseases that require long-term care [14]. Costly new technologies and drugs also contribute to rising costs [11].

Lean thinking may help health-care institutions address this challenging environment [1, 15, 16]. Kruskal et al. [17] found that successful implementation of Lean management leads to reduced waiting times, lower postoperative infection rates, fewer mistakes, and higher patient satisfaction scores. The basic principles and applications of Lean in health care have been investigated extensively, and leadership has been shown to play a decisive role in successful Lean transitions for health-care organizations [3, 4, 8, 12].

Lean leadership in manufacturing industries has been extensively studied and shown to be essential for successful Lean implementation in manufacturing organizations [2, 3, 6, 18, 19]. However, health-care organizations have different characteristics and operate in a different environment than manufacturing companies [20, 21]. Whereas most manufacturing companies generate money directly from their customers, health-care organizations garner revenue largely through third-party payments [20]. Manufacturing often concerns standardized processes constructed around the making of a standardized product [21]. In health care, "the product" is restoring health and function to ill and diseased people, resulting in complex processes and wide variation in the procedures that are required. These factors make health-care sector unique and highly complex [21]. Thus, Lean leadership in health care is expected to require different leadership principles than does manufacturing.

## **4. Research framework**

This investigation takes as a starting point Dombrowski and Mielke's [2] five leadership principles for successful Lean transitions: improvement culture, self-development, employee training, going to the *gemba*, and *hoshin kanri*. **Figure 1** depicts their framework visually. *Improvement culture* comprises leadership behaviors and attitudes that contribute to a continuous improvement process. Failure is seen as an opportunity for process improvement and learning, rather than blame, and the root cause of the problem is sought. The leader acts as a role model, stimulating continuous improvement and allowing current processes to be constantly challenged [18, 22]. Employees are empowered to improve activities and processes, and the leader should listen to them carefully while developing rules that support a culture of effective improvement [23].

**Figure 1.** Research framework developed by Dombrowski and Mielke [2].

*Self-development* requires leaders to acquire new skills before teaching others about the Lean philosophy [24]. Self-development can be realized with the help of a *sensei*—a Lean coach who supports leaders involved in Lean transitions, often through short iterative learning cycles that are based on Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycles [18]. The PDCA cycle, a central tenet of Lean, uses the scientific method to systematically assess and improve daily work; that is, developing a specific, measurable hypothesis about ways to improve a process, testing the hypothesis objectively, and standardizing any actions that lead to improvement [25]. The PDCA cycle is illustrated in **Figure 2**.

*Employee training* empowers staff to participate in the process of continuous improvement. Leaders encourage constant learning by inviting employees to solve problems. Leaders must also "go to the *gemba*," sometimes referred to as "*gemba* walks." The Japanese term *gemba* literally means "the real place" [22]. *Gemba* walks involve leaders going to the place where value is added, which is often the work floor. This enables Lean leaders to see possible errors and identify the root cause of problems. Direct observation helps leaders make the right decisions and shows their appreciation for the work done. *Hoshin kanri*, also known as target management or policy deployment, refers to a superior organizational vision that aligns all activities within an organization. In Lean organizations, improvement activities are often decentralized. A shared organizational vision ensures that improvement activities of individual departments move in the same direction and work towards a shared goal. In *hoshin kanri*, all PDCA cycles in the organization are aligned.

**Figure 2.** The Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle.

## **5. Methodology**

and learning, rather than blame, and the root cause of the problem is sought. The leader acts as a role model, stimulating continuous improvement and allowing current processes to be constantly challenged [18, 22]. Employees are empowered to improve activities and processes, and the leader should listen to them carefully while developing rules that support a

*Self-development* requires leaders to acquire new skills before teaching others about the Lean philosophy [24]. Self-development can be realized with the help of a *sensei*—a Lean coach who supports leaders involved in Lean transitions, often through short iterative learning cycles that are based on Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycles [18]. The PDCA cycle, a central tenet of Lean, uses the scientific method to systematically assess and improve daily work; that is, developing a specific, measurable hypothesis about ways to improve a process, testing the hypothesis objectively, and standardizing any actions that lead to improvement [25]. The

*Employee training* empowers staff to participate in the process of continuous improvement. Leaders encourage constant learning by inviting employees to solve problems. Leaders must also "go to the *gemba*," sometimes referred to as "*gemba* walks." The Japanese term *gemba* literally means "the real place" [22]. *Gemba* walks involve leaders going to the place where value is added, which is often the work floor. This enables Lean leaders to see possible errors and identify the root cause of problems. Direct observation helps leaders make the right decisions and shows their appreciation for the work done. *Hoshin kanri*, also known as target management or policy deployment, refers to a superior organizational vision that aligns all activities within an organization. In Lean organizations, improvement activities are often

culture of effective improvement [23].

210 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

PDCA cycle is illustrated in **Figure 2**.

**Figure 1.** Research framework developed by Dombrowski and Mielke [2].

We conducted a systematic narrative review of articles concerning leadership of Lean implementation in health care. Initial inclusion criteria were English language articles published in a peer-reviewed journal in the years 2000–2016. A systematic search was conducted using MEDLINE (accessed through PubMed), EMBASE, and Emerald databases. Search syntax was developed based on the Lean health-care taxonomy developed by Brandao de Souza [8] (see **Figure 3**) and consisted of the elements "leadership," "lean management," and "health care." These elements were translated into the search terms "leadership," "lean transition," "lean implementation," "lean management," "health care," and "hospital" and combined into the following search syntax: "leadership"[All Fields] AND ("lean transformation"[All Fields] OR "lean implementation"[All Fields] OR "lean management"[All Fields]) AND ("health care"[All Fields] OR "healthcare"[All Fields] OR "hospital"[All Fields]). Three articles were added during a snowball approach for supplementary materials.

**Figure 3.** Lean health-care taxonomy developed by Brandao de Souza [8].

During the initial search, 136 articles were identified: 20 articles through MEDLINE, 91 through Emerald, 22 through EMBASE, and three through a snowball approach. Eighteen duplicate articles were excluded, and two articles were excluded because the full text was not available online. The titles and abstracts of these 118 articles were screened according to the Prisma guidelines for reporting reviews and meta-analyses (http://prisma-statement. org). Articles were excluded if they did not cover Lean management in health care or describe the role of leadership in Lean implementation [8]. Case studies as well as theoretical articles were included, whereas speculative articles were excluded. A full-text review was performed in cases where the title and abstract did not address inclusion or exclusion criteria. Ninetythree articles were excluded that did not met the inclusion criteria. The final review included 23 papers. **Figure 4** shows the procedure of article selection. **Table 1** shows the full list of inclusion and exclusion criteria.

**Figure 4.** Article selection process.


**Table 1.** Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Thematic analysis was used to code these 23 papers based on leadership principles important for Lean implementation identified by Dombrowski and Mielke [2]: improvement culture, self-development, training, *gemba*, and *hoshin kanri*. These principles were used as the starting point for the coding process. For each principle, relevant behaviors, skills, and attributes were identified, conceptualized, and applied to health care.

#### **6. Results**

During the initial search, 136 articles were identified: 20 articles through MEDLINE, 91 through Emerald, 22 through EMBASE, and three through a snowball approach. Eighteen duplicate articles were excluded, and two articles were excluded because the full text was not available online. The titles and abstracts of these 118 articles were screened according to the Prisma guidelines for reporting reviews and meta-analyses (http://prisma-statement. org). Articles were excluded if they did not cover Lean management in health care or describe the role of leadership in Lean implementation [8]. Case studies as well as theoretical articles were included, whereas speculative articles were excluded. A full-text review was performed in cases where the title and abstract did not address inclusion or exclusion criteria. Ninetythree articles were excluded that did not met the inclusion criteria. The final review included 23 papers. **Figure 4** shows the procedure of article selection. **Table 1** shows the full list of

**Figure 3.** Lean health-care taxonomy developed by Brandao de Souza [8].

inclusion and exclusion criteria.

212 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Figure 4.** Article selection process.

The 23 studies retrieved are summarized in **Table 2**. Although all research teams involved in these studies collected qualitative data, both qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed and are presented in these articles. Of the 23 studies, eight were case studies, five were based on primary data collected via interviews, surveys, and other methods, five were literature reviews, four were descriptive, and one relied on content analysis. Analytical methods used to parse primary data included qualitative analysis of ethnographic data, grounded theory, exploratory and descriptive approaches, a multi-stage approach, content analysis, nonparametric statistical analysis, and comparative analysis.

Results confirmed the five principles of effective Lean leadership identified by Dombrowski and Mielke [2]. An additional principle, that of *customer value*, also emerged. For each principle, specific leadership behaviors, skills, characteristics, and attitudes were also identified.

## **7. Continuous improvement culture**

In all 23 articles reviewed, creation of an improvement culture was identified as an important leadership requirement for Lean transitions in health care (**Table 3**). In an improvement culture, continuous improvement and change are everyday procedures executed by employees and leaders as they mutually strive for perfection [26–28]. Creating an improvement culture is essential for overcoming the challenge of increasing quality while reducing costs [28].



**Study** **Aij et al., 2013**

Semi-structured,

The

31 medical, surgical,

Provide insight into

1, 1.1, 1.2

• Quality of care score does not reflect entire

patient experience and may be narrow in scope

214 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

• Exclusion of all hospitals reporting quality of

care measures from 25 patients or fewer

• Followers who were knowledgeable about

the hospital's management system were more

likely to respond accurately than those who

were not, a potential source of bias

• Qualitative study, the purpose of which

was to explore experiences of leaders in the

implementation of Lean in a teaching hospital;

further multiple center studies are necessary to

show causal links

• Most outcome measures are self-reported and

may be influences by information or recall bias

• Reflects the first author's learning experience

in implementing Lean and may not reflect the

experience of other leaders and other medical

2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

3, 3.1

4, 4.1

5, 5.1, 5.2

barriers and facilitators

encountered in

implementing Lean

within clinical practices

Netherlands;

and nursing

professionals

University

Medical Center

in-depth

interviews

**Aij et al., 2015a**

**Aij, 2015b**

Qualitative,

The

Lead author;

Identify and define

1

leadership requirements

2, 2.3

3, 3.2, 3.4

4, 4.1, 4.3

centers

and traits that are

important in supporting

organizations through

Lean transformation.

Determine readiness

1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4

• Readiness factors identified are based on

review of published literature, not empirical

3, 3.4

4, 4.1

studies

5, 5.1, 5.2,

6, 6.1, 6.2

factors critical to

application and success

of lean operating

principles in healthcare

organizations through

a review of relevant

literature.

6 other medical

professionals

ethnographic

Netherlands;

University

Medical Center

**Al-Balushi, 2014**

Systematic

English

170 peer-reviewed

articles pertaining

language to

January 2012

to lean

review

Online survey

 USA

CEOs and followers

Impact of leadership

1

2.1

3.2, 3.4

4, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

5

traits of CEOs on

hospital performance

in USA

in 3 groups of 3

hospitals: 3 highperforming; 3 lowperforming; 3 Lean

**Design**

 **Location**

**Participants/**

**Purpose**

**Effective lean** 

**Key limitations**

**leadership** 

**behaviors \***

**organization**



**Study** **Dickson, 2009**

**Ghosh, 2015**

Qualitative

USA; 140-bed

Data on 18 process

To examine empirically

1, 1.1, 1.2

4, 4.1

why a systematic

problem-solving routine

can play an important

role in the process

improvement efforts of

hospitals

improvement cases

data analysis;

general

hospital in

medium


community.

**Goodridge,** 

Qualitative,

Saskatchewan,

Key informant

What changes in

1, 1.1, 1.3

• Realist approach rests on assumption that

programs are "theories incarnate" and operate

in specific contexts, therefore not exactly

2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

3, 3.2

4, 4.1

replicable

5, 5.2

6

leadership practices

are associated with

the implementation of

Lean? When leadership

practices change, how

do the changed practices

contribute to subsequent

outcomes?

consultation;

documentary

review; 26

audiotaped

and transcribed

interviews with

health region

personnel;

stakeholder

workshop, team

discussions

**Hwang, 2014**

Extant

USA; Hospital

Exploratory/

To present a model

1, 1.2

• Model is based on review of existing literature

and a case illustration, not empirical research

• Case study may not be replicable in other

2, 2.1

3, 3.4

5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

settings

6, 6.1

that identifies and

defines the Lean

implementation key

success factors in

health-care

organizations

descriptive

study based on

observation and

follow-up

interviews

in Midwestern

literature

review and

city,

pop 300,000

case

illustration

multi-stage

Canada

approach

**2015**

grounded

theory

Case series

USA

2 academic and 2

Describe the effects of

1, 1.1, 1.3

• Attempts to evaluate a real process in an

uncontrolled environment (ED cannot be

216 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

rigorously controlled for experimental

• EDs included because they had adopted Lean,

leading to selection bias

• Length of stay not a reliable indicator of

improvements in patient flow

• Conducted in one hospital setting using highly

contextualized data. Findings may not be

similar in other settings

3, 3.4

4

6, 6.3

purposes)

Lean on quality of care

in 4 EDs

community 4 EDs

**Design**

 **Location**

**Participants/**

**Purpose**

**Effective lean** 

**Key limitations**

**leadership** 

**behaviors \***

**organization**



**Study** **Mutwiri, 2016** **Poksinska, 2013**

Case studies

Not specified

5 case studies in

organizations

considered

successful Lean

organizations: 1

manufacturing, 1

municipal elderly

care, 2 primary care

centers, 1 hospital

physiology unit

**Simon, 2012**

Description;

USA; Boston,

Lean project at Beth

Provide steps for

1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.1

• Descriptive study, not empirical research

• Case study from one large health system; may

not be generalizable to other settings

2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

3, 3.2, 3.3

4, 4.1, 4.3

5, 5.1, 5.2

6, 6.1, 6.2

conducting a Lean

process improvement

project

Israel Deaconess

Medical Center

case study

**Toussaint, 2013**

Description

Not specified

Define Lean

Provide a template

1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

• Findings based on collective experience of

authors, not empirical research

3, 3.1, 3.3, 3.4

for health-care leaders

to use in considering

4, 4.1

5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

6, 6.1, 6.2., 6.3

the implementation of

the Lean management

system or in assessing

the current state of

implementation in their

organizations

and present 6

principles of Lean

management

MA

Case study

Saskatchewan,

Reflection on

Describe the

development,

implementation,

and evaluation of

the Saskatchewan

Leadership Program

Contribute to better

1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4

• Results from 5 case studies, including only

one unit in one hospital, and may not be

2, 2.1, 2.3

3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

generalizable

• Participant observations made at meetings, not

Connection

between Lean

on the work floor

• Company documents may be incomplete and

leadership and

transformational

biased

leadership

understanding of

managerial practices

and leadership in Lean

organizations.

Saskatchewan

Leadership

Program

Canada

**Design**

 **Location**

**Participants/**

**Purpose**

**Effective lean** 

**Key limitations**

**leadership** 

**behaviors \***

1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

• Behavior change self-assessed through

questionnaires and reports, not actions

218 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

• Impact on bottom line not evaluated

• Results were in one county-wide setting and

not necessarily generalizable to other settings

2, 2.1

5, 5.1, 5.2

**organization**


**Table 3.** Frequency of leadership principles and requirements.

Leaders should actively create a culture in which problems are seen as opportunities for improvement instead of failures [26, 27], and people should be seen as problem solvers, not as problems [29].

Four leadership behaviors and attitudes were linked to effective creation of an improvement culture: (1) demonstrating support to and interest in Lean; (2) expressing commitment to and involvement in Lean; (3) showing an understanding of Lean concepts; and (4) changing the existing hierarchy [17, 30, 31].

Findings from 16 studies indicated that leaders should demonstrate strong personal and visible support for Lean, including support for the person implementing Lean practices, and show interest in the Lean process. Visible and sustained support of health-care leaders is essential to encourage all staff to initiate and participate in improvement activities [30]. Likewise, leaders must openly communicate about improvement with staff [31].

Ten articles showed a need for strong commitment in the leadership team, and their full involvement, for a successful shift to an improved culture. In an analysis of the use of Lean in the emergency department in four US hospitals, Dickson et al. [32] found that leadership commitment was an important requirement for developing a culture of improvement. Leadership commitment also appeared to be an important factor in long-term sustainability of Lean [30]. In a systematic review of employee experience in Lean health, White et al. [31] identified active sponsorship and personal involvement of top-level executives, especially the chief executive officer, as key factors for successful Lean implementation.

Five research teams emphasized the importance of changing the hierarchical structure often present in health-care organizations. Al-Balushi et al. [30] clearly articulated this culture and the paradox it presents for Lean transformation. In many health-care systems, administrators rank above doctors, doctors rank above nurses, and nurses rank above other staff. Health-care professionals often experience difficulty accepting suggestions from employees lower in the hierarchy. In their review of five Lean transformation case studies, these authors found that nurses and doctors have the most difficulty with cultural and hierarchical change. In contrast, Lean thinking relies on the experience and knowledge of front-line workers and the equal involvement of all employees in creating high-value processes. Support, interest, and involvement from top management for Lean implementation are essential in overcoming resistance to change [30, 33–35].

## **8. Self-development**

Leaders should actively create a culture in which problems are seen as opportunities for improvement instead of failures [26, 27], and people should be seen as problem solvers, not

**Leadership principle Leadership requirement No. studies\***

1.1 Demonstrate support 16 1.2 Show interest 11 1.3 Commitment and involvement 13 1.4 Change hierachical setting 6

2.1 Develop leadership skills and competencies 13 2.2 Lead by example 6 2.3 In-company learning 9

3.1 Employee development and empowerment 9 3.2 Create a learning environment 11 3.3 Enlarge leadership capacity 8 3.4 Encourage employee involvement as a tool to overcome resistance and

4.1 *Gemba* walks as tool to increase problem-solving ability 10 4.2 *Gemba* walks as tool for employee training 2 4.3 *Gemba* walks to contribute to continuous improvement culture 5

5.1 Formulate strategic agenda 9 5.2 Communicate strategic agenda to employees 11 5.3 Break down barriers between departments (silos) 3

6.1 Adding value 10 6.2 Identify customer groups 6 6.3 Adopt a patient-centered view 8

10

**Improvement culture 23**

**Employee training 19**

**Going to the** *gemba* 13

**Hoshin kanri 14**

**Customer value 12**

\*Number of studies in which principle or requirement was listed as a finding.

**Table 3.** Frequency of leadership principles and requirements.

Four leadership behaviors and attitudes were linked to effective creation of an improvement culture: (1) demonstrating support to and interest in Lean; (2) expressing commitment to and

as problems [29].

**Self-development**

220 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

change

Leader self-development emerged as a central requirement for Lean transitions in health care, with 13 research teams identifying it as a core principle. To successfully lead Lean transitions, health-care leaders need to develop new skills and competencies in Lean [26, 35, 36]. Mutwiri et al. [36] identified specific skills and competences including awareness of one's own strengths, vision, and abilities. Leaders need to develop these personal capabilities and demonstrate character so that they may effectively manage others and address the dynamics of change. Likewise, leaders need to have a deep understanding of Lean principles before beginning the Lean implementation process [35].

Of the skills and competencies identified, excellent communication skills were most frequently mentioned. In a Lean organization, leaders need to communicate with people at all organizational levels, including top managers, project team managers, clinicians, and other employees [37]. Aij et al. [27] also found that modesty is an essential leadership characteristic for successful transition. Leaders in their study who had a modest attitude and were able to express concerns and uncertainty established stronger relationships with employees, encouraging the same behaviors in employees. Leaders who showed modesty and vulnerability also helped to shape a culture of improvement that allowed concerns to be raised more easily.

Taken together, six articles in this review show how health-care leaders must function as role models during Lean transitions. Executives and other managers can act as effective role models by showing commitment and support throughout an implementation process. Finally, in nine studies, in-house training and education in Lean were found to be essential for healthcare leaders.

## **9. Employee training**

In 18 studies, employee training was identified as important or essential for successful Lean management transitions in health care. Senior management is responsible for development and empowerment of the workforce, so that employees can actively participate in the Lean improvement process [17, 27, 30, 35, 38]. Training should be embedded in the organizational culture through an iterative process of retraining and feedback [35]. Four components comprise the training of employees: (1) development and empowerment; (2) creating a learning environment; (3) increasing leadership capacity; and (4) empowering employees to overcome resistance to change.

Employee development and empowerment are the foundation of an improved culture: employees identify and resolve procedural problems, the health-care organization adopts an innovative mind-set, and an attitude of continuous improvement develops. Health-care leaders foster employee development and empowerment by providing the means and time for training of employees in Lean principles [28, 30, 39] and by acknowledging employees' insights [35]. When employees are empowered to solve problems, both the organization and patients benefit from their front-line expertise and knowledge [35, 38]. If employees experience the positive consequences of their problem solving, they are likely to continue and further improve this behavior.

The findings of 11 studies suggested that employee empowerment and education are fostered when leaders create a learning environment that supports the iterative and ongoing process of Lean management. Lean leaders create a learning environment by providing an appropriate structure, removing obstacles, and providing resources. In their investigation of the impact of leadership traits of executives on hospital performance in the United States, Aij et al. [26] found that employees at high-performing Lean hospitals perceived successful managers "as those who both deliver results and create a learning environment to help their employees in self-discovery". Likewise, employees at Lean organizations were significantly more likely to agree that "when things to do not go according to plan, the manager's job is to develop corrective action in a learning environment". Other investigators found that leaders who create effective learning environments shift roles, becoming coaches and mentors rather than being controlling "bosses" [31, 35].

Employee training must include leadership skills, especially for employees actively involved in Lean transition [31]. In addition, leaders should commit to practicing and coaching the PDCA cycle [28]. With training and support, employees can emerge as leaders, capable of identifying and solving problems on their own. In this environment, managers facilitate problem solving and manage employees rather than solving the problems themselves [31]. Likewise, empowerment is one of three key leadership principles crucial for effective Lean transition as identified by Aij et al. [26] Several authors identified resistance to develop a culture of improvement to be a barrier to effective Lean implementation [27, 30, 32]. Further, eight studies showed that employee empowerment can help overcome resistance to Lean implementation. Lean leaders should trust their employees with responsibility and include them in decision making, creating mutual trust between management and employees [26, 28, 30].

## **10. Gemba walks**

for successful transition. Leaders in their study who had a modest attitude and were able to express concerns and uncertainty established stronger relationships with employees, encouraging the same behaviors in employees. Leaders who showed modesty and vulnerability also helped to shape a culture of improvement that allowed concerns to be raised

Taken together, six articles in this review show how health-care leaders must function as role models during Lean transitions. Executives and other managers can act as effective role models by showing commitment and support throughout an implementation process. Finally, in nine studies, in-house training and education in Lean were found to be essential for health-

In 18 studies, employee training was identified as important or essential for successful Lean management transitions in health care. Senior management is responsible for development and empowerment of the workforce, so that employees can actively participate in the Lean improvement process [17, 27, 30, 35, 38]. Training should be embedded in the organizational culture through an iterative process of retraining and feedback [35]. Four components comprise the training of employees: (1) development and empowerment; (2) creating a learning environment; (3) increasing leadership capacity; and (4) empowering employees to overcome

Employee development and empowerment are the foundation of an improved culture: employees identify and resolve procedural problems, the health-care organization adopts an innovative mind-set, and an attitude of continuous improvement develops. Health-care leaders foster employee development and empowerment by providing the means and time for training of employees in Lean principles [28, 30, 39] and by acknowledging employees' insights [35]. When employees are empowered to solve problems, both the organization and patients benefit from their front-line expertise and knowledge [35, 38]. If employees experience the positive consequences of their problem solving, they are likely to continue and fur-

The findings of 11 studies suggested that employee empowerment and education are fostered when leaders create a learning environment that supports the iterative and ongoing process of Lean management. Lean leaders create a learning environment by providing an appropriate structure, removing obstacles, and providing resources. In their investigation of the impact of leadership traits of executives on hospital performance in the United States, Aij et al. [26] found that employees at high-performing Lean hospitals perceived successful managers "as those who both deliver results and create a learning environment to help their employees in self-discovery". Likewise, employees at Lean organizations were significantly more likely to agree that "when things to do not go according to plan, the manager's job is to develop corrective action in a learning environment". Other investigators found that leaders

more easily.

222 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

care leaders.

**9. Employee training**

resistance to change.

ther improve this behavior.

Of the 23 articles reviewed, 11 identified "going to the *gemba*" or "*gemba* walks*"* as an important principle of Lean leadership in health care. The concept of *gemba* emerged as a core principle for effective Lean leadership. Findings suggest that leaders who regularly use *gemba* walks increase an organization's problem-solving capacity, provide opportunities for employee training, and contribute to developing a culture of continuous improvement. Frequent *gemba* walks can also help to break down individually functioning units, or silos, as leaders must leave their "ivory towers" to visit the work floor.

Leaders who go to the *gemba* contribute to the organization's problem-solving capacity [27]. When leaders visit the work floor, they can assess current work processes, identify possible errors and inefficiencies, and identify root causes of error or waste. This first-hand information helps frame effective decisions and solve recurring problems [17]. During *gemba* walks, health-care leaders can ask their staff for solutions, empowering them directly to solve problems [17]. Aij et al. [39] found that most employees wanted leaders to be present more frequently and concluded that daily presence of leaders on the work floor was a key factor in successful Lean implementation. Aij et al. [27] likewise confirmed the importance of *gemba* walks in their ethnographic case study of Lean leadership in a Dutch university medical center. All interviewees said they were able to solve problems more quickly and easily as a result of *gemba* walks. *Gemba* walks allow employees and managers to experience problems from the same point of view and work together to develop solutions.

G*emba* walks can help health-care leaders provide opportunities for spontaneous, ongoing training of employees [17]. Aij et al. [26] described *gemba* walks as a tool for health-care leaders to solve problems in close cooperation with employees. Problems can be addressed and employees empowered while all-important stakeholders are together on the work floor. In their study, *gemba* walks seemed to work best with small, uncomplicated problems, as opposed to complex ones.

Finally, g*emba* walks contribute to a culture of continuous improvement [17, 26, 29, 34]. By physically going to the work floor, health-care leaders can show support, interest, and commitment [30, 32, 34]. Simon and Canacari [29] identified *gemba* walks as an important strategy for direct observation and process improvement.

## **11. Hoshin kanri**

*Hoshin kanri* is the principle of strategy and alignment. In 12 studies, research teams found a clearly communicated strategic agenda and a clear vision and mission statement to be highly important for successful Lean transition. The principle of *hoshin kanri* was enacted by leaders in three ways: (1) formulating a strategic agenda; (2) communicating that strategic agenda to employees; and (3) breaking down barriers between departments.

Ten studies demonstrated the importance of the leadership's ability to formulate a strategic agenda—including strategic goals, mission statement, and vision—and to align the steps of Lean implementation with that agenda. Aij et al. [39] also identified that a clearly formulated strategy facilitates Lean implementation. Al-Balushi et al. [30] noted that the strategic agenda should focus on actions required to achieve Lean objectives and create a learning organization. These findings are reinforced by those of Kruskal et al. [17], who noted that the iterative and ongoing process of Lean management requires the responsiveness of a learning organization. Clark et al. [28] proposed that the PDCA cycle be incorporated into the strategic agenda, and leaders should be skilled at using it. Hwang et al. [37] also emphasized the importance of the PDCA cycle in reducing costs and increasing both patient and employee satisfaction. They point out that increasing quality does not necessarily need to result in higher costs, correcting a common misperception about Lean implementation.

The ability to communicate the strategic agenda and its alignment with Lean goals, mission statement, and vision to employees emerged as a key leadership behavior in 10 studies. For instance, in a review of Lean literature, Al-Balushi et al. [30] found that employees of health-care organizations were more willing to accept the changes that Lean required of them when a long-term policy of Lean implementation was clearly communicated to them in the strategic agenda.

Six studies proposed that the organization-wide strategy, vision, goals, and objectives should be clear and known to everyone within the health-care organization. In their investigation of Lean implementation in a large US hospital, Hwang et al. [37] identified sharing goals and processes among managers, professionals, and other employees as a key success factor. Leaders who provide clear targets, they found, help the organization overcome the uncertainty and ambiguity of the initial Lean implementation phase.

Health-care organizations, especially hospitals, are often fragmented into several individually functioning units, or silos, that operate autonomously [12, 39]. Aij et al. [39] and Kaplan et al. [35] identified these silos as a major barrier to Lean implementation. Effective Lean leaders break down these walls between departments [12, 30, 35]. Sustainable Lean implementation requires improved flow, both internally and across the organization [12, 30]. To overcome the problem of silos, Lean leaders must adopt an end-to-end view, often referred to as the " complete patient pathway" [30].

## **12. Service user value**

In their study, *gemba* walks seemed to work best with small, uncomplicated problems, as

Finally, g*emba* walks contribute to a culture of continuous improvement [17, 26, 29, 34]. By physically going to the work floor, health-care leaders can show support, interest, and commitment [30, 32, 34]. Simon and Canacari [29] identified *gemba* walks as an important

*Hoshin kanri* is the principle of strategy and alignment. In 12 studies, research teams found a clearly communicated strategic agenda and a clear vision and mission statement to be highly important for successful Lean transition. The principle of *hoshin kanri* was enacted by leaders in three ways: (1) formulating a strategic agenda; (2) communicating that strategic agenda to

Ten studies demonstrated the importance of the leadership's ability to formulate a strategic agenda—including strategic goals, mission statement, and vision—and to align the steps of Lean implementation with that agenda. Aij et al. [39] also identified that a clearly formulated strategy facilitates Lean implementation. Al-Balushi et al. [30] noted that the strategic agenda should focus on actions required to achieve Lean objectives and create a learning organization. These findings are reinforced by those of Kruskal et al. [17], who noted that the iterative and ongoing process of Lean management requires the responsiveness of a learning organization. Clark et al. [28] proposed that the PDCA cycle be incorporated into the strategic agenda, and leaders should be skilled at using it. Hwang et al. [37] also emphasized the importance of the PDCA cycle in reducing costs and increasing both patient and employee satisfaction. They point out that increasing quality does not necessarily need to result in higher costs, correcting

The ability to communicate the strategic agenda and its alignment with Lean goals, mission statement, and vision to employees emerged as a key leadership behavior in 10 studies. For instance, in a review of Lean literature, Al-Balushi et al. [30] found that employees of health-care organizations were more willing to accept the changes that Lean required of them when a long-term policy of Lean implementation was clearly communicated to them in the

Six studies proposed that the organization-wide strategy, vision, goals, and objectives should be clear and known to everyone within the health-care organization. In their investigation of Lean implementation in a large US hospital, Hwang et al. [37] identified sharing goals and processes among managers, professionals, and other employees as a key success factor. Leaders who provide clear targets, they found, help the organization overcome the uncer-

Health-care organizations, especially hospitals, are often fragmented into several individually functioning units, or silos, that operate autonomously [12, 39]. Aij et al. [39] and Kaplan

opposed to complex ones.

224 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**11. Hoshin kanri**

strategic agenda.

strategy for direct observation and process improvement.

employees; and (3) breaking down barriers between departments.

a common misperception about Lean implementation.

tainty and ambiguity of the initial Lean implementation phase.

A sixth leadership principle for successful Lean implementation was identified in this investigation: adding end user value. In 12 studies, findings indicated that health-care leaders' ability to accurately identify customer value and waste is essential for a successful Lean management. Effective leaders live out the principle of customer value in three ways: (1) adding value by reducing waste; (2) identifying customer groups; and (3) adopting a patient-centered view.

Successful Lean leaders enact the principle of customer value by taking steps to identify and eliminate waste, as demonstrated in 10 studies. In Lean, waste is defined as all activities across the entire value chain that do not directly contribute to creating value [29]. When waste is eliminated, quality of care can be improved, costs reduced, and patient flow made efficient [9]. Simon and Canacari [29] emphasized that leaders must understand and identify waste for a successful Lean transition to occur. Waste is often deeply integrated with organizational culture and viewed by employees as "part of the way we work here." Likewise, Toussaint and Berry [38] described value in health care as "few medical errors, fewer nosocomial infections, less nursing time away from the bedside, faster operating room turnover time, improved care team communication about patients and faster response time for emergent cases." In addition to identifying waste in the value stream, senior management must communicate the added value of Lean clearly to their employees [30].

Lean leaders enact the principle of customer value by identifying customer groups across the organization [9, 12, 29, 30, 35, 38]. A patient's value chain starts when he or she first enters the health-care organization [29]. Yet adding value does not only concern patients, who are the external stakeholders; internal stakeholders are also considered customers [29, 30]. Internal customers are employees in departments that are "customers"—that is, use the services of other internal departments. For example, the operating theater is an internal customer of the central processing department, which supplies the instruments and equipment. Leaders should strive to optimize all value chains, adding value for internal as well as external customers. Correct determination of customer groups also allows leaders to assess value of work. Al-Balushi et al. [30] found that employees and leaders in health-care settings often have difficulties attributing the right customer group to a given improvement; adding value to a wrong customer group, they concluded, is a major cause for failure of Lean implementation in health care.

Adopting a patient-centered view is the third way in which effective leaders abide by the principle of customer value [9, 12, 17, 32–35, 38]. By examining processes from the patient's perspective, Lean leaders can better identify and address waste—for instance, time spent in a waiting room. Kaplan et al. [35] emphasize the importance of "unrelenting focus on the patient" (p. 3) in achieving Lean implementation. From the patient's perspective, health care can be conceived as a balance of benefits versus burdens, according to Toussaint and Berry [38], with burdens being widely defined to include cost, health outcomes, and perceptions of the health-care experience.

## **13. Discussion**

This systematic literature review provides insight into leadership requirements for effective Lean transitions in health care. It confirms the five Lean leadership principles identified by Dombrowski and Mielke [2] and identifies specific leadership behaviors for each principle. Additionally, we identified a sixth leadership principle of customer value, as well as specific leadership behaviors to support that principle.

Based on these findings, a new conceptual model is proposed in which all six leadership principles identified in this research are incorporated. **Figure 5** depicts the adjusted model of the Lean "house" proposed by Dombrowski and Mielke [2].

**Figure 5.** Updated framework for leadership principles in health care.

Notably, self-development of leadership lies at the base of this model. To lead a Lean transition effectively, health-care executives must undergo a change in mindset and gain the required skills. Furthermore, they need to obtain a comprehensive and all-inclusive understanding of Lean, including Lean tools and use of Lean as a management philosophy. In this model, *hoshin kanri* rests on top of leadership self-development. Leaders must align all required changes for Lean implementation with the health-care organization's strategy. To overcome resistance to change, this strategic agenda must be clearly communicated with the employees and a shared vision developed. Together, self-development and *hoshin kanri* can form a stable base from which Lean management can be implemented.

The pillars of the Lean house comprised "going to the *gemba*" and training of employees. Both can be seen as tools to facilitate Lean management implementation in health care. Healthcare leaders should foster employee development by creating a learning environment and empowering staff. These actions enlarge the leadership capacity and facilitate accurate identification of customer value within the organization. Going to the *gemba* enables health-care leaders to assess the current state of work, to identify possible errors and inefficiencies, and to explore the root cause of problems.

The culture of continuous improvement is at the center of the Lean house. This culture constantly challenges all processes in the Lean organization and fosters improvement. Leaders need to keep developing themselves, keep challenging organizational mission and vision, continuously foster employee education and empowerment, visit the work floor frequently, and hone and share the organization's strategic agenda. Customer value forms the roof of the house. All other elements of the Lean house support the goal of Lean management: value creation for customers through waste reduction.

These leadership principles are highly interrelated and cannot be seen as independent actors. They do not necessarily describe sequential steps in the process of Lean implementation. Further research is needed on whether it is possible to develop this into a model in which sequential steps of the implementation process can be described.

## **14. Strengths and limitations**

room. Kaplan et al. [35] emphasize the importance of "unrelenting focus on the patient" (p. 3) in achieving Lean implementation. From the patient's perspective, health care can be conceived as a balance of benefits versus burdens, according to Toussaint and Berry [38], with burdens being widely defined to include cost, health outcomes, and perceptions of the health-care experience.

This systematic literature review provides insight into leadership requirements for effective Lean transitions in health care. It confirms the five Lean leadership principles identified by Dombrowski and Mielke [2] and identifies specific leadership behaviors for each principle. Additionally, we identified a sixth leadership principle of customer value, as well as specific

Based on these findings, a new conceptual model is proposed in which all six leadership principles identified in this research are incorporated. **Figure 5** depicts the adjusted model of the

Notably, self-development of leadership lies at the base of this model. To lead a Lean transition effectively, health-care executives must undergo a change in mindset and gain the required skills. Furthermore, they need to obtain a comprehensive and all-inclusive understanding of Lean, including Lean tools and use of Lean as a management philosophy. In this model, *hoshin kanri* rests on top of leadership self-development. Leaders must align all required changes for Lean implementation with the health-care organization's strategy. To overcome

**13. Discussion**

226 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

leadership behaviors to support that principle.

Lean "house" proposed by Dombrowski and Mielke [2].

**Figure 5.** Updated framework for leadership principles in health care.

Strengths of this research include the all-inclusive framework used to investigate Lean leadership and to identify specific behaviors, skills, characteristics, and attitudes, leaders can use to support sustainable Lean implementation. This differs from previous research, which often focuses on certain features or leadership principles.

However, this research has several limitations. Only literature concerning Lean management in health care was included. Successful Lean leadership principles in other industries could also have provided valuable insights into Lean management implementation in health care. Findings are limited to a review of published literature, not empirical research. The quality, design, and size of the studies in this review varied greatly, which could affect the validity, reliability, and generalizability of these findings.

## **15. Directions for future research**

Empirical research is needed to validate the findings of this investigation. Leadership principles identified here need to be validated in all types of health-care organization and in multiple cultural and social settings. In addition, future research should investigate whether adding value for internal customers in Lean contributes to overall improvement. No scientific consensus exists on whether value should only be added for external customers (patients) or whether value should also be added for internal customers. Since adding value is one of the basic principles of Lean management, evidence is needed to determine what kind of value can be given to each type of customer.

## **16. Conclusion**

This research sheds light on six important leadership principles and their practical applications for health-care leaders in organizations making the transition to Lean management. A new conceptual framework is proposed that shows the interrelation of these six principles in Lean implementation in health care. The conceptual model can be used as a framework for health-care leaders to implement Lean management in their organizations.

## **Author details**

Kjeld H. Aij\* and Marion E. Veth

\*Address all correspondence to: k.aij@vumc.nl

VU University Medical Center, AMSTERDAM, The Netherlands

## **References**


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adding value for internal customers in Lean contributes to overall improvement. No scientific consensus exists on whether value should only be added for external customers (patients) or whether value should also be added for internal customers. Since adding value is one of the basic principles of Lean management, evidence is needed to determine what kind of value can

This research sheds light on six important leadership principles and their practical applications for health-care leaders in organizations making the transition to Lean management. A new conceptual framework is proposed that shows the interrelation of these six principles in Lean implementation in health care. The conceptual model can be used as a framework for

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**16. Conclusion**

228 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**Author details**

**References**

Kjeld H. Aij\* and Marion E. Veth

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#### **Chapter 13 Provisional chapter**

#### **Leadership and Healthcare Services Leadership and Healthcare Services**

Bilge Sözen Şahne and Sevgi Şar Bilge Sözen Şahne and Sevgi Şar

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65288

#### **Abstract**

The reasons why organizations make changes in various fields, especially in their structure, include various changing situations such as globalization, increasing awareness in human rights and employee rights, developments in communication technologies, and changes in people's expectations and demands. These changes in their structures have brought along changes in their management perspectives. In shaping the new management perspective which became a field of study which contains specialties, international competition has also played a major role as well as abovemen‐ tioned notions of globalization, human rights, and communication technologies. Organizations keeping up with the time and reaching success by achieving competitive superiority in their field of activity are closely related with being managed by real leaders and these leaders' behaviors and attitudes. Competition in healthcare sector has increased as a result of raised awareness in the right of healthy life which is one of the fundamental rights of individuals and that their demands were developed in that direction. In addition to this, it is quite important that the leaders, who are able to guide people, have ethical leadership characteristics in order to set an example to especially people who follow them and show righteousness and honesty in their actions.

**Keywords:** Leader, Leadership, Healthcare services

#### **1. Introduction**

In the rapidly changing world, it is inevitable for businesses, which assume an important role in producing products and services for people, to keep up with this change. Among the reasons why organizations make changes in various areas, primarily in their structures, are various diversifying circumstances such as globalization, raising awareness in human rights and therefore employee rights, advancement in communication technologies, and changes in people's expectations and demands.

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Innovations in the structure of organizations have also brought along changes in the manage‐ ment perception. In addition to abovementioned concepts of globalization, human rights, and communication technologies, international competition has played an important role in shaping the new management perception which becomes a field of study with its own specialties. As a result of the organizations' approach in current practices, one of the out‐ standing fundamental concepts in management is leadership [1]. Due to changing social and economic conditions, it is stated that targets set for gaining advantage in this competition between organizations can be achieved under the management of leaders [2–4].

Competition in the healthcare sector has increased as a result of raising awareness of the public on healthy life right which is one of fundamental rights of individuals and their demands in that direction. One of the most important components of this sector, drug industry, constitutes an area in which this competition is quite high. Companies' operation in the drug industry requires administrators who can take them forward and lead them to gain competition advantage and meet the demand [5]. In addition, it is quite important that leaders, who have the ability to guide people, have ethical leadership qualities for setting an example for people who follow them and show the accuracy and honesty in their actions. When considered especially in terms of healthcare sector, it is important that administrators with leadership qualities exhibit ethical behaviors.

By mentioning leadership concept within the scope of this study, the history of the leadership and leadership in healthcare services is emphasized in this chapter. It is thought that the history of leadership and its improvement are important to understand the concept of the leadership and leadership in healthcare services. Therefore, the origin of the leadership is described before the leadership in healthcare services. In accordance with this purpose, a literature review was made in English and Turkish with the keywords "the definition of leadership, history of leadership, leadership approach(es), and leadership in healthcare."

## **2. Origin and history of the leadership**

Leadership is a quite old phenomenon both conceptually and historically. It is considered that an Anglo‐Saxon word *lead* which means road is the root of the word leader [6]. History of leader and leadership dates back to the days when people started to live in communities [7]. In addition, although studies on this subject have accelerated after the Industrial Revolution, leadership has been a subject which has drawn attention of every individual in the society since first ages and upon which various studies have been conducted since then [8, 9].

Leadership and the concepts included therein, which were attributed to people who have influence on masses in the ancient times, were sometimes identified with various mythological deities. It is seen that communication merit of the leaders is correlated with Hermes, strategy development characteristic with Athena, renewal and regeneration traits with Demeter, and strength with Zeus [10]. Similarly, in Ancient Egypt, leadership perception is parallel with the god‐king perception. It is also known that leadership concept was encountered in ancient China [11].

In various sources, there is information that various famous scientists have mentioned leadership in various forms throughout history. Furthermore, "first, do no harm" principle, which is accepted as one of the fundamental principles of leadership, is considered to be originated from Hippocrates' "primum non nocere" [12].

It is stated that Homer's *Iliad* and *Odyssey* contain various definitions of leadership concept. It is presumed that the term leadership was coined by Plato as "Ruling by wandering around" [13]. Xenophon's *Cyropaedia* is considered to be the first systematic book written on leadership. Moreover, another important work by the same author, *Anabasis* (*The Fall of the Ten Thousand*), contains significant information on effective and ethical leadership [12].

It is stated that Julius Caesar mentioned the characteristics that leaders should have in his speeches in the Roman Senate in 58–52 BC [14]. Furthermore, it is thought that the word leader has emerged for the first time in the 1300s. In addition to this, scripts about the British Parliament which include leadership concept were encountered in the early nineteenth century [15].

Leadership concept, which was perceived as an indicator or power and potency in the First and Middle Ages, started to be encountered more frequently in the twentieth century when democratic structures became widespread [16].

It is seen that the society's perception of a leader has focused on government or religion in the history; however, leadership concept mostly comes up in matters related to businesses today [10].

## **3. Leadership theories and approaches**

Innovations in the structure of organizations have also brought along changes in the manage‐ ment perception. In addition to abovementioned concepts of globalization, human rights, and communication technologies, international competition has played an important role in shaping the new management perception which becomes a field of study with its own specialties. As a result of the organizations' approach in current practices, one of the out‐ standing fundamental concepts in management is leadership [1]. Due to changing social and economic conditions, it is stated that targets set for gaining advantage in this competition

Competition in the healthcare sector has increased as a result of raising awareness of the public on healthy life right which is one of fundamental rights of individuals and their demands in that direction. One of the most important components of this sector, drug industry, constitutes an area in which this competition is quite high. Companies' operation in the drug industry requires administrators who can take them forward and lead them to gain competition advantage and meet the demand [5]. In addition, it is quite important that leaders, who have the ability to guide people, have ethical leadership qualities for setting an example for people who follow them and show the accuracy and honesty in their actions. When considered especially in terms of healthcare sector, it is important that administrators with leadership

By mentioning leadership concept within the scope of this study, the history of the leadership and leadership in healthcare services is emphasized in this chapter. It is thought that the history of leadership and its improvement are important to understand the concept of the leadership and leadership in healthcare services. Therefore, the origin of the leadership is described before the leadership in healthcare services. In accordance with this purpose, a literature review was made in English and Turkish with the keywords "the definition of leadership, history of

Leadership is a quite old phenomenon both conceptually and historically. It is considered that an Anglo‐Saxon word *lead* which means road is the root of the word leader [6]. History of leader and leadership dates back to the days when people started to live in communities [7]. In addition, although studies on this subject have accelerated after the Industrial Revolution, leadership has been a subject which has drawn attention of every individual in the society since

Leadership and the concepts included therein, which were attributed to people who have influence on masses in the ancient times, were sometimes identified with various mythological deities. It is seen that communication merit of the leaders is correlated with Hermes, strategy development characteristic with Athena, renewal and regeneration traits with Demeter, and strength with Zeus [10]. Similarly, in Ancient Egypt, leadership perception is parallel with the god‐king perception. It is also known that leadership concept was encountered in ancient

first ages and upon which various studies have been conducted since then [8, 9].

leadership, leadership approach(es), and leadership in healthcare."

**2. Origin and history of the leadership**

between organizations can be achieved under the management of leaders [2–4].

qualities exhibit ethical behaviors.

234 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

China [11].

The necessity to respond to complex questions such as globalization, diversifying labor, and financial crises; circumstances such as ethical dilemmas, promotion criteria, and increasing official; and social interest has increased the interest in leadership [17].

It is stated that more than 5000 studies have been conducted on leadership only in the twentieth century [13]. As a result of studies conducted on this matter, various theories were presented, and various approaches were determined with the purpose of providing an explanation for the traits of leaders such as leader behaviors and what type of leaders they are.

Fundamentally, leadership theories were presented as a result of studies which investigate leadership concept within the scope of diversities such as individual differences and situa‐ tional traits [9]. In addition to these, various theories are also presented that leaders' behaviors and efficiency affect leaders' achievement [9, 18–20].

Leadership studies, which had focused on physical appearance or social status of the leader in the 1920s, have started to focus on various leadership approaches in time [21]. In these approaches, it was emphasized that the actions of the leaders are the factors which determine efficiency [22]. In the 1930s, the number of studies in which leadership behaviors have become prominent rather than leadership traits has increased [23, 24]. These studies have accelerated when it was noticed that behaviors of the administrators will affect the behavior and perform‐ ance of the employees and that followers tend to imitate the behaviors of the leader [25]. In these approaches which emphasize the importance of leaders exhibiting appropriate behavior in various circumstances for effective leadership, it is stated that leader behavior might be work or person oriented [22]. Ohio State and Michigan State Leadership Studies on leadership approaches in the 1950s have laid the foundation of many leadership approaches and caused that leadership studies in this field are accelerated [26]. However, the impact of modernization started to be seen in leadership studies in the 1990s. Unlike conventional leadership theories that emphasize rational stages, new approaches such as charismatic leadership and ethical leadership which are among the innovative theories and approaches which feature emotions and values started to emerge [23, 27].

In leadership styles, leader's behaviors during human relations and studies are determinant. According to this, there are change‐oriented, task‐oriented, and relationship‐oriented leader‐ ship types [26]. In addition to these, in various studies it is stated that guiding leaders have various styles to influence their followers. The expressions used to describe these styles are as follows:


It is known that all theories and approaches regarding leadership are based on work or person orientation [20, 24, 26, 28, 29]. It is also emphasized that another common ground of all these approaches is the relationship between the leader and his/her followers [30]. However, differentiations were determined in the classification of theories and approaches which were discussed in numerous studies throughout history. Given the generally accepted classifica‐ tions, these theories and approaches are investigated below.

#### **3.1. Trait approach**

This theory is based on the presumption that the reason why a person can be qualified as a leader in a certain group is the traits he/she has, and it is stated that the leader is differentiated from other members of the group by means of these traits [1].

The aim of trait approach is determined as to find the traits which make the leader effective and train new leaders in direction of these traits [15]. This approach emphasizes that being a leader varies according to personality, instincts, values, and abilities. It is stated that the factor which underlies the traits approach is the thought that people have leadership traits naturally [31].

In trait theory, it is also suggested that the physical qualities, social status, emotional nature, and speech skills of the person affect his/her leadership [21]. According to this theory, leader‐ ship is an inborn quality and people who have this quality manifest themselves under any circumstances [15].

#### **3.2. Behavioral approach**

when it was noticed that behaviors of the administrators will affect the behavior and perform‐ ance of the employees and that followers tend to imitate the behaviors of the leader [25]. In these approaches which emphasize the importance of leaders exhibiting appropriate behavior in various circumstances for effective leadership, it is stated that leader behavior might be work or person oriented [22]. Ohio State and Michigan State Leadership Studies on leadership approaches in the 1950s have laid the foundation of many leadership approaches and caused that leadership studies in this field are accelerated [26]. However, the impact of modernization started to be seen in leadership studies in the 1990s. Unlike conventional leadership theories that emphasize rational stages, new approaches such as charismatic leadership and ethical leadership which are among the innovative theories and approaches which feature emotions

In leadership styles, leader's behaviors during human relations and studies are determinant. According to this, there are change‐oriented, task‐oriented, and relationship‐oriented leader‐ ship types [26]. In addition to these, in various studies it is stated that guiding leaders have various styles to influence their followers. The expressions used to describe these styles are as

It is known that all theories and approaches regarding leadership are based on work or person orientation [20, 24, 26, 28, 29]. It is also emphasized that another common ground of all these approaches is the relationship between the leader and his/her followers [30]. However, differentiations were determined in the classification of theories and approaches which were discussed in numerous studies throughout history. Given the generally accepted classifica‐

This theory is based on the presumption that the reason why a person can be qualified as a leader in a certain group is the traits he/she has, and it is stated that the leader is differentiated

The aim of trait approach is determined as to find the traits which make the leader effective and train new leaders in direction of these traits [15]. This approach emphasizes that being a leader varies according to personality, instincts, values, and abilities. It is stated that the factor which underlies the traits approach is the thought that people have leadership traits naturally [31].

In trait theory, it is also suggested that the physical qualities, social status, emotional nature, and speech skills of the person affect his/her leadership [21]. According to this theory, leader‐ ship is an inborn quality and people who have this quality manifest themselves under any

—Participative style: "We can decide together, but not everyone's vote is equal."

—Opinion style: "We will continue to discuss until everyone agrees on a subject."

and values started to emerge [23, 27].

236 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

—Autocratic style: "I know the best for everyone's good."

tions, these theories and approaches are investigated below.

from other members of the group by means of these traits [1].

—Laissez‐faire style: "Do whatever you want" [22].

follows:

**3.1. Trait approach**

circumstances [15].

The majority of the studies on effective leadership consist of studies on determining behaviors [29]. This approach investigates what causes the efficiency of the leader, how to cope with problems, how to notice opportunities, and how to overcome pressure [31].

Behavioral leadership theories included followers as well as the leader himself/herself and tried to describe the leadership process based on the leader's behaviors toward his/her followers' behavioral approach; the main idea that the leader's behaviors exhibited in the leadership process which affect the success was emphasized [1].

One of the most important differences between this approach and trait approach is that it has been suggested that leadership behaviors can be acquired by means of training [15]. However, the difficulty in determining which behavior category is more significant for leaders is considered to be one of the most frequently encountered problems in this approach [29]. Another problem of the behavioral leadership theories arises due to the fact that no scale which can describe behaviors completely is developed yet although many scales have been developed within the scope of these theories [25, 32, 33].

Numerous theories have been developed in accordance with behavioral approach. The most prominent ones are McGregor's X and Y Theories, Likert's System Model, and other behavioral leadership theories such as Blake and Mouton's Management Style Matrix as well as Ohio Leadership Studies and Michigan State Leadership Studies.

#### **3.3. Situational approach**

In this approach which investigates the factors affecting the leadership process, fundamental situational variables are classified as:


#### **3.4. Other approaches regarding leadership**

With the acceleration of studies on leadership, a number of various leadership theories have been suggested as studies on trait approach, behavioral approach, and situation approach which date back to the 1920s did not suffice.

These forms of leadership which can also be classified as alternative approaches, and leader‐ ship styles may be listed under various topics such as autocratic leadership, democratic leadership, charismatic leadership, transactional leadership, and transformational leadership. Furthermore, ethical leadership which has been frequently coming up recently has a significant place among leadership approaches. In addition to these leadership styles, it is known that there are other leadership styles such as authentic leadership which is considered to have similarities with ethical leadership, servant leadership which aims to serve its followers, and paternalistic leadership which is based on protecting the inferior [5, 16, 34, 35]. These leader‐ ship styles can be described as follows:

#### *3.4.1. Autocratic leadership*

In autocratic leadership, which is a type of leadership in which all the authority is granted to the leader, the inferior have no voice and all decisions are made by the leader; it is necessary that the leader is also quite strong and intelligent in order that all these conditions are fulfilled [15]. In this type of leadership where the leader is willing to share his/her authority with the followers, followers are informed about various matters and their suggestions are taken into consideration [15].

### *3.4.2. Charismatic leadership*

It is stated that this type of leadership is quite correlated with extroversion [36, 37]. Charismatic leader ensures that his/her followers act in the direction he/she desires and contributes in increasing their performance by means of charismatic traits which mean attraction [1]. In addition to that, these leaders are known to have high self‐confidence and inspire trust in their surroundings [5]. Furthermore, it is proven that these types of leaders are the mostly preferred leaders among university students as a result of studies conducted [15].

#### *3.4.3. Transactional leadership*

It is a type of leadership which prefers various rewarding methods to increase the achievement of the employees [38]. It is also stated that sanctions are implemented on employees, and some kind of exchange takes place between the leader and his/her followers when the objective is not acquired in interactive leadership where the tasks of the employees are stated clearly [5, 15]. This exchange is expressed as some kind of trade between the leader and the employees [38].

#### *3.4.4. Transformational leadership*

It is known that it is important for these leaders who can realize the change and renewal that the organizations need make their followers accept their vision in order to achieve the required performance [1]. These leaders who perform activities such as supporting the improvement of the employees and making effort to bring forward their creativity are the leaders who believe that change is indispensable [5, 15]. It is known that transformative leaders who do not give up against criticism take their employees' happiness into consideration as well as innovation and increasing performance [38, 39].

In this type of leadership, concerns such as ensuring justice and order become prominent. These leaders who give importance to ensuring that their employees acquire a vision also aim to increase the trust of the inferior in the leader by making some changes in the organization culture. Transformative leaders are also open to criticism and consider criticism as an oppor‐ tunity to improve themselves [38].

#### *3.4.5. Ethical leadership*

paternalistic leadership which is based on protecting the inferior [5, 16, 34, 35]. These leader‐

In autocratic leadership, which is a type of leadership in which all the authority is granted to the leader, the inferior have no voice and all decisions are made by the leader; it is necessary that the leader is also quite strong and intelligent in order that all these conditions are fulfilled [15]. In this type of leadership where the leader is willing to share his/her authority with the followers, followers are informed about various matters and their suggestions are taken into

It is stated that this type of leadership is quite correlated with extroversion [36, 37]. Charismatic leader ensures that his/her followers act in the direction he/she desires and contributes in increasing their performance by means of charismatic traits which mean attraction [1]. In addition to that, these leaders are known to have high self‐confidence and inspire trust in their surroundings [5]. Furthermore, it is proven that these types of leaders are the mostly preferred

It is a type of leadership which prefers various rewarding methods to increase the achievement of the employees [38]. It is also stated that sanctions are implemented on employees, and some kind of exchange takes place between the leader and his/her followers when the objective is not acquired in interactive leadership where the tasks of the employees are stated clearly [5, 15]. This exchange is expressed as some kind of trade between the leader and the employees

It is known that it is important for these leaders who can realize the change and renewal that the organizations need make their followers accept their vision in order to achieve the required performance [1]. These leaders who perform activities such as supporting the improvement of the employees and making effort to bring forward their creativity are the leaders who believe that change is indispensable [5, 15]. It is known that transformative leaders who do not give up against criticism take their employees' happiness into consideration as well as innovation

In this type of leadership, concerns such as ensuring justice and order become prominent. These leaders who give importance to ensuring that their employees acquire a vision also aim to increase the trust of the inferior in the leader by making some changes in the organization culture. Transformative leaders are also open to criticism and consider criticism as an oppor‐

leaders among university students as a result of studies conducted [15].

ship styles can be described as follows:

*3.4.1. Autocratic leadership*

238 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

consideration [15].

*3.4.2. Charismatic leadership*

*3.4.3. Transactional leadership*

*3.4.4. Transformational leadership*

and increasing performance [38, 39].

tunity to improve themselves [38].

[38].

Matters related to ethics are encountered in various fields today from health to education and from technology to sports. Recently, problems in social life, politics, and business world have caused that the trust in leaders and administrators is diminished. Especially, the scandals which surfaced due to the ethical violations of the people in administrative positions have played an effective role in bringing forward the ethics in terms of administration. Thus, the relationship between the leader and ethics started to be discussed frequently [11, 25, 31, 34, 40, 41].

It is known that ethics is a factor which is included among the rules which regulate both business life and private life and it has two fundamental objectives. First of these objectives is what it takes to be a good person, and the second one is what the rules to determine and restrict the behaviors of individuals are. Each attitude and behavior has an aspect which can be evaluated ethically. *Ethos*, which means character in Greek, defines the attitudes and behaviors of man. In ethical administration concept, the relationship between ethics and division of the sources, rights, opportunities, and even communication included in the administration is brought forward [42].

In order to create a successful leader identity, ethics is considered as an indispensable factor [12]. In the ethics of leadership, people who use their power in direction of ethical concerns come to mind [43]. Although ethical behavior which is a part of leadership is also required for ethical organization, it is not sufficient alone. Ethical leadership is required for this [22]. Ethical leadership may be defined as "The demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two‐way communication, reinforcement, and decision‐making" [44]. Ethical leaders are assigned to create values and ethical awareness, define authority and responsibility, adapt to participative and democratic administration, be honest and reliable, and briefly be just in all attitudes and behaviors [42].

Today it is unarguably accepted that leader behaviors are taken as example by the followers, and ethical values that leaders should have for expanding ethical behaviors especially in private businesses are important [11, 31, 40, 41, 45–47]. Ethical rules of organizations also help shaping the behaviors of the leaders who work in these organizations [48, 49].

All of the correct and good attitudes exhibited by the leader are studied within the scope of ethical leadership. This is emphasized in numerous studies on a broad scope from decision‐ making processes to relations with the followers and from the shareholders' interests to preserving the quality [25, 40, 44, 50–52]. It is stated that high or low levels of ethical values of the employees are mostly correlated with the ethical values of the leaders [53]. However, ethical values are considered to be a factor which would help leaders to exhibit relationship‐oriented behaviors toward their inferior. Leaders who have such values avoid rude behavior toward their inferior and do not exhibit attitude which discredits the inferior [54].

As well as cultural values of the organization and the society, the impact of personal perception in developing an ethical attitude should not be neglected. As leaders' use of the power they have in a negative manner would harm the organization, it is necessary that leaders who use their power for the good‐correct are assigned and supported in administrative levels [50, 52, 55]. The impact of behaviors of the individuals, who are required to have ethical leadership traits, such as accuracy, reliability, and being fair in expanding the ethical perception within the organiza‐ tion, should be taken into consideration. It should be remembered that organizations adminis‐ trated by leaders with these traits will be more successful and effective [41, 46, 51, 55].

#### *3.4.6. Authentic leadership*

Authentic leaders who are committed to their objectives with passion and make a great deal of effort to implement their values prioritize both their motivation and their employees' motivation [56].

#### *3.4.7. Servant leadership*

Leaders who prioritize and focus on their followers in organizations are described as servant leaders. With the increasing importance given to fundamental humanitarian values, this type of leadership started to draw attention. Servant leaders are distinct from other leaders as they prioritize human benefits in managing human resources [57].

#### *3.4.8. Paternalistic leadership*

Protecting the followers is the most significant characteristic of the paternalistic leadership, and these leaders also take their leadership traits outside the organization by trying to guide their followers in their private lives [5].

#### *3.4.9. Strategic leadership*

Although strategy is a concept used mostly for military organizations, it brought along strategic leadership concept in the 1960s which will also apply to the businesses. In strategic leadership, internal and external environments are analyzed correctly (suitable strategy is determined), and these are implemented in the right time. Strategic leaders are described as the people who are responsible for the strategic administration of the organization [42].

## **4. Traits of the leader and importance of the leadership**

Carrying the organization to the future and increasing the ability to make innovations have become situations which are demanded from administrators more than fulfilling their tasks [58]. Realizing important factors for an organization such as achieving the desired success and ensuring the motivation of the employees will be possible by means of implementing innova‐ tive administration approaches [48].

Since leaders are an indispensable factor of successful operation of organizations, these people are also needed for increasing the organizational commitment of the employees [11, 20]. Thus, it is ensured that employees remain within the organization and work eagerly [59].

Various descriptions have been made to explain the importance of leaders for organizations. In leadership practices, behaviors of the leaders in organizations are associated with the training of actors by directors or producers to improve their abilities in theatrical plays. Example elements within organizational culture such as god, hero, mother, judge, servant, and soldier can be turned into universal characters such as CEO, executive, secretary, customer, manager, and sales representative [10].

Leaders who want to manage the change should exhibit different behaviors rather than conventional leadership approaches. For the first time in history, today, four different gener‐ ations [Silent Generation, baby boomer generation, X generation, and Y generation] started to work in organizations simultaneously. For that reason, leaders are expected to exhibit behav‐ iors which comfort to the four generations [45].

As a result of studies on the traits that leaders should have, various qualifications have been presented. It is known that various leadership traits had been determined in ancient times. One of those is the five elements that Cicero has determined in relation to leadership [60]. These elements are listed as follows:

—People like leaders.

impact of behaviors of the individuals, who are required to have ethical leadership traits, such as accuracy, reliability, and being fair in expanding the ethical perception within the organiza‐ tion, should be taken into consideration. It should be remembered that organizations adminis‐

Authentic leaders who are committed to their objectives with passion and make a great deal of effort to implement their values prioritize both their motivation and their employees'

Leaders who prioritize and focus on their followers in organizations are described as servant leaders. With the increasing importance given to fundamental humanitarian values, this type of leadership started to draw attention. Servant leaders are distinct from other leaders as they

Protecting the followers is the most significant characteristic of the paternalistic leadership, and these leaders also take their leadership traits outside the organization by trying to guide

Although strategy is a concept used mostly for military organizations, it brought along strategic leadership concept in the 1960s which will also apply to the businesses. In strategic leadership, internal and external environments are analyzed correctly (suitable strategy is determined), and these are implemented in the right time. Strategic leaders are described as the people who are responsible for the strategic administration of the organization [42].

Carrying the organization to the future and increasing the ability to make innovations have become situations which are demanded from administrators more than fulfilling their tasks [58]. Realizing important factors for an organization such as achieving the desired success and ensuring the motivation of the employees will be possible by means of implementing innova‐

Since leaders are an indispensable factor of successful operation of organizations, these people are also needed for increasing the organizational commitment of the employees [11, 20]. Thus,

it is ensured that employees remain within the organization and work eagerly [59].

prioritize human benefits in managing human resources [57].

**4. Traits of the leader and importance of the leadership**

trated by leaders with these traits will be more successful and effective [41, 46, 51, 55].

*3.4.6. Authentic leadership*

240 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

*3.4.7. Servant leadership*

*3.4.8. Paternalistic leadership*

*3.4.9. Strategic leadership*

their followers in their private lives [5].

tive administration approaches [48].

motivation [56].


When discussing the leadership concept, cultural differences should also be taken into consideration [61], because it is known that expectations and characteristics of people raised in different cultures are different as well. For example, while Americans say that personal traits are more important in leadership, Japanese emphasize the importance of skills and behaviors [33]. On the other hand, leadership in the Chinese is influenced by Confucian, Daoist, and Mohist principles as specified in ethical leadership. In that direction, various rules such as the importance of non‐selflessness of the leaders, the necessity of certain hierarchic order, and job descriptions have influenced the leadership behaviors in this culture, and furthermore, it is accepted that leadership is a process developed naturally by means of the existence of the followers [62].

However, it is also stated that leadership behavior is also affected by other various factors. Among these factors are elements such as working time, education, age, and task performed [5]. Furthermore, there are studies which indicate that there are gender‐based differences in leadership behavior as well [11, 63–66].

A study investigating the gender‐based differences in leadership contains information that men are more disciplined in daily activities and women have more ability to manage the sensitive relations within teams [65]. In addition to that, in another study investigating the gender factor in leadership, it is stated that women are mostly person‐oriented leaders and men are task‐oriented leaders; however, some leadership behaviors are not affected by gender variable [64].

In some studies, age is considered as a factor which affects the leadership styles. In Kearney's study which investigates the impact of leaders' age on their relationship with the employees, it is stated that the relationship is more positive when the leader is older than the employees, but there is no difference when the age of the leader is close to the average age of other employees [67]. In addition, a study in England emphasized that older leaders are more participative than younger leaders [68].

Besides all these studies, it is also known that there are studies which investigate whether the leadership traits are genetic information passed down on generations [69].

## **5. Leadership in healthcare services**

Developments and changes which became widespread with globalization have taken effect in healthcare as well as many other fields [70]. Among the important developments in the field of healthcare in the last century, it is known that drug industry has contributed in improvement of human health and life quality significantly [71]. Drug industry which is one of the prominent sectors especially in terms of use of drugs has various roles such as developer, manufacturer, marketer, and seller in the healthcare sector [72].

Characteristics which distinguish healthcare sector from other sectors are:

– Government which is the biggest buyer in many countries is the most important shareholder in the sector.

– Uncertainties in relation to diseases which are hard to predict.

– Abundance of the components within the sector [drug industry, physicians, pharmacists, government, etc.] [73].

A society with high level of health is accepted as an indicator of the country's strength [74]. Recent studies have revealed the importance of administration in healthcare sector. However, there is still discussion going on what type of administration should be implemented and which traits should the people who will work and lead in these authorities have [75].

There are some incentives to be implemented by organizations in order that leaders, whose administration and leadership traits might provide great benefits and whose mistakes might cause great loss as well, exhibit the correct behaviors. It is known that training activities are carried out intensively in order that especially healthcare professionals can improve them‐ selves [76–79].

Leaders who work in healthcare services are required to show their visions with their behaviors, not with their words. If these leaders fail to adapt to change, employees cannot be expected to do so [80]. Administrators who work in the healthcare sector which is an indispensable field are required to improve themselves in terms of their abilities and be more sensitive and attentive than the leaders in other sectors [81]. With the increasing quality of life, the competition between the organizations which provide healthcare services has increased as well. For that reason, organizations need strong leaders to gain competitive advantage over each other [5].

men are task‐oriented leaders; however, some leadership behaviors are not affected by gender

In some studies, age is considered as a factor which affects the leadership styles. In Kearney's study which investigates the impact of leaders' age on their relationship with the employees, it is stated that the relationship is more positive when the leader is older than the employees, but there is no difference when the age of the leader is close to the average age of other employees [67]. In addition, a study in England emphasized that older leaders are more

Besides all these studies, it is also known that there are studies which investigate whether the

Developments and changes which became widespread with globalization have taken effect in healthcare as well as many other fields [70]. Among the important developments in the field of healthcare in the last century, it is known that drug industry has contributed in improvement of human health and life quality significantly [71]. Drug industry which is one of the prominent sectors especially in terms of use of drugs has various roles such as developer, manufacturer,

– Government which is the biggest buyer in many countries is the most important shareholder

– Abundance of the components within the sector [drug industry, physicians, pharmacists,

A society with high level of health is accepted as an indicator of the country's strength [74]. Recent studies have revealed the importance of administration in healthcare sector. However, there is still discussion going on what type of administration should be implemented and

There are some incentives to be implemented by organizations in order that leaders, whose administration and leadership traits might provide great benefits and whose mistakes might cause great loss as well, exhibit the correct behaviors. It is known that training activities are carried out intensively in order that especially healthcare professionals can improve them‐

Leaders who work in healthcare services are required to show their visions with their behaviors, not with their words. If these leaders fail to adapt to change, employees cannot be expected to do so [80]. Administrators who work in the healthcare sector which is an indispensable field are required to improve themselves in terms of their abilities and be more

which traits should the people who will work and lead in these authorities have [75].

leadership traits are genetic information passed down on generations [69].

Characteristics which distinguish healthcare sector from other sectors are:

– Uncertainties in relation to diseases which are hard to predict.

variable [64].

242 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

in the sector.

selves [76–79].

government, etc.] [73].

participative than younger leaders [68].

**5. Leadership in healthcare services**

marketer, and seller in the healthcare sector [72].

There are both national and international studies on leadership within organizations and institutions operating in the healthcare sector. The common ground emphasized in most of these studies is that the values one has become more prominent when it comes to leadership in the field of health.

Whether in administrative staff or not, all healthcare professionals should render services without forgetting that each one of them is a leader. Leadership traits of these people have a meaning when combined with ethical principles. In that respect, it is seen that ethical leadership has a different significance for healthcare services. Among the studies which emphasize the importance of ethical leadership in healthcare services, various propositions are encountered [55]. Correlation between these propositions and healthcare services are as follows:

—Relationship between ethical role modeling and ethical leadership: most of the experienced healthcare professionals also function as instructors. For that reason, it is important in terms of ethical leadership that they act in accordance with ethical rules without forgetting that their behaviors are monitored closely by their followers, patients, and patient relatives.

—Relationship between ethical leadership and an environment supports ethical behavior: since healthcare professionals are trained on ethical rules during their occupational training, they start working as fundamentally equipped in this matter. For that reason, they are more sensitive in understanding ethical and nonethical behavior in their environment than other occupations. This creates an environment which supports ethical behavior.

—Relationship between clarity, conscience, and ethical leadership that healthcare professio‐ nals are able to understand and be clear is quite important in terms of relations with both the students and patients as well as other healthcare professionals. Rendering a quality service and achieving good results will only be possible in this way. It is necessary to stick to ethical principles while doing so.

—Relationship between ethical leadership and using power for others' benefit: utility and no harm principles which are among the most important ethical principles which healthcare professionals comply with provide an indispensable guide for using the power they have in the right way. Thus, the trust between their followers and them is reinforced.

—Relationship between anxiety, fear, pressure, and ethical leadership: it is obligatory that healthcare professionals have the required knowledge and skills to practice their occupation correctly. Otherwise, they approach the cases with anxiety and fear and this results in mistakes. In addition, it is quite important that the healthcare professionals are objective and have the strength to resist to any negative pressure which they might encounter.

Among the studies on the place of leadership in healthcare sector are studies carried out by the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom. NHS within the Ministry of Health of the United Kingdom carries out various studies to investigate the innovations in healthcare services and increase efficiency by providing training to the healthcare sector administrators. In that respect, Healthcare Leadership Model developed by NHS Leadership Academy describes leadership behavior in nine dimensions [82]. These dimensions are as follows:

—Inspiring shared purpose: this dimension focuses on the impact of leadership on creating a shared value in which individuals working on different subjects will believe and which will inspire them. Determining the values to be considered in the service offered is evaluated within the scope of this dimension.

—Leading with care: the way that the emotions of coworkers are affected and the necessities toward focusing their energy on the work are emphasized within this dimension. Elements in relation to creating a safe environment which will ensure that everyone fulfills their task effectively to understand the characteristics and needs of the team are also included in this dimension.

—Evaluating information: as well as elements regarding development of new ideas and understanding what is going on, the importance of making evidence‐based decisions which will be respected by various perspectives is also emphasized within this dimension.

—Connecting our service: in this dimension, the necessity that the leaders understand how the works by different groups are carried out becomes prominent, and the necessity of collaboration between these groups is also mentioned.

—Sharing the vision: the importance of sharing the vision which will ensure that employees believe in the work they carry out is explained in this dimension.

—Engaging the team: in groups where mutual respect is present, the factors related to the contributions that individuals will provide by presenting their ideas are among the subjects discussed in this dimension.

—Holding to account: in this dimension, the importance of employee's being aware of the responsibilities they undertake to achieve the purpose and ensuring the necessary freedoms in this process is included.

—Developing capability: since leadership is a factor which requires continuity, the importance of improving the abilities these people have is emphasized in this dimension.

In conclusion, competition in the healthcare sector has increased as a result of raising awareness of the public on healthy life right which is one of fundamental rights of individuals and their demands in that direction. For that reason, companies need administrators who can take them forward and lead them to gain competition advantage and meet the demand. In addition, it is quite important that leaders, who have the ability to guide people, have ethical leadership qualities primarily for setting an example for people who follow them and show the accuracy and honesty in their actions. When considered especially in terms of healthcare sector, it is important that administrators with leadership qualities exhibit ethical behaviors.

## **Author details**

of the United Kingdom carries out various studies to investigate the innovations in healthcare services and increase efficiency by providing training to the healthcare sector administrators. In that respect, Healthcare Leadership Model developed by NHS Leadership Academy describes leadership behavior in nine dimensions [82]. These dimensions are as follows:

—Inspiring shared purpose: this dimension focuses on the impact of leadership on creating a shared value in which individuals working on different subjects will believe and which will inspire them. Determining the values to be considered in the service offered is evaluated within

—Leading with care: the way that the emotions of coworkers are affected and the necessities toward focusing their energy on the work are emphasized within this dimension. Elements in relation to creating a safe environment which will ensure that everyone fulfills their task effectively to understand the characteristics and needs of the team are also included in this

—Evaluating information: as well as elements regarding development of new ideas and understanding what is going on, the importance of making evidence‐based decisions which

—Connecting our service: in this dimension, the necessity that the leaders understand how the works by different groups are carried out becomes prominent, and the necessity of

—Sharing the vision: the importance of sharing the vision which will ensure that employees

—Engaging the team: in groups where mutual respect is present, the factors related to the contributions that individuals will provide by presenting their ideas are among the subjects

—Holding to account: in this dimension, the importance of employee's being aware of the responsibilities they undertake to achieve the purpose and ensuring the necessary freedoms

—Developing capability: since leadership is a factor which requires continuity, the importance

In conclusion, competition in the healthcare sector has increased as a result of raising awareness of the public on healthy life right which is one of fundamental rights of individuals and their demands in that direction. For that reason, companies need administrators who can take them forward and lead them to gain competition advantage and meet the demand. In addition, it is quite important that leaders, who have the ability to guide people, have ethical leadership qualities primarily for setting an example for people who follow them and show the accuracy and honesty in their actions. When considered especially in terms of healthcare sector, it is important that administrators with leadership qualities exhibit ethical

of improving the abilities these people have is emphasized in this dimension.

will be respected by various perspectives is also emphasized within this dimension.

collaboration between these groups is also mentioned.

believe in the work they carry out is explained in this dimension.

the scope of this dimension.

244 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

discussed in this dimension.

in this process is included.

behaviors.

dimension.

Bilge Sözen Şahne1\* and Sevgi Şar2

\*Address all correspondence to: bilgesozen@yahoo.com

1 Department of Pharmacy Management, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

2 Department of Pharmacy Management, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

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http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65308

#### **Abstract**

The nursing literature, until recently presents the phenomenon of leadership as associated with nurse executives and formal leadership roles. That is leadership is defined in terms of an interactive process where followers are motivated and empow‐ ered to accomplish specific goals. The purpose of this chapter is to present the phenomena of nursing clinical leadership and leadership at the bedside, which is a new area of research in nursing. This chapter proposes that leadership is not merely linked to top management levels, but it can be developed and implemented at bedside for nurses. Clinical leadership skills focus on patients and healthcare teams rather than formal leadership position. In addition, clinical leadership relates to nursing professio‐ nal activities, which provide direct care at bedside, which differs from the traditional nursing leadership notion. Thus, acquiring clinical leadership skills is crucial for nurses who provide direct patient care. This allows nurses to direct and support patients and healthcare teams when providing care. Furthermore, it is crucial that nurses develop an effective leadership role to deliver high‐quality care and ensure patient safety while engaging in numerous daily leadership roles. Moreover, it emphasized the importance of the cooperation between nursing education programs and healthcare organizations in preparing nurses to be effective leaders by 2020 for the new era of health care.

**Keywords:** nursing, clinical, leadership, clinical leadership

### **1. Introduction**

Healthcare systems worldwide are facing number of complex and multifaceted challenges in providing high quality, safe, and cost effective care into the future [1]. The ever‐evolving systems, increased patients' disease acuity, technology innovation, and the increase in the costs of health care are some of the problems that need to be addressed. Therefore, it is a priority to sustain and improve the quality of care provided, which in turn may lead to a shift in

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

healthcare delivery, an alteration in healthcare models, and the role that all healthcare members play [2]. Being a leader in the healthcare professions is crucial in the continuum of care era. Leaders are challenged on a daily base with problems that need to be solved utilizing critical thinking. Leaders make key decisions that may have consequences, which can impact patient lives. Specifically, leadership in health care is a fundamental skill that allows healthcare providers navigate the complex and ever changing healthcare system effectively in solving problems and making decisions related to issues from cost to quality healthcare services and access [3]. Hence, it is essential that leaders are well equipped and trained to make the appropriate decisions at the right time [4].

The concept of leadership is significant to the nursing profession. There is no dearth of literature that discusses leadership in nursing [5–7]. It is crucial that nurses develop an effective leadership role to deliver high‐quality care and, therefore, ensure patient safety [8], while engaging in numerous daily leadership roles. Although, the phenomenon of nursing leader‐ ship was studied in the past six decades of the twentieth century, it continues to be current and of crucial importance [9]. Oliver [7] stated that "the word 'leader' has developed from the root meaning of a path, road or course of a ship at sea. According to Adair [10] it is a 'journey word' (p. 39). In addition, an integrative literature review stated that the current research in the leadership field is taking a more holistic view of leadership, examining the occurrence of the process of leadership and examining leadership in numerous ways [11].

This chapter presents some of the basic definitions of leadership, nursing leadership, nursing clinical leadership, and leadership at the bedside. It will also discuss the impact of nursing clinical leadership, characteristics of an effective nurse clinical leader, and the factors that contribute to nursing clinical leadership. Furthermore, this chapter provides an overview of nurses that must be equipped with leadership skills in order to be able to lead the delivery of patient care and improve patient safety. In addition, it discusses methods of preparing nursing leaders.

## **2. Definition of leadership**

A leader is a person that others follow voluntary and willingly. In 1959, Bennis [12] defined leadership as the process by which an individual influence a follower to behave in a desired manner. Kouzes and Posner [13] defined leadership as, "the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared aspirations" (p. 30). Additionally, Ledlow and Coppols (p.13) [3] defined leadership as "the ability to assess, develop, maintain, and change the organizational culture and strategic system to optimally meet the needs and expectations of the external environ‐ ment". Leadership is mainly about developing a vision and allowing individuals to work toward change. It involves creating a shared mission; tackle political, organizational, and resource barriers; and inspiring and motivating others [14].

Leadership is defined as influence and it includes the use of interpersonal skills to induce others to achieve a specific goal [15]. Furthermore, leadership is defined as the art of influencing others to strive voluntary and enthusiastically toward the achievement of goals [16]. According to Roussel et al. [17] (p. 165), leadership is "the process of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts towards goal setting and goal achievements". Furthermore, "a leader must be an effective trustworthy advocate that inspires courageous action by using 2‐way commu‐ nication to interpret needs of all included in the environment" (p. 320) [18]. Spector [19] states that leadership is the process of influencing other people attitudes and behaviors. Leadership is mainly about influencing others to accomplish a shared goal.

Leadership has been have investigated by many scholars, as it is evidenced by the plethora of definitions that exist. It is apparent that there is no single accurate definition of leadership. However, these definitions may help to get to a better understanding of the leadership phenomenon and offer various viewpoints of the concept and the factor that may influence leadership [20, 21].

## **3. Leadership in nursing**

healthcare delivery, an alteration in healthcare models, and the role that all healthcare members play [2]. Being a leader in the healthcare professions is crucial in the continuum of care era. Leaders are challenged on a daily base with problems that need to be solved utilizing critical thinking. Leaders make key decisions that may have consequences, which can impact patient lives. Specifically, leadership in health care is a fundamental skill that allows healthcare providers navigate the complex and ever changing healthcare system effectively in solving problems and making decisions related to issues from cost to quality healthcare services and access [3]. Hence, it is essential that leaders are well equipped and trained to make the

The concept of leadership is significant to the nursing profession. There is no dearth of literature that discusses leadership in nursing [5–7]. It is crucial that nurses develop an effective leadership role to deliver high‐quality care and, therefore, ensure patient safety [8], while engaging in numerous daily leadership roles. Although, the phenomenon of nursing leader‐ ship was studied in the past six decades of the twentieth century, it continues to be current and of crucial importance [9]. Oliver [7] stated that "the word 'leader' has developed from the root meaning of a path, road or course of a ship at sea. According to Adair [10] it is a 'journey word' (p. 39). In addition, an integrative literature review stated that the current research in the leadership field is taking a more holistic view of leadership, examining the occurrence of the

This chapter presents some of the basic definitions of leadership, nursing leadership, nursing clinical leadership, and leadership at the bedside. It will also discuss the impact of nursing clinical leadership, characteristics of an effective nurse clinical leader, and the factors that contribute to nursing clinical leadership. Furthermore, this chapter provides an overview of nurses that must be equipped with leadership skills in order to be able to lead the delivery of patient care and improve patient safety. In addition, it discusses methods of preparing nursing

A leader is a person that others follow voluntary and willingly. In 1959, Bennis [12] defined leadership as the process by which an individual influence a follower to behave in a desired manner. Kouzes and Posner [13] defined leadership as, "the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared aspirations" (p. 30). Additionally, Ledlow and Coppols (p.13) [3] defined leadership as "the ability to assess, develop, maintain, and change the organizational culture and strategic system to optimally meet the needs and expectations of the external environ‐ ment". Leadership is mainly about developing a vision and allowing individuals to work toward change. It involves creating a shared mission; tackle political, organizational, and

Leadership is defined as influence and it includes the use of interpersonal skills to induce others to achieve a specific goal [15]. Furthermore, leadership is defined as the art of influencing others to strive voluntary and enthusiastically toward the achievement of goals [16]. According to

process of leadership and examining leadership in numerous ways [11].

resource barriers; and inspiring and motivating others [14].

appropriate decisions at the right time [4].

252 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

leaders.

**2. Definition of leadership**

Leadership has been illustrated in the nursing literature as a difficult and multifaceted process. It includes providing direction and support, motivating, coordinating, collaboration, effective communication, and advocating for patients to achieve optimal patient outcomes [22–24]. In nursing, leadership is showing the followers how things are done, guiding their way, and the course of actions [25].

Additionally, nurses as part of the health intradisciplinary team must be capable of leading in this era of high patient acuity, fast paced, and highly complex environment. The Institute of medicine (IOM) [26] states that nurses must be able to lead interprofessional teams and healthcare systems. Furthermore, studies conducted on nursing leadership have shown the effectiveness of leadership in a nursing role on patient outcomes such as patient safety [23, 27]. According to O'Connor [28], "effective communication is central to leadership in clinical settings" (p. 235). Nursing leadership has been defined as influencing others to improve the quality of care along with the direct participation in clinical care [29].

Leadership in nursing involves an environment that has a clear vision, and where staff are motivated and empowered [30]. Nursing leaders are agents who have followers in the healthcare team [31]. According to Cook and Holt [32], nursing leadership is about having a vision and empowering staff. They also added that nurse leaders must have skills, such as self‐ confidence, valuing others, and being able to build teams effectively. Similarly, Lett [31] defined nursing leadership as providing followers with a vision and empowering others. Leadership is contained in the professional nursing role and practice, as all nurses' roles are leadership roles [21]. However, most often nursing leadership is linked to nurse executives and is less often connected to bedside nursing practice.

In nursing literature, until recently, the leadership phenomenon has reflected the general leadership. That is leadership is defined in terms of an interactive process where followers are motivated and empowered to accomplish specific goals. Nevertheless, leadership is not merely linked to top management levels, but it can be developed and implemented at bedside for nurses. Thus, acquiring clinical leadership skills is crucial for nurses who provide direct patient care. This allows nurses to direct and support patients and healthcare teams when providing care [33].

## **4. Nursing clinical leadership**

Nursing clinical leadership skills focus on clients and healthcare teams such as those advo‐ cating for patients, communicating with the healthcare team, patients, and their families; compared to individuals reporting to and working with a nurse in a formal leadership position. In fact, the nursing profession is very autonomous where it requires nurses to make decisions and take responsibility for their actions [34]. Nurses are at the first level of decision‐making, and granting them independence in this area will help them to form the foundations of leadership in the nursing role.

Nursing leadership at the patient bedside is a new area of research [33, 35–37]. The IOM [38] report discussion increased the interest in clinical leadership at clinical settings due to the emphasis on a nurse's fundamental role in maintaining patients' safety. Additionally, this report stated that nurses are instrumental in providing effective communication between various healthcare disciplines and assuring patient care continuity. Clinical leadership skills focus on patients and healthcare teams rather than formal leadership positions.

According to Patrick et al. [33], clinical leadership is defined as "staff nurse behaviors that provide direction and support to clients and the healthcare team in the delivery of patient care. A clinical leader is a registered nurse who influences and coordinates patients, families and health care teams for the purpose of integrating the care they provide to achieve positive patient outcomes" (p. 450). Based on this definition, all registered nurses are clinical leaders, particularly nurses at the bedside [39]. However, in nursing literature, the concept of nursing clinical leadership is usually associated with nurse executives and formal leadership roles. In fact, nursing leadership is rarely linked to bedside nursing practice leaders [36, 37]. Cook [40] defined a clinical leader as "a nurse directly involved in providing clinical care that continu‐ ously improves care through influencing others" (p. 39). According to Harper [41], a clinical leader is "one who possesses clinical expertise in a specialty practice area and who uses interpersonal skills to enable nurses and other health care providers to deliver quality patient care" (p. 81). According to Patrick et al. [33], five characteristics define clinical leadership skill as follows: clinical expertise, effective communication, collaboration, coordination, and interpersonal understanding. Clinical leaders are experts in their field, effective communica‐ tors, empowered decision makers, clinically knowledgeable and competent, provide a vision, support others, provide guidance to patients and their families, and drive change by providing high‐quality care [31].

Furthermore, Stanley [42] defined a clinical leader as "a clinician who is an expert in [her or his] field, and who, because they are approachable, effective communicators and empowered, are able to act as a role model, motivating others by matching their values and beliefs about nursing and care to their practice" (p. 111). All of these definitions demonstrate that clinical leadership can be at the bedside and clearly does not need to be linked or limited to manage‐ ment or senior levels.

Thus, the concept of nursing clinical leadership relates to nursing professional activities, which provide direct care at bedside, which differs from the traditihe nurse leader's actions at the bedside through professional nursing practice utilizing their clinical skills and also by demonstrating therapeutic relationship between the nurse and patients and the healthcare practitioners. Nurses are accountable for their patients, so it is crucial for nurses to provide constant observation and assessment of patients, to set priorities, work effectively, and efficiently to recognize critical situations, which may necessitate the nurse to monitor the patient closely. Nurses must also make clinical decisions about a required intervention; or, if needed, communicate with other healthcare team members for assistance, support, or guidance; or call the primary healthcare provider. Hence, it is essential that bedside nurses acquire leadership skills to improve patient outcomes and safety through the care provided.

Nurses are considered leaders in providing patient care, as leadership is a key part of effective nursing care. Nurses are the frontline of healthcare delivery, thus, they are pivotal to providing safe, high‐quality care, and assuring positive patient outcomes [43]. Nurses direct, support, and coordinate healthcare teams, families, and patients to maintain patients' health [24]. In fact, nurses are required to be resilient and acquire effective communication skills, such as the capability of influencing others to achieve a shared objective and working toward change.

Nursing clinical leadership includes critical thinking, decision making, action, and advocacy. Nurses in their role at the bedside demonstrate clinical leadership skills by providing, facilitating, and promoting the best possible care for their patients. In addition, nurses at the clinical practice when providing direct client care are expected to show leadership skills when collaborating with healthcare teams. Therefore, there is need for functional nursing clinical leadership at all levels and domains of nursing practice to assure effective collaboration of group to ensure highest quality of care provided.

## **5. The impact of nursing clinical leadership**

nurses. Thus, acquiring clinical leadership skills is crucial for nurses who provide direct patient care. This allows nurses to direct and support patients and healthcare teams when providing

Nursing clinical leadership skills focus on clients and healthcare teams such as those advo‐ cating for patients, communicating with the healthcare team, patients, and their families; compared to individuals reporting to and working with a nurse in a formal leadership position. In fact, the nursing profession is very autonomous where it requires nurses to make decisions and take responsibility for their actions [34]. Nurses are at the first level of decision‐making, and granting them independence in this area will help them to form the foundations of

Nursing leadership at the patient bedside is a new area of research [33, 35–37]. The IOM [38] report discussion increased the interest in clinical leadership at clinical settings due to the emphasis on a nurse's fundamental role in maintaining patients' safety. Additionally, this report stated that nurses are instrumental in providing effective communication between various healthcare disciplines and assuring patient care continuity. Clinical leadership skills

According to Patrick et al. [33], clinical leadership is defined as "staff nurse behaviors that provide direction and support to clients and the healthcare team in the delivery of patient care. A clinical leader is a registered nurse who influences and coordinates patients, families and health care teams for the purpose of integrating the care they provide to achieve positive patient outcomes" (p. 450). Based on this definition, all registered nurses are clinical leaders, particularly nurses at the bedside [39]. However, in nursing literature, the concept of nursing clinical leadership is usually associated with nurse executives and formal leadership roles. In fact, nursing leadership is rarely linked to bedside nursing practice leaders [36, 37]. Cook [40] defined a clinical leader as "a nurse directly involved in providing clinical care that continu‐ ously improves care through influencing others" (p. 39). According to Harper [41], a clinical leader is "one who possesses clinical expertise in a specialty practice area and who uses interpersonal skills to enable nurses and other health care providers to deliver quality patient care" (p. 81). According to Patrick et al. [33], five characteristics define clinical leadership skill as follows: clinical expertise, effective communication, collaboration, coordination, and interpersonal understanding. Clinical leaders are experts in their field, effective communica‐ tors, empowered decision makers, clinically knowledgeable and competent, provide a vision, support others, provide guidance to patients and their families, and drive change by providing

Furthermore, Stanley [42] defined a clinical leader as "a clinician who is an expert in [her or his] field, and who, because they are approachable, effective communicators and empowered, are able to act as a role model, motivating others by matching their values and beliefs about nursing and care to their practice" (p. 111). All of these definitions demonstrate that clinical

focus on patients and healthcare teams rather than formal leadership positions.

care [33].

254 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**4. Nursing clinical leadership**

leadership in the nursing role.

high‐quality care [31].

Nursing clinical leadership is crucial for various reasons. First, clinical nurse leaders play a critical role in sustaining the efficiency, production, and cost‐effectiveness of nursing services [2]. Effective clinical leadership skills empower nurses while providing care with the abilities to direct and support patients and healthcare teams [37]. It also improves the care delivered to patients, which in turn improves patient outcomes. In addition, clinical nursing leadership impacts the safety and quality of care provided [44]. It is indeed vital to highlight the influence that nursing clinical leadership has on patient outcomes. Nurse leaders consider patients' safety as a priority while performing nursing care such as medication management, wound care, infection control, and patient education [45] to achieve optimal patient outcomes.

In their systematic review, Wong et al. [46] found a relationship between nursing leadership practices and patient outcomes. Their findings indicated that effective leadership has been associated to reduced length of stay, lowering rates of medication errors, patient falls, urinary tract infections, and pneumonia. Additionally, the nursing literature proposes that clinical leadership improves the quality of care provided, patient outcomes, and lower patient mortality [47–50]. Nurses who possess clinical leadership skills influence the clinical setting and improve patient safety [37]. Thus, it can be said that clinical leadership serves to achieve safe care and optimal patient outcomes, which emphasizes its importance.

## **6. Characteristics of effective nurse clinical leaders**

A successful nurse clinical leader is one who is a critical thinker, lifelong learner, and open to new ideas. The nurse clinical leader must be knowledgeable, maintain professional growth, and stay current in the profession. In fact, they should be clinically competent and clinically knowledgeable [33, 51]. In addition, leaders must have a vision, the art of knowing how to elect the best from others. In short, thriving leaders make others do their best to accomplish the intended outcome. An effective leader demonstrates confidence, as it is a key leadership skill. Knowing what needs to be done, being proactive and approaching every patient with a confident and competent attitude to improve patient outcomes.

Furthermore, motivating people toward goal‐directed behavior, which in turn contributes to the interest of the organization is of crucial importance. The leader should be able to commu‐ nicate clearly and effectively. Being a good listener is a valuable attribute, as patients and colleagues may talk to the nurse and ask for guidance. Effective leaders use problem‐solving processes by being solution‐focused to improve a situation. The nurse clinical leaders should be empowered decision makers utilizing evidence‐based research to make clinical decisions [33]. Additionally, the effective nurse clinical leader must be authentic by recognizing the strengths and weakness of self and others [52]. This will allow clinical nurse leaders to demonstrate integrity while delivering care through making sound decisions that will create added value to the healthcare team.

An effective nurse clinical leader possesses self‐awareness, which means knowing how to read one's own feelings and how they can affect others. For example, if a nurse is taking care of a patient in a pediatric unit and the mother expresses her concerns that her child did not receive a standard treatment when the nurse had already provided the treatment. The nurse may have mixed emotions such as irritation or anger. In this situation, it is crucial that the nurse identifies these emotions and considers how expressing them would influence the situation. The nurse can recognize her/his feelings by keeping a journal, meditating, or exercising. Additionally, the nurse clinical leader should be accountable, as it will result in better performances.

Time management is also an important skill that the nurse clinical leader should posses in order to organize, plan, and prioritize daily tasks and responsibilities that need to be accom‐ plished for patients. They are also dynamic, empathic, caring, and passionate about their patients' needs and values. In addition, effective nurse clinical leaders have the ability to nurture, inspire others, seek maximum standards, and maintain high‐quality benchmarks. An effective nurse clinical leaders' performance positively influences the outcomes of the health‐ care organization. It also improves the quality of care provided to the patient, which in turn affect quality outcomes [43].

associated to reduced length of stay, lowering rates of medication errors, patient falls, urinary tract infections, and pneumonia. Additionally, the nursing literature proposes that clinical leadership improves the quality of care provided, patient outcomes, and lower patient mortality [47–50]. Nurses who possess clinical leadership skills influence the clinical setting and improve patient safety [37]. Thus, it can be said that clinical leadership serves to achieve

A successful nurse clinical leader is one who is a critical thinker, lifelong learner, and open to new ideas. The nurse clinical leader must be knowledgeable, maintain professional growth, and stay current in the profession. In fact, they should be clinically competent and clinically knowledgeable [33, 51]. In addition, leaders must have a vision, the art of knowing how to elect the best from others. In short, thriving leaders make others do their best to accomplish the intended outcome. An effective leader demonstrates confidence, as it is a key leadership skill. Knowing what needs to be done, being proactive and approaching every patient with a

Furthermore, motivating people toward goal‐directed behavior, which in turn contributes to the interest of the organization is of crucial importance. The leader should be able to commu‐ nicate clearly and effectively. Being a good listener is a valuable attribute, as patients and colleagues may talk to the nurse and ask for guidance. Effective leaders use problem‐solving processes by being solution‐focused to improve a situation. The nurse clinical leaders should be empowered decision makers utilizing evidence‐based research to make clinical decisions [33]. Additionally, the effective nurse clinical leader must be authentic by recognizing the strengths and weakness of self and others [52]. This will allow clinical nurse leaders to demonstrate integrity while delivering care through making sound decisions that will create

An effective nurse clinical leader possesses self‐awareness, which means knowing how to read one's own feelings and how they can affect others. For example, if a nurse is taking care of a patient in a pediatric unit and the mother expresses her concerns that her child did not receive a standard treatment when the nurse had already provided the treatment. The nurse may have mixed emotions such as irritation or anger. In this situation, it is crucial that the nurse identifies these emotions and considers how expressing them would influence the situation. The nurse can recognize her/his feelings by keeping a journal, meditating, or exercising. Additionally, the nurse clinical leader should be accountable, as it will result in better performances.

Time management is also an important skill that the nurse clinical leader should posses in order to organize, plan, and prioritize daily tasks and responsibilities that need to be accom‐ plished for patients. They are also dynamic, empathic, caring, and passionate about their patients' needs and values. In addition, effective nurse clinical leaders have the ability to nurture, inspire others, seek maximum standards, and maintain high‐quality benchmarks. An effective nurse clinical leaders' performance positively influences the outcomes of the health‐

safe care and optimal patient outcomes, which emphasizes its importance.

**6. Characteristics of effective nurse clinical leaders**

confident and competent attitude to improve patient outcomes.

added value to the healthcare team.

256 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Successful nurse clinical leaders are highly motivated, committed to organizational vision, mission, and goals, and thus deliver patient care with greater effectiveness [53]. A clinical nurse leader must be highly committed and focused on teamwork in order to accomplish a common goal. She/he should start with a clear understanding of the destination that the team wants to achieve. An effective nurse clinical leader must develop skills of collaboration, delegation, and conflict resolution that will facilitate her/his work within teams. Successful nurse clinical leaders are honest, trust worthy, and respectful.

Furthermore, nurse clinical leaders are an advocate for patients by providing and promoting the best possible available care. The effective nurse clinical leader will act as a liaison between patients and healthcare teams in advocating for the rights and welfare of patients [54, 55] and by emphasizing the importance of a safe health setting for providing care. The nurse clinical leader will also challenge poor practices and assist patients' access to appropriate healthcare information and allow them to be engaged in decision making of their care [54]. These characteristics are critical for nurse clinical leaders to have, as it will help them to be successful and provide high quality care. Nurses must apply these characteristics to their profession to gain trust and respect of healthcare members and patients, which will in turn direct the development of nursing clinical practice.

## **7. Contributing factors to nursing clinical leadership**

Research evidence indicates that there are various factors, which contribute to nursing clinical leadership skills, such as nurse characteristics, education, and experiences. According to Patrick et al. [33], age affects leadership skills; in this study, there was a weak positive but significant correlation between age and clinical leadership skills (r = 0.14, p < 0.01). Although there are contradictory results in the nursing literature regarding the relationship between age and clinical leadership skills [33, 56–58], studies show that improved clinical leadership skills were associated with older nurses [21, 59].

Furthermore, research shows that education has an effect on clinical leadership skills [21, 59, 60]. A survey was conducted in 2001 to examine chief nursing officers' preferences of recruiting nurses with a baccalaureate degree as opposed to a diploma degree. Seventy‐two percent of these directors stated that there are differences in practice between baccalaureate‐prepared nurses compared to nurses with a diploma degree, as the former have higher clinical leadership skills [61].

Furthermore, it is believed that baccalaureate‐prepared nurses can have better clinical leadership skill compared to diploma‐prepared nurses, as it is required by the Essentials of Baccalaureate Education for Professional Nursing Practice to incorporate leadership content into curricula [62].

In a study conducted by Patrick et al. [33], it was found that leadership experience had a relationship to clinical leadership skill, although small it was significant (r = 0.10, p < 0.05) [33]. This is congruent with Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, in which successful leadership experiences may be translated to different settings [63]. In addition, Wood [64] studied the factors that influence leadership skills and how they interact to facilitate the development of leadership skills and expertise among nurses. Wood reported that personal life factors such as marital status significantly influenced the development of nurses' leadership skills. A review study found that demographic data (marital status, race, and type of nursing degree) significantly affected nurses' leadership [65]. However, this integrative literature review found that there is a gap related to the factors that influence nurses' leadership skills; therefore, there is a need for more research in this area.

## **8. Preparing nursing leaders**

Ninety percent of leadership can be learned [3]. Thus, nursing education is the first line to prepare leaders. To be a nurse leader, nursing students need to be exposed to an environment that provides opportunities to exercise their leadership skills, that is they should encounter actual problems that need solutions [21]. However, nurses are not sufficiently prepared for the leader role throughout their nursing education. This creates a gap between education and the requirements of the clinical practice, which can result in ineffective nursing leadership.

According to Cowin and Hengstberger-Sims [66], it is unrealistic to expect new nurse graduates to be ready to assume leadership role. They will need some time to find out their strengths and weakness, and opportunities to allow them to discover themselves. This will occur through job training, mentorship, and residency programs. These programs can offer the new graduate nurses' experiences that will allow them to incorporate essential leadership skills into their clinician role. And this will improve patient safety and outcomes, because there is a direct relationship between leadership and quality of care provided [35, 36, 67]. According to AL-Dossary et al. [37], nurse residency programs equip new gradate nurses to transition from the student roles to become independent practitioners and bedside leaders. In addition, residency programs help to improve the new graduate nurses' leadership skills [43]. In fact, "*residency programs can offer the new graduate nurses experiences that will allow them to incorporate essential leadership skills into their clinician role*" (p. 156) [37].

Hence, nursing educators should enhance students' personal and professional leadership opportunities. In addition, they should encourage the leader role within their field as nurses and the community. It is imperative that nursing education programs and healthcare organizations unite to prepare nurses to be effective leaders by 2020. This can happen through improving the communication between academia and healthcare organizations to address the academic-practice gap. As a matter of fact, there should be partnerships between nursing schools and healthcare agencies to support new graduate nurses' transition process, which is traditionally extremely stressful [37].

In addition, it is significant that the essential skill sets that a nurse clinical leader will need to be identified [68]. This will require formal education and training to be part of most manage‐ ment development programs [69]. Nurses should acquire the following skills: a multidiscipli‐ nary perspective about healthcare and professional nursing issues, technology skills, clinical decision‐making skills, creating organizational cultures that promote quality and patient safety, collaborative and team work skills, and the ability to envision and proactively adapt to a ever changing healthcare system [68].

Therefore, it appears reasonable to come up with a conclusion that the development of nursing clinical leadership should start as early as the first year of nursing education. Emphasizing that leadership is a fundamental part of nursing clinical practice and that all nursing roles include leadership roles. In addition, having clinical leadership skills will be a predictor of many new graduates success in the ever‐changing healthcare systems [70].

### **9. Summary**

In a study conducted by Patrick et al. [33], it was found that leadership experience had a relationship to clinical leadership skill, although small it was significant (r = 0.10, p < 0.05) [33]. This is congruent with Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, in which successful leadership experiences may be translated to different settings [63]. In addition, Wood [64] studied the factors that influence leadership skills and how they interact to facilitate the development of leadership skills and expertise among nurses. Wood reported that personal life factors such as marital status significantly influenced the development of nurses' leadership skills. A review study found that demographic data (marital status, race, and type of nursing degree) significantly affected nurses' leadership [65]. However, this integrative literature review found that there is a gap related to the factors that influence nurses' leadership skills; therefore, there is a need

Ninety percent of leadership can be learned [3]. Thus, nursing education is the first line to prepare leaders. To be a nurse leader, nursing students need to be exposed to an environment that provides opportunities to exercise their leadership skills, that is they should encounter actual problems that need solutions [21]. However, nurses are not sufficiently prepared for the leader role throughout their nursing education. This creates a gap between education and the requirements of the clinical practice, which can result in ineffective nursing leadership.

According to Cowin and Hengstberger-Sims [66], it is unrealistic to expect new nurse graduates to be ready to assume leadership role. They will need some time to find out their strengths and weakness, and opportunities to allow them to discover themselves. This will occur through job training, mentorship, and residency programs. These programs can offer the new graduate nurses' experiences that will allow them to incorporate essential leadership skills into their clinician role. And this will improve patient safety and outcomes, because there is a direct relationship between leadership and quality of care provided [35, 36, 67]. According to AL-Dossary et al. [37], nurse residency programs equip new gradate nurses to transition from the student roles to become independent practitioners and bedside leaders. In addition, residency programs help to improve the new graduate nurses' leadership skills [43]. In fact, "*residency programs can offer the new graduate nurses experiences that will allow them to incorporate essential*

Hence, nursing educators should enhance students' personal and professional leadership opportunities. In addition, they should encourage the leader role within their field as nurses and the community. It is imperative that nursing education programs and healthcare organizations unite to prepare nurses to be effective leaders by 2020. This can happen through improving the communication between academia and healthcare organizations to address the academic-practice gap. As a matter of fact, there should be partnerships between nursing schools and healthcare agencies to support new graduate nurses' transition process, which is

for more research in this area.

258 Contemporary Leadership Challenges

**8. Preparing nursing leaders**

*leadership skills into their clinician role*" (p. 156) [37].

traditionally extremely stressful [37].

This chapter focused on the definition of leadership, nursing leadership, and nursing clinical leadership. It also discussed the impact of nursing clinical leadership, characteristics of an effective nurse clinical leader, and the factors that contribute to nursing clinical leadership. There was specific emphasis on clinical leadership as it applies to the bedside and does not need to be linked or limited to management or senior levels. This chapter also provided the reader with an overview of the leadership skills that nurses must be equipped with in order to be able to lead the delivery of patient care and improve patient safety. It also presented the impact of nursing clinical leadership on patients' outcomes. In addition, it discussed preparing nursing leaders for the new era of health care and how nursing education and healthcare systems should work together to prepare nurses who are able to face the new healthcare challenges.

## **Author details**

Reem Nassar AL‐Dossary

Address all correspondence to: rnaldosari@uod.edu.sa

College of Nursing, University of Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia

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## *Edited by Aida Alvinius*

Social and behavioral science has for decades studied and recognized leadership as a social exchange between leaders and followers. But leadership is rather complex, and as such, it tends to lead to an increased interest within and across different disciplines. This book is an attempt to provide theoretical and empirical framework to better understand leadership challenges in various contexts. The authors cover an array of themes that span from an individual level to an organizational and societal level. In this volume, two sections are presented. The first section based on individual level focuses on different leadership styles and abilities, and the other section provides theories to understand leadership in public administration, in industrial settings and in nonprofit organizations.

Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Contemporary

Leadership Challenges

*Edited by Aida Alvinius*

Photo by Liufuyu / iStock