Mg//Ppy: cell area assumed 1.1 cm2 .

for the transport of ions via Lewis acid-base interactions between the O/OH groups on the surface of the filler and the ionic species. Dissanayake et al. [39] and Jayathilaka et al. [40] have demonstrated this concept through the conductivity enhancement of the electrolytes with the

Transference number is a parameter indicating as to how much an ionic species contribute to the overall conductivity of the electrolyte. Knowing the transference number, one can tell whether the major contributor towards the conductivity is the cation or anion. It can be expected and proven that chitosan-based polymer electrolytes are ionic conductors. Osman et al. [22] reported that the conductivity of a chitosan electrolyte comprising LiCF3SO3 as the ion source and ethylene carbonate (EC) as the plasticizer was in the order of 10−3 S m−1. The ionic transference number obtained was 0.9. Aziz et al. [31] also measured the TN of PhCh-

Although these electrolytes are ionic conductors, it is vital to know, for some applications, whether the major contributor to the overall conductivity is the cation or anion. Work on this aspect for Ch- and PhCh-based electrolytes is scarce although there are some reports on the subject [41]. For battery application, it is appreciated that these electrolytes be major cationic

Ch and PhCh have been used to host ionic conductivity in batteries, supercapacitors, dyesensitized photovoltaics and fuel cells. Critical review on Ch as integrative biomaterial for microdevices has been done by Koev et al. [42]. Here, we discuss application of the Ch and

Some battery characteristics fabricated with Ch-based electrolytes are listed in **Table 2**.

Jia et al. [46] developed a Ch electrolyte that was incorporated with a biocompatible choline nitrate [Chl][NO3] ionic liquid that possessed negligible vapour pressure, low viscosity and flammability as well as high ionic conductivity and electrochemical stability. They have demonstrated a compact bio-battery system with the use of this thin-film gel chitosan-choline nitrate electrolyte. A magnesium alloy anode and a polypyrrole-para(toluene sulfonic acid) cathode were used. Some characteristics of the cell are listed in **Table 3**. It was reported that

/I3− redox mediators, I−

transport

addition of fillers.

NH4SCN.

**3. Transference number measurement (TNM)**

308 Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides

conductors and for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCCs) with I−

is more important than the cation transport.

**4. Application in electrochemical devices**

PhCh materials in the electrochemical devices.

the gel electrolyte was also mechanically robust.

**4.1. Chitosan in batteries**

**Table 2.** Battery characteristics, electrolyte conductivity, open circuit voltage (*V*oc), capacity (*Q*) and power density (*P*).


**Table 3.** Material characteristics for DMFC.

Apart for application as host for ionic conductors, chitosan was also used as a binder material for battery cathodes. Prasanna et al. [47] have investigated the potential of Ch as a binder material for the fabrication of cathode in lithium ion batteries. The cathode-active material was LiFePO4. The cathode fabricated with chitosan binder showed a high ionic conductivity compared to the LiFePO4 cathode with poly(vinylidene difluoride) binder. The lithium ion cell fabricated with the cathode using chitosan binder also exhibited a discharge capacity higher than the cell with poly(vinylidene difluoride) binder by ~32 mAh g−1 . The capacity retention after 30 cycles for the cell with chitosan binder was ~98.4% and that of the cell with PVDF binder was ~85%.

## **4.2. Chitosan in electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs)**

Arof et al. [48] have prepared an electrolyte for electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) study. The electrolyte comprised a chitosan/iota (i)-carrageenan-blended polymer with H3PO4 as the proton source and plasticized with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). The highest conducting sample has conductivity of 6.29 × 10−2 S m−1 at room temperature. This electrolyte contained equal amounts of chitosan and i-carrageenan (37.5% by weight), 18.75 wt.% H3PO4 and 6.25 wt.% PEG. This electrolyte was used as separator cum electrolyte in an EDLC. The discharge showed stability for 30 cycles.

Apart from being used to host ionic conduction, chitosan has been used to produce activated carbon (AC) [49]. The AC has high specific surface area of ≈ 3500 m2 g−1. This is higher than the surface area of AC derived from durian shell [45]. The EDLC fabricated with the chitosanbased AC exhibited a capacitance of 338 F g−1 at 2 mV s−1 scan rate. The charge-discharge curves showed an inverted 'V' shape indicating excellent EDLC performance.

Izabela Stepniak et al. [7] have prepared a Ch/chitin-based membrane for use in an EDLC. To enable the membrane to host Li+ ion conduction, the membrane was soaked in lithium acetate (LiOAc) solution. The researchers also fabricated an EDLC with Ch-LiOAc electrolyte for comparison. The specific discharge capacitances of the EDLCs with films of Ch/chitin and Ch were 96 and 87 F g−1, respectively. On comparing the first and 10,000th charge/discharge characteristics for the EDLC with the Ch/chitin membrane, it was observed that the device showed excellent capacity retention. The inverted 'V' shape of the charge/discharge curves and the almost 'rectangular' shape of the cyclic voltammogram of the EDLC with Ch/chitin membrane confirm the excellent symbiotic nature among the materials in the cell. From this work, it can be inferred that Ch has potential for use as a host material in EDLC electrolyte. Its performance can be improved by blending with chitin extracted from Ianthella basta sponge.

#### **4.3. Chitosan in polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs)**

Application of chitosan electrolyte in fuel cells is a demanding task. Chitosan is receiving a lot of attention as materials for bioelectrolytes and electrodes [45]. Membrane is the core component of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs). The search for low-cost, efficient and stable polymer electrolyte has led researchers to study the chitosan biopolymer electrolyte as alternative candidate for possible production of cheaper fuel cells. Vaghari et al. [51] have written an informative review on the use of chitosan-based electrolytes for fuel cells.

Glutaraldehyde cross-linked N-[(2-hydroxy-3-trimethyl-ammonium) propyl] chitosan chloride was blended with crosslinked quaternized PVA [18]. Quaternized PVA has a low mechanical strength and blending with the chitosan derivative improved their performance.

Majid and Arof [52] have applied chitosan-based electrolytes in PEFCs. The electrolyte systems comprise Ch, H3PO4 and Al2SiO5. The open-circuit voltage of the PEFCs was 0.9 V and the room temperature current density was greater than 200 A m−2. This again showed that chitosan can be used to host ionic conductivity for fuel cell application.

Wan et al. [53] studied the ionic conductivity of chitosan electrolytes with different molecular weights and degree of deacetylation. They have proposed that chitosan can be used as electrolyte material for alkaline fuel cells.

Wang et al. [54] have incorporated quaternized chitosan with polystyrene. Tensile strength improved and the composite also showed better tolerance to bases. However, ionic conductivity decreased with polystyrene content.

A good direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) should be fabricated with a polymer electrolyte membrane that only allows a low methanol permeability. Nafion membrane allows a high methanol crossover. Chitosan with desirable proton conductivity has been used in DMFCs [55]. The chitosan electrolyte was added with salt and plasticized for conductivity enhancement [56]. However, excessive water uptake can make the membranes fragile and less robust for fuel cell application. **Table 3** lists some materials based on chitosan for DMFC.

In **Table 3**, PCh-G1h is a blend of poly(vinyl alcohol) and chitosan with PVA/Ch weight ratio of 90/10 cross-linked in glutaraldehyde for 1 h [57]. Cs2-PTA is Cs2HPW12O40. Ch/Cs2-PTA-5 wt.% is chitosan doped with 5 wt.% caesium phototungstate salt [49]. Ch flakes [58] were prepared from chitin. The power density of the DMFC with the chitosan flakes is 27.78 W m−2. The Ch/15 wt.% mordenite/30 wt.% sorbitol/60 was prepared at 60°C [59]. The hybrid membrane in [60] consisted of Ch and –SO3H-modified zeolite. Data shown are for 2.0 mol L−1 methanol concentration. Methanol permeability was observed to increase with the decrease in zeolite size for the zeolite-filled chitosan membranes as reported in [61]. Ch/PMA [62] was prepared by adding phosphomolybdic acid chitosan, both in solution form. The methanol permeability is about one order of magnitude less than that of Nafion 117. Ch was blended in poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) or PVP (Ch:PVP of 4:1). The polymer blend was cross-linked with glutaraldehyde and sulphuric acid to form GS-Ch/PVP [63]. ChGS-12 is a structurally modified chitosan membrane that was developed by the authors [64]. In ChGS-12/Nafion 112 membrane, two layers of ChGS-12 were coated on Nafion 112 in order to synergize the low methanol permeability of ChGS-12 with the higher proton conductivity of Nafion 112. ChGS-12 is chitosan cross-linked with glutaraldehyde and sulfosuccinic acid. The maximum output power density of the DMFC was 662.5 W m−2. SHNT [65] are halloysite nanotubes bearing sulphonate polyelectrolyte brushes. SHNT was incorporated in Ch matrix. The proton conductivity of CS/SHNT increases with SHNT content.

#### **4.4. Chitosan in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs)**

**4.2. Chitosan in electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs)**

carbon (AC) [49]. The AC has high specific surface area of ≈ 3500 m2

showed an inverted 'V' shape indicating excellent EDLC performance.

**4.3. Chitosan in polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs)**

be used to host ionic conductivity for fuel cell application.

sample has conductivity of 6.29 × 10−2

310 Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides

showed stability for 30 cycles.

enable the membrane to host Li+

Arof et al. [48] have prepared an electrolyte for electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) study. The electrolyte comprised a chitosan/iota (i)-carrageenan-blended polymer with H3PO4 as the proton source and plasticized with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). The highest conducting

equal amounts of chitosan and i-carrageenan (37.5% by weight), 18.75 wt.% H3PO4 and 6.25 wt.% PEG. This electrolyte was used as separator cum electrolyte in an EDLC. The discharge

Apart from being used to host ionic conduction, chitosan has been used to produce activated

surface area of AC derived from durian shell [45]. The EDLC fabricated with the chitosanbased AC exhibited a capacitance of 338 F g−1 at 2 mV s−1 scan rate. The charge-discharge curves

Izabela Stepniak et al. [7] have prepared a Ch/chitin-based membrane for use in an EDLC. To

(LiOAc) solution. The researchers also fabricated an EDLC with Ch-LiOAc electrolyte for comparison. The specific discharge capacitances of the EDLCs with films of Ch/chitin and Ch were 96 and 87 F g−1, respectively. On comparing the first and 10,000th charge/discharge characteristics for the EDLC with the Ch/chitin membrane, it was observed that the device showed excellent capacity retention. The inverted 'V' shape of the charge/discharge curves and the almost 'rectangular' shape of the cyclic voltammogram of the EDLC with Ch/chitin membrane confirm the excellent symbiotic nature among the materials in the cell. From this work, it can be inferred that Ch has potential for use as a host material in EDLC electrolyte. Its performance can be improved by blending with chitin extracted from Ianthella basta sponge.

Application of chitosan electrolyte in fuel cells is a demanding task. Chitosan is receiving a lot of attention as materials for bioelectrolytes and electrodes [45]. Membrane is the core component of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs). The search for low-cost, efficient and stable polymer electrolyte has led researchers to study the chitosan biopolymer electrolyte as alternative candidate for possible production of cheaper fuel cells. Vaghari et al. [51] have

Glutaraldehyde cross-linked N-[(2-hydroxy-3-trimethyl-ammonium) propyl] chitosan chloride was blended with crosslinked quaternized PVA [18]. Quaternized PVA has a low mechanical strength and blending with the chitosan derivative improved their performance.

Majid and Arof [52] have applied chitosan-based electrolytes in PEFCs. The electrolyte systems comprise Ch, H3PO4 and Al2SiO5. The open-circuit voltage of the PEFCs was 0.9 V and the room temperature current density was greater than 200 A m−2. This again showed that chitosan can

written an informative review on the use of chitosan-based electrolytes for fuel cells.

S m−1 at room temperature. This electrolyte contained

ion conduction, the membrane was soaked in lithium acetate

g−1. This is higher than the

Some examples of dye-sensitized solar cells using chitosan-based electrolytes are listed in **Table 4**.

EMImSCN is 1-ethyl 3-methylimidazolium thiocyanate ionic liquid. It has low viscosity. DSSC with 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide (BMII) used anthocyanin dye as the sensitizer.

As in studies on lithium ion batteries, chitosan was also used as a binder in TiO2 photoelectrode of the DSSCs. The chitosan-based TiO2 paste was prepared by mixing nano-TiO2 particles in a chitosan colloidal solution [71]. The dye used was N719 or Ru(dcbpy)2(NCS)2 and the concentration was 0.5 mmol L−1 ethanol. The electrolyte comprised 1,2-dimethyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide with the I− /I3− redox mediator. The DSSC also contained 2.0% by weight of chitosan in the photoanode and exhibited the highest photon conversion efficiency of 4.16%. The Voc, Jsc and FF were 0.69 V, 10.15 mA cm−2 and 0.59, respectively. The amount of chitosan in the photoanode influences the efficiency.


ABR: anthocyanin from black rice; ARC: anthocyanin from red cabbage; MP: mangosteen peel.

\*1: in hydrochloric acid

\*2: in tartaric acid

**Table 4.** Some characteristics of DSSCs with chitosan-based electrolytes.

Maiaugree et al. [70] studied DSSCs using an organic disulphide/thiolate solution as the electrolyte. The advantages of this electrolyte are its high transmittance and low corrosiveness. These authors have compared counter-electrodes of Pt, PEDOT-PSS and mangosteen peel carbon. DSSCs were also fabricated using these CEs, but liquid I2/NaI electrolyte.

## **5. Summary**

um iodide with the I−

11 wt.% chitosan-9 wt.% NH4I-80

wt.% BMII

wt. % BMII

% BMII

LiI:I2

wt.% TPAI-1.44 wt.% I2

PhCh:EC:PC:TPAI:LiI:I2 15.82:31.65:31.65:15.82:3.16:1.90

PhCh:EC:PC:TPAI:LiI:I2 15.82:31.65:31.65:12.66:6.33:1.90

PhCh:EC:PC:TPAI:LiI:I2 15.82:31.65:31.65:9.49:9.49:1.90

PhCh:EC:PC:TPAI:LiI:I2 15.82:31.65:31.65:6.33:12.66:1.90

\*1: in hydrochloric acid \*2: in tartaric acid

PhCh:EC:PC:TPAI:

15.82:31.65:31:65: 18.99:0.00:1.90

photoanode influences the efficiency.

312 Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides

11 wt.% (chitosan:PEO, wt. ratio 30:70)-9 wt.% NH4I-80

11 wt.% (phthaloyl chitosan:PEO, wt. ratio 30:70)-9 wt.% NH4I-80 wt.

12.02 wt.% phthaloyl chitosan-36.06 wt.% EC-36.06 wt.% DMF-14.42

/I3− redox mediator. The DSSC also contained 2.0% by weight of chitosan

**−2)** 

ABR 0.90 0.36 0.15 [68]

ARC\*2 2.52 0.40 0.39 [68]

ARC\*2 3.50 0.34 0.46 [68]

N3 12.72 0.60 5.00 [30]

N719 7.38 0.72 3.50 [69]

N719 6.33 0.80 3.61 [69]

N719 7.25 0.77 3.71 [69]

N719 3.64 0.75 2.04 [69]

N719 3.64 0.70 1.77 [69]

*V***oc (V)** *η* **(%) References**

in the photoanode and exhibited the highest photon conversion efficiency of 4.16%. The Voc, Jsc and FF were 0.69 V, 10.15 mA cm−2 and 0.59, respectively. The amount of chitosan in the

chitosan:NaI/I2 – 1.05 0.35 0.13 [67] chitosan:NaI/I2 +150 wt.% EMImSCN – 2.62 0.53 0.73 [67]

11 wt.% chitosan-9 wt.% NH4I-80 wt.% BMII ARC\*1 1.59 0.45 0.29 [68] 11 wt.% chitosan-9 wt.% NH4I-80 wt.% BMII ARC\*2 2.09 0.62 0.38 [68]

11 wt.% phthaloyl chitosan-9 wt.% NH4I-80 wt.% BMII ARC\*2 3.47 0.36 0.43 [68]

disulphide/thiolate MP 4.72 0.57 1.47 [70] disulphide/thiolate MP 3.88 0.58 0.60 [70] disulphide/thiolate MP 8.70 0.60 2.63 [70] I2/NaI MP 5.40 0.62 1.75 [70] I2/NaI MP 4.33 0.58 0.88 [70]

ABR: anthocyanin from black rice; ARC: anthocyanin from red cabbage; MP: mangosteen peel.

**Table 4.** Some characteristics of DSSCs with chitosan-based electrolytes.

**Electrolyte Dye** *J***sc (mA cm**

As a summary, chitosan and its derivatives have potential for use as electrolytes or binders or as a source for activated carbon. We have given some examples of such uses in this article. Chitosan is a material useful for green technology.

## **Author details**

Zurina Osman\* and Abdul Kariem Arof

\*Address all correspondence to: zurinaosman@um.edu.my

Centre for Ionics University of Malaya, Physics Department, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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## *Edited by Emad A. Shalaby*

Marine organisms have been under research for the last decades as a source for different active compounds with various biological activities and application in agriculture, pharmacy, medicine, environment, and industries. Marine polysaccharides from these active compounds are used as antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, bioremediations, etc. During the last three decades, several important factors that control the production of phytoplankton polysaccharides have been identified such as chemical concentrations, temperature, light, etc. The current book includes 14 chapters contributed by experts around the world; the chapters are categorized into three sections: Marine Polysaccharides and Agriculture, Marine Polysaccharides and Biological Activities, and Marine Polysaccharides and Industries.

Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides

Biological Activities and

Application of Marine

Polysaccharides

*Edited by Emad A. Shalaby*

Photo by inusuke / iStock