**4. Summary**

**3.4. Application as optical waveguide**

ablated CR39.

short pulse duration of the excimer laser.

tion in the MFD of the waveguides.

still being carried out.

This section describes the use of laser process to fabricate optical waveguide that can be inte‐ grated into printed circuit board (PCB). Optical polymer materials offer a good aspect in terms of their relatively low cost and compatibility with traditional manufacturing process of PCB. Laser ablation is one of known approaches in processing PCB. The use of excimer laser has been repeatedly reported as it is capable of producing high‐quality micromachining, which is sometimes ascribed as "cold ablation," which is possibly due to the UV absorption and the

**Figure 11.** Microscope images of (a) internal modification, (b) ablation of CR39, and (inset) cross‐sectional view of

370 Applications of Laser Ablation - Thin Film Deposition, Nanomaterial Synthesis and Surface Modification

**Figure 12** shows the near‐field image of one of the fabricated CR39 waveguides. The fabricated waveguides are observed to be faintly guided due to the light which is not well confined in the core, marked by the crosshair. The guiding characteristic of waveguide in which the largest refractive index variation measured is <0.07% for the range of fluence is verified as in **Figure 12**. It portrays that the fluctuations of refractive index caused by the laser fluence leads to a decrease

The higher the variation of refractive index, the stronger the waveguides confinement in which a larger portion of light is being confined in the core and this in turn leads to the reduc‐

The successful direct writing of straight waveguides proves that a positive refractive index reaction of CR39 occurs when irradiated by 244 nm UV laser since refractive index for core must be greater than the surrounding for light guiding by the principle total internal reflec‐ tion. The actual mechanism leading to the variation of the CR39 refractive index is yet to be determined. Nonetheless, we believe that it is caused by the photothermal effect in which the laser energy absorption by the material is converted into heat energy, which in turn leads to the localized modification of its structure and subsequently the refractive index. Nevertheless, further investigation on the origins of refractive index modification in CR39 is

in mode field diameter (MFD) due to better light confinement at the waveguide core.

This study deliberates the CR39 ablation with 248 nm UV laser. The variation in etch depth of craters is measured, and we can determine the fluence from the laser energy and spot size. There will be an increase in etch depth when the laser fluence is altered from 6.3 to 19.0 mJ cm‐2 , respec‐ tively. Fluence threshold for CR39 is determined from the graph is 6 mJ cm‐2 . Refractive index change from 1 × 10‐5 to about 1 × 10‐3 (0.0009–0.065%) is achieved on CR39 by varying the laser fluence from 1.2 to 4.8 KJ/cm<sup>2</sup> , respectively. We suspect that the mechanism responsible for the refractive index change in CR39 by 244 nm laser irradiation is due to photothermal effect where localized heat generated by absorption of 244 nm laser modifies the structure/densified of CR39.
