**2. Metal ecotoxicology**

**1. Introduction**

60 Water Quality

pollution in water or sediment.

**Figure 1.** Sources of metal contamination affecting aquatic ecosystems.

Metals are constantly released in aquatic systems from natural and anthropic sources such as industrial and domestic sewage discharges, mining, farming, electronic waste, anthropic accidents, navigation traffic as well as climate change events like floods (**Figure 1**) [1, 2]. Moreover, metals are easily dissolved in water and are subsequently absorbed by aquatic organisms such as fish and invertebrates inducing a wide range of biological effects, from being essential for living organisms to being lethal, respectively. In spite of the fact that some metals are essential at low concentrations for living organisms, such as (i) micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Co, Mo, Cr, and Se) and (ii) macronutrients (Ca, Mg, Na, P, and S); at higher concentrations, they could induce toxic effects disturbing organisms' growth, metabolism, or reproduction with consequences to the entire trophic chain, including on humans [3]. In addition, the non‐ essential metals such as Pb, Cd, Ni, As, and Hg enhance the overall toxic effect on organisms even at very low concentrations. High levels of metals in the environment could be a hazard for functions of natural ecosystems and human health, due to their toxic effects, long persis‐ tence, bioaccumulative proprieties, and biomagnification in the food chain [4, 5]. In this context, metal pollution is a global problem; therefore, the international regulations demanded for water quality compliance with the quality standards both in surface water or groundwater and in biota [6–9]. Currently, in accordance with the European Water Framework Directive (EU‐WFD, 2000/60/EC), the ecological status of water bodies is assessed based on five biological indicators such as phytoplankton, macrophytes, phytobenthos, benthic invertebrates, and fish alongside with chemical and hydromorphological quality elements. Due to the fact that biota has the ability to accumulate various chemicals, it has been extensively used to measure the effects of metals on aquatic organisms as an essential indicator of water quality [10]. The mollusks [11–14] and fish [3, 15] are the most used organisms as bioindicators of metal
