*4.1.1. Farm and herd characteristics*

All Organic farms were much smaller than the average farm size found by Perea et al. [10] in organic cattle farms located in seven regions of Spain (261.76 vs. 425 ha UAA). With regard to herd size, All Organic farms were also quite similar to Conventional farms and again smaller than the farms studied by [10], with 100.44 vs. 154 livestock units (LU).

The scarce association between land and animals continues to be an unsolved concern [6, 10]. Similarly, the integration of different livestock species is beneficial. In the farms analyzed, the proportion of cattle has been really high – 96%, in line with the findings of Perea et al. [9, 10]. This situation responds to the trend of specialisation and intensification already described [15, 17, 18], with increasing total stocking rates in beef cattle farms from 0.40 to 0.43 LU/ha ([6] conventional farms; and [9, 10]—organic farms) to the current 0.60 LU/ha. The higher mean values observed in this study came from conventional farms (0.70). Both Organic 1 and Organic 2 farms complied with the regional organic rules [29] setting a maximum stocking rate allowed of 0.5 LU/ha.

#### *4.1.2. Reproductive management and performance, and production results*

No major differences were found between farm's groups regarding the reproductive management among groups, since most of arms followed the typical technical reproductive management in extensive ruminants production systems located in semiarid areas, where the low fertility rates compared to other breeds and systems. This is due to the fact that heats are not detected by farmers, there is no heat synchronization, and natural service is the predominant technique used for conception. Only some organic farms showed to apply artificial insemination. Average replacement rate of the sample was close to 12%, similar to that found in *dehesa* beef cattle farms, either conventional: with values ranging from 10 to 12.4% in Extremadura [30–32] or organic: 10.65% in Andalusia [9]. However, values found in the study of Milán et al. [6] were higher: 19.2%. The number of cows per bull was 30.42, lower than the 38.4 found by Milán et al. [6] and similar to the 27 found by López de Torre et al. [31] in conventional cattle farms in the *dehesas* of Extremadura. The implementation of reproductive techniques, such as artificial insemination, was even lower than that found by Milán et al. [6]: 8.5 vs. 4.80%. This divergence in results is due to the fact that they analysed farms rearing autochthonous purebred beef cattle cows. In these cases, livestock is usually registered in the Stud Book of the breeds, and the use of artificial insemination is more widespread, with the aim of rearing offspring of more appreciated genetic potential, and thus obtaining higher incomes through both selling animals as breeding animals and public subsidies.

Despite the lack of significant differences among groups, it is necessary to discuss some topics such as the reproductive calendar due to its importance in the context of uncertain availability of pastures in pasture-based systems, such as those of the Mediterranean basin. In this sense, it is recommended to avoid continuous mating and make it coincide with spring and autumn, the seasons where the availability of local feed resources allows fulfilling an important percentage of animals' nutritional needs at more affordable prices, due to a lower dependence on external feedstuff, whose prices are high and subjected to great volatility. However, also positive externalities can be found from this organization: reduced seasonality in marketing their products, thus obtaining better prices for them at certain times. Many of the farms analysed showed a distribution of mating throughout a year. Thus, the average duration of mating was 10.46 months.

Calves weaned in organic farms had lower weights than those belonging to the Conventional group. This could be due to the following aspects: Firstly, in some of the studies discussed, farms reared only local breeds, whose growing rates are lower. However, in the farms analysed in this study, many cows were either crossed or more efficient breeds, mainly the Limousine breed. Secondly, increased livestock pressure led to intensification and guidance to higher productivity which, among other adaptations, led to the inclusion of more efficient breeds. Thirdly, the rising prices of feed led to the weaning of animals at a younger age (therefore at lower weights), in order to use less feedstuff and thus reduce production costs. Finally, the next link in the food chain prefers younger animals because of their better conversion rates in feedlots. Moreover, less time grazing is usually associated with meat tenderness and lighter colour, which is in line with butchers' preferences. Thus, Organic 2 farms were those that sold more fattened calves per cow, and the age of weaning of these was lower. The latter was due to the fact that calves in Organic 2 farms were weaned before starting the fattening period, which shortened the length of the production cycle at the farm level (period between weaning and sale).

The results relating to calves weaned and sold per cow clearly show how the production of beef cattle in Southwest Europe and in semiarid areas, such as the Mediterranean basin, is mainly focused on the sale of calves at weaning. As a result, the percentage of fattened calves sold has been reduced. This is due to both the lack of infrastructure and the traditions of finishing and slaughtering animals in the Extremadura region [33]. Currently, this fact might have increased due to high feed prices and low farm profitability.

The existence of organic farms without organic products (Organic 1 in the present study) has been reported for more authors in dairy cattle [34], in a mixture of livestock and crop farms [35] and beef cattle [10, 18]. Specifically, Perea et al. [10] reported that only 40.6% of the surveyed organic beef cattle farms marketed calves as organically certified, and to the organic market. Thus, they also noticed that in different areas of Europe (from Norway to the Mediterranean area) the marketing of organic livestock is focused on the sale to conventional feedlots, and their organic stamp does not have market implications (there is a scarce market for these weaned organic animals, and they are not sold at a higher price; see [27]).

#### *4.1.3. Breeds*

**4. Discussion**

*4.1.1. Farm and herd characteristics*

All Organic farms were much smaller than the average farm size found by Perea et al. [10] in organic cattle farms located in seven regions of Spain (261.76 vs. 425 ha UAA). With regard to herd size, All Organic farms were also quite similar to Conventional farms and again smaller

The scarce association between land and animals continues to be an unsolved concern [6, 10]. Similarly, the integration of different livestock species is beneficial. In the farms analyzed, the proportion of cattle has been really high – 96%, in line with the findings of Perea et al. [9, 10]. This situation responds to the trend of specialisation and intensification already described [15, 17, 18], with increasing total stocking rates in beef cattle farms from 0.40 to 0.43 LU/ha ([6] conventional farms; and [9, 10]—organic farms) to the current 0.60 LU/ha. The higher mean values observed in this study came from conventional farms (0.70). Both Organic 1 and Organic 2 farms complied with the regional organic rules [29] setting a maximum stocking rate allowed

No major differences were found between farm's groups regarding the reproductive management among groups, since most of arms followed the typical technical reproductive management in extensive ruminants production systems located in semiarid areas, where the low fertility rates compared to other breeds and systems. This is due to the fact that heats are not detected by farmers, there is no heat synchronization, and natural service is the predominant technique used for conception. Only some organic farms showed to apply artificial insemination. Average replacement rate of the sample was close to 12%, similar to that found in *dehesa* beef cattle farms, either conventional: with values ranging from 10 to 12.4% in Extremadura [30–32] or organic: 10.65% in Andalusia [9]. However, values found in the study of Milán et al. [6] were higher: 19.2%. The number of cows per bull was 30.42, lower than the 38.4 found by Milán et al. [6] and similar to the 27 found by López de Torre et al. [31] in conventional cattle farms in the *dehesas* of Extremadura. The implementation of reproductive techniques, such as artificial insemination, was even lower than that found by Milán et al. [6]: 8.5 vs. 4.80%. This divergence in results is due to the fact that they analysed farms rearing autochthonous purebred beef cattle cows. In these cases, livestock is usually registered in the Stud Book of the breeds, and the use of artificial insemination is more widespread, with the aim of rearing offspring of more appreciated genetic potential, and thus obtaining higher incomes through

Despite the lack of significant differences among groups, it is necessary to discuss some topics such as the reproductive calendar due to its importance in the context of uncertain availability of pastures in pasture-based systems, such as those of the Mediterranean basin. In this sense,

than the farms studied by [10], with 100.44 vs. 154 livestock units (LU).

*4.1.2. Reproductive management and performance, and production results*

both selling animals as breeding animals and public subsidies.

**4.1. Structure**

28 Livestock Science

of 0.5 LU/ha.

The use of autochthonous breeds is a contemporary issue and usually promoted in organic farming. However, the low productivity of the rustic local cows makes it necessary to make use of other breeds that, despite not being autochthonous, are both well adapted to the local conditions and more productive. Thus, in the case of males, the racial distribution was mainly based on Limousine and Charolais breeds. This is a growing trend that responds to the need for productivity and competitiveness that requires specialisation [36]. In the *dehesas* of Extremadura, there has also been a change from Charolais towards Limousine, probably aimed at avoiding problems related to dystocia and the ability of calves to suckle, since farmers perceive that these problems are more frequent when the Charolais breed of animals are reared.

#### **4.2. Economic parameters**

#### *4.2.1. Analysis of fixed capital*

No significant differences were found between the groups of farms studied.

#### *4.2.2. Costs, production and incomes*

It is important to note that expenditure on feedstuff was lower in Organic 1 than in Conventional group when studied per hectare, while differences were found between Organic 1 and the rest of groups when these expenditures were measured per livestock unit. The expenditure on veterinary services and veterinary drugs were also lower in Organic 1 group both per area of land and per livestock unit. However, these differences only were found between Organic 1 and the Conventional group. All Organic group showed to also rely less on these external resources (feedstuff, veterinary services and drugs). However, the expenditure on feed per livestock unit was not statistically different between All Organic and the Conventional group. In general terms, these higher reliance on external resources, and in particular feed and veterinary services and drugs, is consistent with the organic production method, since the use of inputs such as feed must come from the farm itself (or the immediate surroundings), and veterinary drugs are limited to two treatments per adult cow per year, according to [28] and subsequent amendments.

When comparing Conventional and All Organic farms, one can observe very low feed costs in Organic 1 and very high feed costs in Organic 2 farms. This is due to the fact that Organic 2 farms fattened all their calves, and Organic 1, none of theirs. This increases the organic feedstuff purchased, whose price is high: around 30% above the conventional one.

The cost related to veterinary services and medicines shows that in extensive livestock systems of semiarid areas and conditions it is possible to reduce reliance on drugs with no major problems. In fact, conventional low-input farms in this area do not rely significantly on these products due to low stocking rates and dry climate. Also, as the prevalence of infectious diseases is low, it must be mentioned that the health management of organic beef cattle farms in this area is very similar to that carried out in Conventional farms, and it is not based on alternative medicine. In fact organic beef cattle farms also used some veterinary drugs as a preventive measure [17]. Organic 2 farms had higher veterinary costs than Organic 1 farms due to the fact that the transition to the fattening period usually provokes some respiratory and/or intestinal disorders.

use of other breeds that, despite not being autochthonous, are both well adapted to the local conditions and more productive. Thus, in the case of males, the racial distribution was mainly based on Limousine and Charolais breeds. This is a growing trend that responds to the need for productivity and competitiveness that requires specialisation [36]. In the *dehesas* of Extremadura, there has also been a change from Charolais towards Limousine, probably aimed at avoiding problems related to dystocia and the ability of calves to suckle, since farmers perceive that these problems are more frequent when the Charolais breed of ani-

It is important to note that expenditure on feedstuff was lower in Organic 1 than in Conventional group when studied per hectare, while differences were found between Organic 1 and the rest of groups when these expenditures were measured per livestock unit. The expenditure on veterinary services and veterinary drugs were also lower in Organic 1 group both per area of land and per livestock unit. However, these differences only were found between Organic 1 and the Conventional group. All Organic group showed to also rely less on these external resources (feedstuff, veterinary services and drugs). However, the expenditure on feed per livestock unit was not statistically different between All Organic and the Conventional group. In general terms, these higher reliance on external resources, and in particular feed and veterinary services and drugs, is consistent with the organic production method, since the use of inputs such as feed must come from the farm itself (or the immediate surroundings), and veterinary drugs are limited to two treatments per adult cow per year, ac-

When comparing Conventional and All Organic farms, one can observe very low feed costs in Organic 1 and very high feed costs in Organic 2 farms. This is due to the fact that Organic 2 farms fattened all their calves, and Organic 1, none of theirs. This increases the organic feedstuff

The cost related to veterinary services and medicines shows that in extensive livestock systems of semiarid areas and conditions it is possible to reduce reliance on drugs with no major problems. In fact, conventional low-input farms in this area do not rely significantly on these products due to low stocking rates and dry climate. Also, as the prevalence of infectious diseases is low, it must be mentioned that the health management of organic beef cattle farms in this area is very similar to that carried out in Conventional farms, and it is not based on alternative medicine. In fact organic beef cattle farms also used some veterinary drugs as a preventive measure [17]. Organic 2 farms had higher veterinary costs than Organic 1 farms

purchased, whose price is high: around 30% above the conventional one.

No significant differences were found between the groups of farms studied.

mals are reared.

30 Livestock Science

**4.2. Economic parameters**

*4.2.1. Analysis of fixed capital*

*4.2.2. Costs, production and incomes*

cording to [28] and subsequent amendments.

Regarding incomes, it is necessary to increase the market orientation of Organic 1 farms, as they are not providing organic goods to the market, which influences their low economic results. Conversely, the longer productive cycle in Organic 2 farms did not allow them to clearly stand out in terms of income. Finally, the dependence on agricultural subsidies must be addressed as it is a key point for both the organic sector and the extensive beef cattle farms of Mediterranean Europe. The high dependence of this aspect makes it unstable and fragile. In the case of the organic sector, the contribution of the agro-environment subsidies makes them numerically more dependent, which is in contrast with other studies, regardless whether or not they were receiving agricultural subsidies [35, 37, 38].

The lower livestock sales per hectare of UAA and lower gross production in the Organic 1 group can be due to the fact that farms belonging to this group only sold calves at weaning age, and their prices were lower than those of fattened calves. Despite the price of organic fattened calves (marketed by the Organic farms 2 group) being greater, income from the sale of livestock per hectare of UAA was higher in Conventional farms. This was probably due to an extension of the productive cycles in Organic 2 compared to Conventional farms which, in turn, led to a reduction in the number of calves sold per cow per year. On the other hand, organic farms (especially the Organic 1 group) had higher incomes in relation to other sales (those not related to livestock). This could be a consequence of the greater degree of diversification in organic farming over conventional.
