**Acknowledgements**

From this study, it seems that there was transmission of bacteria in roofed cattle houses than in cattle houses without roof. This could be due to the effect of direct sun rays in open cattle

*p* ≤ 0.0001), whereby free range cattle used surface water and cattle under zero grazing used tap water which was also used by humans. On the other hand, distance from residence to manure disposal site was statistically associated with the way manure was handled (X2

df = 1, *p* = 0.005). That is, cattle keeping households which stored manure in heaps disposed manure within residential areas, whereas households which opted to spread fresh manure

Cattle and manure management practices in urban and peri-urban livestock farming allow direct contact of cattle manure with humans, cattle and the environment. Humans and cattle are at risk of infection with enteric pathogens and the environment to contamination because enteric pathogens have been isolated from fresh cattle feces in urban and peri-urban areas. Under the current manure management system, there is transmission of commensal enteric bacteria between cattle, humans and the environment (water and soil), in which case, same route can transmit enteric pathogens. The risk of human and livestock infection and environment contamination is potentiated by the fact that cattle keepers are unaware of such manurerelated pathogens and majority of them do not perceive that there are public health threats from the current cattle and manure management practices. The risk of enteric pathogen transmission to humans extends beyond cattle keeping households to their non-cattle keeping neighbors. Current cattle and manure management practices in urban and peri-urban areas of Morogoro put the whole community (cattle keepers and non-cattle keepers), cattle and other domestic animals, at risk of infection and the environment (water and soil) to contamination.

The reported public health challenges can be alleviated by adopting a system thinking or holistic approach, whereby all stakeholders are identified and involved, at their respective capacities, in planning, execution and monitoring of urban and peri-urban livestock farming. This approach will aim at safeguarding public, livestock and ecosystem health at the same time improving urban and peri-urban livestock contribution toward community livelihood. Some of the key stakeholders, each of whom may have a different key role in ensuring this goal is achieved, include personnel from health section, agriculture, livestock, local government authorities, land use planning, civil engineers, environmental conservation, demography, law enforcing sections, politicians and the general public. For example, local government authorities may put preconditions for starting a cattle herd in urban and peri-urban areas and set

= 28.5, df = 1,

= 8,

Cattle feeding system was statistically associated with cattle water sources (X2

houses killing the bacteria before the transmission.

on land did it outside residential area [19].

**6. Conclusion**

86 Livestock Science

**7. Recommendations**

The author wishes to thank the Ministry of Foreign affairs of Denmark through the Danish International Development Agency (Danida) for financial support to the project "Opportunities and challenges in peri-urban livestock farming in Tanzania" (P6-08-Tan), to which this work is a part. The excellent collaboration between Sokoine University Agriculture (Tanzania) and University of Copenhagen (Denmark) during implementation of this study is highly appreciated. Special recognition is granted to Statens Serum Institut (Denmark) for their technical support during laboratory work. I acknowledge participation and project support of the community (cattle keepers and non-cattle keepers) and Livestock Extension Officers in urban and peri-urban areas of Morogoro.
