**7. Recommendations**

The reported public health challenges can be alleviated by adopting a system thinking or holistic approach, whereby all stakeholders are identified and involved, at their respective capacities, in planning, execution and monitoring of urban and peri-urban livestock farming. This approach will aim at safeguarding public, livestock and ecosystem health at the same time improving urban and peri-urban livestock contribution toward community livelihood. Some of the key stakeholders, each of whom may have a different key role in ensuring this goal is achieved, include personnel from health section, agriculture, livestock, local government authorities, land use planning, civil engineers, environmental conservation, demography, law enforcing sections, politicians and the general public. For example, local government authorities may put preconditions for starting a cattle herd in urban and peri-urban areas and set criteria for maintenance of livestock keeping permit. This procedure may facilitate other livestock-related activities such as disease control, surveillance and traceability of animals. Moreover, land use planning and environmental conservation sections may set specific areas for keeping livestock, while medical and veterinary sections may jointly control zoonoses. The law enforcing personnel can facilitate in making sure regulations related to livestock, and livestock products are observed. The general public should be well informed of and participate in control of manure-related zoonotic pathogens. The holistic setup of urban and peri-urban livestock farming should take into account all the features of continuous change from rural to peri-urban to urban setting. This means that planning of livestock farming in peri-urban should suit the urban setup even when the peri-urban area is urbanized.

To reduce human and animal contact with manure and to reduce the risk of human and animal infection and environmental contamination, the following strategies are recommended.

