2.1. Bird species composition of tropical rainforest

Birds are highly motile animals, i.e., they may fly to different areas in search of food, shelter, and for breeding purposes. They are ecologically diverse and had occupied a wide array of habitats. Bird species depend on the vegetation structure and composition (such as trees, shrubs, and herbs) and food resources for their survival and reproduction [45, 46]. They are the functional group of tropical rainforest ecosystems as seed dispersers, pollinators, top predators, pest control, and scavengers [47–50].

Birds are conspicuous and an important component of tropical rainforest ecosystems, often exhibit distinction associated with vegetation structure and composition (Figures 2–4; Table 1). They are sensitive to habitat alteration and landscape modification [51–54]. This might be because the vegetation structure and composition may influence habitat selection and foraging efficiency of all birds. For example, large trees and ground dense herbaceous vegetation layers often harbor a higher avian abundance and diversity. This might be because old growth stands provide suitable nesting and breeding sites, plenty of food resources, and also provide

Figure 2. Asian paradise flycatcher—Terpsiphone paradisi.

Figure 3. Wallace's hawk eagle—Nisaetus nanus.

Figure 4. Oriental/Asian pied hornbill—Anthracoceros albirostris.

protection from predators and harsh weather [55, 56]. Likewise, ground vegetation also offers ideal habitat and safe breeding sites and shelter for different fauna species residing in dense ground cover vegetation, such as birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. It has been illustrated that height and density of the tree [57], dense understory vegetation [58, 59], and logs and snags [60] are key elements, which affect avian distribution, richness, and diversity in tropical rainforest.

Habitat alteration due to land change use may alter the avian community parameters such as relative abundance, species richness, species diversity, and density [65]. This might be that bird community structure strongly associated with canopy openness and understory vegetation


protection from predators and harsh weather [55, 56]. Likewise, ground vegetation also offers ideal habitat and safe breeding sites and shelter for different fauna species residing in dense ground cover vegetation, such as birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. It has been illustrated that height and density of the tree [57], dense understory vegetation [58, 59], and logs and snags [60] are key elements, which affect avian distribution, richness, and diversity in

Habitat alteration due to land change use may alter the avian community parameters such as relative abundance, species richness, species diversity, and density [65]. This might be that bird community structure strongly associated with canopy openness and understory vegetation

tropical rainforest.

Figure 4. Oriental/Asian pied hornbill—Anthracoceros albirostris.

Figure 3. Wallace's hawk eagle—Nisaetus nanus.

16 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape



Bucerotidae Bucerotidae

Cacatuidae Campephagidae

Hemipus

Boyer's Campochaera

Coracina melas

Coracina Coracina papuensis

Lalage leucomela

Hemipus picatus

Pericrocotus

Caprimulgus

Casuarius

unappendiculatus

Northern Cassowary

Casuariidae Chloropseidae

Chloropsis Chloropsis cyanopogon

Chloropsis aurifrons

Prinia rufescens

Orthotomus

Orthotomus

Orthotomus

Colluricincla

Colluricincla

 boweri

megarhyncha

Little Bower's

Shrike-thrush

Shrike-thrush

Colluricinclidae

 sutorius

 sericeus

Rufous-tailed

Common Tailorbird

 Tailorbird

 atrogularis

Cisticolidae

cochinchinensis

Blue-winged

Lesser Green Leafbird

Gold-fronted

Rufescent Prinia

Dark-necked

 Tailorbird

 Leafbird

 Leafbird

 macrurus

 flammeus

Bar-winged

Scarlet Minivet

Large-tailed

 Nightjar

Flycatcher-shrike

Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Tropical Rainforest (India)

Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

novaehollandiae

 sloetii

cuckoo-shrike

hirundinaceus

Black-winged

Boyer's Golden New Guinea

Black-faced

White-bellied

Varied Triller

Cuckoo-Shrike

Cuckoo-shrike

Cuckoo-shrike

Cuckoo-shrike

Cuckoo-shrike

 Flycatcher Shrike

 Hill dipterocarp Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea),

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

Scientific name Rhyticeros plicatus

Ocyceros griseus

Cacatua galerita

Common name

Papuan Hornbill

Malabar Grey Hornbill

Sulphur-crested

 Cockatoo

Habitat Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea),

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Authors

 [61] [64]

[61, 62]

[65]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

18 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[61, 62]

[64]

[64]

 [61]

 [61]

[6]

[6]

[64]

[65]

[6, 63]

[63]

[63]

 [61] [62]



Scientific name

Centropus phasianinus

Chrysococcyx

Eudynamys

Probosciger aterrimus

Scythrops Chrysococcyx

Cacomantis

Cuculus micropterus

Surniculus lugubris

Dendrocolaptidae

Dicaeidae

Campylorhamphus

Xiphorhynchus

Prionochilus

Dicaeum trignostigma

Dicaeum Dicaeum

Dicaeum concolor

Prionochilus

Dicruridae

 maculatus

Cheatorhynchus

Dicrurus bracteatus

Dicrurus aeneus Dicrurus paradiseus Dicrurus annectans

Dicrurus remifer

Greater Crow-billed

Lesser

Racket-tailed

 Drongo

 Drongo

Racket-tailed

 Drongo

 papuensis

Pygmy Drongo Spangled Drongo

Bronzed Drongo

hirundinaceum

geelvinkianum

Red-capped

Mistletoebird

Nilgiri Yellow-breasted

Flowerpecker

 Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (India), Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (India), Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Flowerpecker

Flowerpecker

 percussus

 guttatus

 pusillus

 sonneratii

 minutillus

novaehollandiae

Channel-billed

Little Banded Bay Cuckoo

Indian Cuckoo Drongo Cuckoo

Brown-billed

Buff-throated

Crimson-breasted

Orange-bellied

Flowerpecker

Flowerpecker

 Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

Woodcreeper

 Scythebill

Bronze-Cuckoo

 Cuckoo

 scolopaceus

 lucidus

Common name Pheasant Coucal Shining Bronze Cuckoo

Common Koel Palm Cockatoo

Habitat Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Authors

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61] [62]

[63]

[63]

[63]

[65]

20 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[65]

[6]

[6, 63]

 [61] [62]

[64]

[63]

 [61]

 [61] [61, 64] [63, 64]

[63]

[63]



Megalaimidae

Megalaima rubricapilla

Talegalla jobiensis

Megapodius

Melanocharis

Oedistoma iliolophus

Toxorhamphus

Meliphaga analoga Meliphaga montana

Philemon meyeri Xanthotis flaviventer

Philemon buceroides

Meliphaga notata

Myzomela obscura

Xanthotis macleayana

Meliphaga gracilis

> Meropidae

> Merops viridis

Merops ornatus

> Monarchidae

Hypothymis

Terpsiphone

Arses

telescopthalmus

Machaerirhynchus

Monarcha chrysomela

 flaviventer

Frilled Monarch Yellow-breasted

Golden Monarch

 Boatbill

 paradisi

Asian Paradise Flycatcher

 azurea

Black-naped

 Monarch

Yellow-spotted

Dusky Honeyeater Macleay's Honeyeater

Graceful Honeyeater

Blue-throated

Rainbow Bee-eater

 Bee-eater

 Honeyeater

Meliphagidae

novaeguineae

Yellow-bellied

Mimic Honeyeater

White-marked

Meyer's Friarbird

Tawny-breasted

Helmeted Friarbird

 Honeyeater

 Forest Honeyeater

 Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea),

Tropical Rainforest (Australia) Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia) Tropical Rainforest (Australia), Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Tropical Rainforest (Australia), Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia),

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 Longbill

 nigra

Melanocharitidae

 reinwardt

Scientific name

Common name Crimson-fronted

Brown-collared

Orange-footed

Black Berrypecker

Plumed Longbill

 Scrubfowl

 Brush Turkey

 Barbet

Habitat Tropical Rainforest (India)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Authors

[64]

 [61] [62]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

22 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[61, 62]

[62]

[62]

[62]

[62, 63]

[6]

[61, 62]

[6, 63] [6, 62]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61] Fauna Diversity in Tropical Rainforest: Threats from Land-Use Change http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64963 23




Scientific name Culicicapa ceylonensis

Ficedula elisae

Muscicapa dauurica

Nectarinia minima

Arachnothera

Arachnothera

Hypogramma

Anthreptes simplex

Arachnothera

Arachnothera

Cinnyris jugularis Nectarinia jugularis

Nectarinia lotenia

Hypogramma

Oriolus xanthonotus

Oriolus szalayi

Pitohui Oriolus flavocinctus

Oriolus chinensis

Pachycephalidae

Pachycephala

Pachycephala

Pitohui ferrugineus

 simplex

 hyperythra

kirhocephalus

Brown Oriole Variable Pitohui

Yellow Oriole

Black-naped

Rusty-breasted

Grey Whistler

Rusty Pitohui

 Whistler

 Oriole

Oriolidae

hypogrammicum

Purple-naped

Dark-throated

 Oriole

 Sunbird

 longirostra

Little Olive-backed

Yellow-bellied

Loten's Sunbird

 Sunbird

 Sunbird

Spiderhunter

 flavigaster

Spectacled

Spiderhunter

hypogrammicum

 modesta

 magna

Nectarinidae

Common name

Grey-headed

Green-backed

Asian Brown Flycatcher

Crimson-backed

Streaked Grey-breasted

Purple-naped

Plain Sunbird

 Sunbird

Spiderhunter

Spiderhunter

 Sunbird

 Flycatcher

 Canary Flycatcher

 Tropical Rainforest (India),

Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

Habitat

Authors

[63, 64]

[63]

[63]

[64]

[6]

[6]

[6]

[6, 63] [6, 63]

24 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[6, 63]

 [61] [62]

[64]

[63]

[6, 63]

 [61]

 [61] [62]

[63]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]



Scientific name Piculus rubiginosus

Celeus brachyurus Dryocopus javensis Picumnus innominatus

Chrysocolaptes

Dinopium javanense

Dinopium rafflesii Meiglyptes jugularis

Picus flavinucha

Picus puniceus Corapipo leucorrhoa

Manacus aurantiacus

Pitta guajana Pitta erythrogaster

Pitta sordida Batrachostomus

 stellatus

Podargidae Psittaculidae

Lorius lory Loriculus vernalis

Eclectus roratus Geoffroyus geoffroyi

Geoffroyus simplex

Micropsitta

 pusio

Pipridae

Pittidae

 lucidus

Golden-olive

Rufous White-bellied

Speckled Piculet

Greater Flameback Common Flameback

Olive-backed

Black and buff Greater Yellownape

Crimson-winged

White-bibbed

Orange-collard

Banded Pitta

Red-bellied

Hooded Pitta Gould's Frogmouth

Black Capped Lori

Vernal Hanging Parrot

Eclectus Parrot

Red-cheeked

Blue-collared

Buff-faced Pygmy Parrot

 Parrot

 Parrot

 Pitta

 Manakin

 Manakin

Woodpecker

 Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical forest (Costa Rica) Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Hill dipterocarp Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (India) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

Woodpecker

Woodpecker

Woodpecker

Woodpecker

Woodpecker

Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

Tropical Rainforest (India), Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (India),

Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

[65]

[64]

[64]

[64]

[63, 64] [63, 64]

[63]

26 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[63]

[63]

[63]

[65]

[65]

[6]

 [61] [63]

[6]

 [61] [64]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

 [61]

Common name

Habitat Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

Authors



Scientific name Tricholestes criniger

Hypsipetes

Iole indica Pycnonotus

Pycnonotus

Pycnonotus

Alophoixus finschii

Pycnonotus

Pycnonotus

Calormphus

Pteroglossus

Rhipidura rufiventris Rhipidura threnothorax

Rhipidura fuliginosa

Rhipidura rufifrons

Rhipidura javanica

Rhipidura perlata Rhipidura leucothorax

Sitta frontalis Otus rufescens Aplonis cantoroides

Mino dumontii

Sittidae Strigidae Sturnidae

 frantzii

 fuliginosus

Ramphastidae

Rhipiduridae

 goiavier

 atriceps

 priocephalus

 melanicterus

 jocosus

leucocephalus

Black Bulbul Yellow-browed

Red-whiskered

Black-capped

Grey-headed

Finsch's Bulbul

Black-headed

Yellow-vented

Brown Barbet

Fiery-billed

Northern Fantail Sooty Thicket Fantail

Grey Fantail

Rufous Fantail

Pied Fantail Spotted Fantail

White-bellied

Velvet-fronted

Reddish Scope Owl

Singing Starling Yellow Faced Myna

 Nuthatch

Thicket-Fantail

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

Hill dipterocarp Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 Aracari

 Bulbul

 Bulbul

 Bulbul

 Bulbul

 Bulbul

 Bulbul

Hairy-backed

 Bulbul

Common name

Habitat Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (Australia)

Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

[6, 63]

[64]

[64]

[64]

[64]

[64]

[63]

28 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[63]

[63]

[6]

[65]

 [61]

 [61] [62]

[62]

[63]

[65]

 [61] [64]

[6]

 [61]

 [61]

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

Authors



Scientific name Stachyris nigricollis

Garritornis isidorei Ptilorrhoa caerulescens

Megalaima viridis

Pellorneum ruficeps

Pomatorhinus

Rhopocichla

Turdoides subrufus Pellorneum capistratum

Napothera epilepidota Stachyris erythroptera

Yuhina zantholeuca

Pachyramphus

Campylopterus

Phaethornis

Phaethornis

Thryothorus

Harpactes diardii

Harpactes orrhophaeus

Trogon bairdii

Harpactes fasciatus Copsychus saularis

Turdidae

 rufalbus

Troglodytidae

Trogonidae

longuemareus

 guy

hemileucurus

Violet Sabrewing

Green Hermit

Little Hermit Rufous-and-white

Diard's Trogon Cinnamon-rumped

Baird's Trogon Malabar Trogon Oriental Magpie Robin

 Trogon

 Wren

 aglaiae

Tityridae Trochilidae

 atriceps

 horsfieldii

Isidore's Rufous Babbler

Blue

Jewel-babbler

White-cheeked

Puff-throated

Indian Scimitar Babbler

Dark-fronted

Rufous Babbler

Black-caped

Eyebrowed

Chestnut-winged

White-bellied

Rose-throated

 Becard

 Yuhina

 Babbler

Wren-babbler

 Babbler

 Babbler

 Babbler

 Barbet

Black-throated

 Babbler

Common name

Habitat Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Hill dipterocarp Isolated Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Lowland tropical rainforest (Papua New Guinea)

Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India)

Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (India) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia) Tropical Rainforest (Malaysia)

Tropical forest (Costa Rica) Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Tropical forest (Costa Rica) Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Hill dipterocarp Hill dipterocarp Tropical forest (Costa Rica)

Tropical Rainforest (India)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia)

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

[6, 63]

 [61]

 [61] [64]

[64]

[64]

[64]

30 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[64]

[63]

[63]

[63]

[63]

[65]

[65]

[65]

[65]

[65]

[6]

[6]

[65]

[64]

[6, 63]

 tropical rainforest (Malaysia),

Authors

Table 1. List of bird species that occur in tropical rainforest.

cover. Forest logging [66–68], habitat degradation and fragmentation [69], slash-and-burn agriculture [61], and fires are major factors, which had adversely affected the population of the avian species in different forest ecosystems [51]. These factors altered the vegetation structure and composition, which affects the avian richness and diversity by affecting the food resources, increased nest predation and brood parasitism. The diversity and richness of food resources are closely associated with the vegetation structure and composition, such as foliage, flowers, fruits, and barks. Furthermore, large-scale logging for valuable timber harvesting,

Figure 5. Bornean pygmy elephant—Elephas maximus borneensis.

Figure 6. Sambar deer—Rusa unicolor.


cover. Forest logging [66–68], habitat degradation and fragmentation [69], slash-and-burn agriculture [61], and fires are major factors, which had adversely affected the population of the avian species in different forest ecosystems [51]. These factors altered the vegetation structure and composition, which affects the avian richness and diversity by affecting the food resources, increased nest predation and brood parasitism. The diversity and richness of food resources are closely associated with the vegetation structure and composition, such as foliage, flowers, fruits, and barks. Furthermore, large-scale logging for valuable timber harvesting,

32 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

Figure 5. Bornean pygmy elephant—Elephas maximus borneensis.

Figure 6. Sambar deer—Rusa unicolor.

Fauna Diversity in Tropical Rainforest: Threats from Land-Use Change http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64963 33

Authors

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]


[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[74]

Primary Rainforest (Malaysia)

[74]

[74]

Callosciurus

 prevostii

Prevost's Squirrel


Scientific name Artibeus lituratus

Chiroderma

Platyrrhinus

Sturnira ludovici Artibeus jamaicensis

Vampyressa

Leptonycteris

Lampronycteris

Phyllostomus

Glossophaga

Artibeus phaeotis Carollia brevicauda

Vampyrodes

Uroderma bilobatum

Artibeus watsoni Artibeus toltecus

Hylonycteris

Enchisthenes

Centurio senex Sturnira lilium

Sundasciurus

Callosciurus

Callosciurus

 prevostii

 notatus

 lowii

Sciuridae

 hartii

 underwoodi

 major

 soricina

 discolor

 brachyotis

 sanborni

 pusilla

 helleri

 villosum

Common name Great Fruit-eating Hairy Big-eyed Bat

Heller's Highland Jamaican Fruit-eating

Little Long-nosed

 Bat Orange-throated

Pale Pallas's Pygmy Fruit-eating

Silky Short-tailed

Stripe-faced

Tent-making

Thomas's Fruit-eating

Toltec Fruit-eating

Underwood's

Velvety Fruit-eating

Wrinkle-faced

 Bat Yellow-shouldered

Low's Squirrel Plantain Squirrel Prevost's Squirrel

 Bat

 Bat

Long-tongued

 Bat

 Bat

 Bat

 Bat

 Bat

 Bat

 Bat

Long-tongued

 Bat

Spear-nosed

 Bat

 Big-eared Bat

Yellow-eared

 Bat

 Bat

Yellow-shouldered

 Bat

Broad-nosed

 Bat

 Bats

Habitat Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico)

Tropical Rainforest (Mexico) Primary Rainforest (Malaysia) Primary Rainforest (Malaysia)

Primary Rainforest (Malaysia)

Authors

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

34 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[73]

[74]

[74]

[74]

Table 2. List of mammal species that occur in tropical rainforest.


Table 3. List of reptile species that occur in tropical rainforest.

damage to forest, and replacement of native vegetation by exotic species [70] are the main problems, which affect the fauna species. Loss of forested areas is responsible for the loss of biodiversity.

#### 2.2. Mammal species composition of tropical rainforest

Tropical rainforest had harbored rich mammal diversity and density due to richness of plant communities and higher productivity (Figures 5 and 6; Table 2). Mammals are a versatile group of animals and a major component of the tropical rainforest ecosystem, i.e., they serve a wide range of ecosystem functions; such as pollination, seed dispersal, pest control, herb control, food source for other animals and nutrient cycling. In addition to ecological functions, the mammals also provide a wide array of benefits to human beings, such as food, recreation, and source of income, i.e., various byproducts such as bush meat, skin, oil, musk, fur, etc. [71, 72].

Unfortunately, these rich mammal communities are facing severe threats from human activities such as over exploitation (intensive hunting), land-use change (habitat loss and degradation), and climate change [76–78]. These populations of different mammal species had declined abruptly due to change in land use, i.e., habitat fragmentation and degradation due to logging, and deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture expansion and excessive hunting [79–83]. It has been reported that around one-fifth of mammal species in the wild are at risk of extinction due to human activities such as deforestation for agriculture expansion, logging for timber, and excessive hunting [84]. It has been stated that changes in vegetation cover may affect the richness of food resources and habitat preferences of the mammalian species [85, 86]. This could be due to fact that home range preferences of the mammal species and their population are strongly associated with the vegetation structure and composition [87].

The primates residing in a rainforest are habitat specific, some occupy large continuous forested areas such as Diademed Sifakas—Propithecus diadema—while others prefer fragmented forested areas such as Black Howler Monkey—Alouatta pigra—for their survival and reproduction [25, 88–90]. Monkeys are diet specific, they consume a variety of food resources such as fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, arthropods, etc. [91, 92], and their diet is strongly influenced by the plant species composition and richness of the particular dwelling habitat [93].
