**3.2. Precipitation and evapotranspiration in Atlantic Rainforest remnants between 2000 and 2010**

**Figure 6** shows the remnants of the Atlantic Rainforest in São Paulo State with area ≥ 100 ha, and the overlapping of the remnants mapped in São José do Rio Preto region (northwestern SP) with a MODIS/Terra sensor image from June 27, 2010. It is possible to note that most of the remnants are located in South and East portions of the State, in contrast to the northern and western regions [16]. Yet, as observed in the highlighted image, polygons mapped by [5] are properly adjusted to MODIS images, which are the basis of the MOD16 algorithm used in this study.

**Figure 6.** Atlantic Rainforest remnants in São Paulo State with an area equal or greater than 100 ha. Highlighted image shows the overlapping between remnants polygons mapped in São José do Rio Preto region and a MODIS/Terra sensor image (R1G2B1) from June 27, 2010.

For the period of 2011–2012, 25,554 polygons were mapped in São Paulo State, totalizing an area of ~2,421,538 ha. After the selection of the polygons with area ≥ 100 ha, 2054 were found, representing an area of ~1,914,331 ha. In here, it is important to mention that analysis related to precipitation and evapotranspiration were realized only for Atlantic Rainforest remnants with area equal to or greater than 100 ha.

**Figure 7** shows precipitation (monthly and monthly average) in Atlantic Rainforest rem‐ nants between 2000 and 2010. It is possible to note a strong seasonality in Atlantic Rainfor‐ est remnants precipitation, similar behavior found in previous analysis for São Paulo State (Section 3.1). Monthly precipitation ranged between 11.7 and 460.1 mm month−1, values found, respectively, in July 2008 and January 2010. Considering the entire period (2000– 2010) monthly average precipitation was 114.7 mm month−1. [41] observed, in Atlantic Rainforest areas in São Paulo State, monthly precipitation ranging between 1.5 and 347.3 mm month−1. Moreover, during the period analyzed, monthly precipitation in Atlan‐ tic Rainforest remnants was, on average, ~12% higher than that estimated for SP.

Monthly average precipitation ranged from 49.6 (June) to 309.5 mm month−1 (January). In this sense, Donato et al. [41] estimated, for Atlantic Rainforest areas in São Paulo State, monthly average precipitation between 33.8 (August) and 272.0 mm month−1 (January), similar to those obtained in this study.

During the dry season, monthly average precipitation in remnants was 85.7 mm month−1, while in the rainy season was 203.8 mm month−1. Therefore, monthly average precipitation in the Atlantic Rainforest remnants was ~138% higher in the rainy season. Annual precipitation ranged from 1426.6 (2007) to 2185.4 mm year−1 (2009). Thus, annual precipitation showed an absolute and relative variation of 758.8 mm year−1 and ~53%, respectively. In 2007, monthly precipitation fluctuated between 18.7 (June) and 268.2 mm month−1 (January), while in 2009 it ranged from 63.3 (June) to 298.6 mm month−1 (January). Annual average precipitation in Atlantic Rainforest remnants was 1737.0 mm year−1. In addition, ~30% of the annual average precipitation occurred during the dry season, and ~70% was concentrated in the rainy season. Similar studies by [41, 42] found, for Atlantic Rainforest remnants areas in SP, annual average precipitation of 1784.0 and 1974.1 mm year−1, respectively.

SP) with a MODIS/Terra sensor image from June 27, 2010. It is possible to note that most of the remnants are located in South and East portions of the State, in contrast to the northern and western regions [16]. Yet, as observed in the highlighted image, polygons mapped by [5] are properly adjusted to MODIS images, which are the basis of the MOD16 algorithm used in this

102 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

**Figure 6.** Atlantic Rainforest remnants in São Paulo State with an area equal or greater than 100 ha. Highlighted image shows the overlapping between remnants polygons mapped in São José do Rio Preto region and a MODIS/Terra sensor

For the period of 2011–2012, 25,554 polygons were mapped in São Paulo State, totalizing an area of ~2,421,538 ha. After the selection of the polygons with area ≥ 100 ha, 2054 were found, representing an area of ~1,914,331 ha. In here, it is important to mention that analysis related to precipitation and evapotranspiration were realized only for Atlantic Rainforest remnants

**Figure 7** shows precipitation (monthly and monthly average) in Atlantic Rainforest rem‐ nants between 2000 and 2010. It is possible to note a strong seasonality in Atlantic Rainfor‐ est remnants precipitation, similar behavior found in previous analysis for São Paulo State (Section 3.1). Monthly precipitation ranged between 11.7 and 460.1 mm month−1, values found, respectively, in July 2008 and January 2010. Considering the entire period (2000– 2010) monthly average precipitation was 114.7 mm month−1. [41] observed, in Atlantic Rainforest areas in São Paulo State, monthly precipitation ranging between 1.5 and 347.3 mm month−1. Moreover, during the period analyzed, monthly precipitation in Atlan‐

Monthly average precipitation ranged from 49.6 (June) to 309.5 mm month−1 (January). In this sense, Donato et al. [41] estimated, for Atlantic Rainforest areas in São Paulo State, monthly average precipitation between 33.8 (August) and 272.0 mm month−1 (January), similar to those

During the dry season, monthly average precipitation in remnants was 85.7 mm month−1, while in the rainy season was 203.8 mm month−1. Therefore, monthly average precipitation in the Atlantic Rainforest remnants was ~138% higher in the rainy season. Annual precipitation ranged from 1426.6 (2007) to 2185.4 mm year−1 (2009). Thus, annual precipitation showed an

tic Rainforest remnants was, on average, ~12% higher than that estimated for SP.

study.

image (R1G2B1) from June 27, 2010.

obtained in this study.

with area equal to or greater than 100 ha.

**Figure 7.** Monthly (mm month−1) (a) and monthly average (mm month−1) (b) precipitation in Atlantic Rainforest rem‐ nants of São Paulo State between January 2000 and December 2010. In (a), the red line represents the moving average of the time series (period = 2), and in (b), vertical bars represent the standard deviation.

**Figure 8** shows actual evapotranspiration (monthly and monthly average) in Atlantic Rain‐ forest remnants between 2000 and 2010. It is possible to note the temporal variability of the values found, characterizing the seasonality of this parameter and presenting well‐defined dry and rainy seasons, as mentioned in Section 3.1. Considering the period studied, monthly evapotranspiration oscillated between 55.3 and 144.3 mm month−1. Accordingly, lowest value was found in July 2000, while the highest in December 2002. On average, considering the period between 2000 and 2010, monthly evapotranspiration was 104.03 mm month−1. [43], considering an experimental microbasin located in an Atlantic Rainforest area in the municipality of Cunha, obtained monthly evapotranspiration values oscillating between 26.5 and 142.3 mm month−1, similar to those obtained in the present study. It is worth mentioning that, considering the period analyzed, monthly evapotranspiration in Atlantic Rainforest remnants was, on average, ~52% higher than monthly evapotranspiration in SP.

Monthly average evapotranspiration ranged from 63.2 (June) to 139.3 mm month−1 (December). Comparing these results with monthly average precipitation, June was the month with lowest precipitation, while December was the third wettest month. In this context, [44], in a study conducted at the Serra do Mar State Park, found monthly average evapotranspiration between 35.8 (July) and 95.0 mm month−1 (January).

**Figure 8.** Monthly (mm month−1) (a) and monthly average (mm month−1) (b) actual evapotranspiration in Atlantic Rain‐ forest remnants of São Paulo State between January 2000 and December 2010. In (a), the red line represents the moving average of the time series (period = 2), and in (b), vertical bars represent the standard deviation.

Monthly average evapotranspiration for the dry season was 78.6 mm month−1, while during the rainy season was 129.5 mm month−1. Considering these results, monthly average evapo‐ transpiration in the Atlantic Rainforest remnants was ~65% higher in the rainy season when compared to the dry season. Annual evapotranspiration ranged from 1220.4 (2000) to 1275.2 (2002) mm year−1, an absolute variation of 55 mm year−1 and relative variation of ~5%. Monthly evapotranspiration for 2000 and 2002 ranged, respectively, from 55.3 (July) to 140.7 mm month −1 (January), and from 62.5 (July) to 144.6 mm month−1 (December). Annual average evapo‐ transpiration was 1248.3 mm year−1, with dry and rainy season month representing, respec‐ tively, ~38 and ~62% of the total. Considering annual average, evapotranspiration represented ~72% of the precipitation in Atlantic Rainforest remnants, suggesting a low hydric production (~28%). Usually, evapotranspiration studies in tropical forests show values ranging, on average, from 1000 to 1400 mm year−1 [45]. Regarding Atlantic Rainforest in São Paulo State, [41] found annual average of 697.5 mm year−1 for evapotranspiration, ~44% lower than the result found in this study.

**Figure 9** shows the continuous wavelet transform power spectrum for normalized time series of precipitation and evapotranspiration. In general, it is possible to observe that the main oscillation mode in precipitation and evapotranspiration of Atlantic Rainforest remnants time series is concentrated between 8 and 16 months, showing, as previously mentioned, a strong seasonal or intraannual behavior.

conducted at the Serra do Mar State Park, found monthly average evapotranspiration between

104 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

**Figure 8.** Monthly (mm month−1) (a) and monthly average (mm month−1) (b) actual evapotranspiration in Atlantic Rain‐ forest remnants of São Paulo State between January 2000 and December 2010. In (a), the red line represents the moving

Monthly average evapotranspiration for the dry season was 78.6 mm month−1, while during the rainy season was 129.5 mm month−1. Considering these results, monthly average evapo‐ transpiration in the Atlantic Rainforest remnants was ~65% higher in the rainy season when compared to the dry season. Annual evapotranspiration ranged from 1220.4 (2000) to 1275.2 (2002) mm year−1, an absolute variation of 55 mm year−1 and relative variation of ~5%. Monthly evapotranspiration for 2000 and 2002 ranged, respectively, from 55.3 (July) to 140.7 mm month −1 (January), and from 62.5 (July) to 144.6 mm month−1 (December). Annual average evapo‐ transpiration was 1248.3 mm year−1, with dry and rainy season month representing, respec‐ tively, ~38 and ~62% of the total. Considering annual average, evapotranspiration represented ~72% of the precipitation in Atlantic Rainforest remnants, suggesting a low hydric production (~28%). Usually, evapotranspiration studies in tropical forests show values ranging, on average, from 1000 to 1400 mm year−1 [45]. Regarding Atlantic Rainforest in São Paulo State, [41] found annual average of 697.5 mm year−1 for evapotranspiration, ~44% lower than the

**Figure 9** shows the continuous wavelet transform power spectrum for normalized time series of precipitation and evapotranspiration. In general, it is possible to observe that the main

average of the time series (period = 2), and in (b), vertical bars represent the standard deviation.

35.8 (July) and 95.0 mm month−1 (January).

result found in this study.

For precipitation, maximum energy peak was observed between 10 and 14 months (seasonal mark), occurring between March 2001 and November 2009. In addition, less intense peaks of energy are highlighted for a period of 1.5 month (January 2003 and February 2003), 1–3 months (January 2005 to April 2005 and June 2009 to September 2009), and 5–7 months (January 2009 to December 2009), being the last period not statistically significant considering a 95% confidence interval. These less intense peaks of energy of 1.5 month, 1–3 months, and 5–7 months are related to high precipitation episodes, mainly in January 2003 (383.2 mm month−1), in January 2005 (370.2 mm month−1), and February, July and September 2009 (281.4, 242.5, and 223.3 mm month−1, respectively). Yet, as previously mentioned, 2009 presented the highest values for annual precipitation. Therefore, these high values of precipitation could be related to the occurrence of frontal systems (cold fronts), the SACZ, and South American Low Level Jet (SALLJ). Cold fronts are very common in São Paulo State and cause intense and isolated rainfall in different regions of the state [32]. SACZ and SALLJ exert an important control in the frequency of extreme precipitation events in Southeastern Brazil, acting in intraseasonal and interannual scales [35]. It is important mentioning that the El Niño event contributes to the action of SACZ in São Paulo State, increasing the probability of intense rainfall in the state during the years that the phenomenon occurs [46].

**Figure 9.** Continuous wavelet transform power spectrums for normalized time series of precipitation (a) and evapo‐ transpiration (b). U‐shaped curve represents the cone of influence, below which edge effects are important.

Regarding evapotranspiration, the maximum peak of energy is identified in the 9–15‐month period (seasonal mark), occurring between January 2001 and December 2009. It is possible to observe less intense peaks of energy in the period of 5–7 months (January 2001 to March 2002, and December 2009 to March 2010); however, they are not statistically significant. Note that 2002 and 2009 showed the highest values of annual evapotranspiration. Therefore, the action of atmospheric systems, and their influence over meteorological variables (e.g., air tempera‐ ture, wind speed, and air and soil moisture) [47], could have provided conditions that favored the increase of evapotranspirative processes in Atlantic Rainforest remnants considering the intraseasonal scale between 2001/2002 and 2009/2010 periods.
