**2. Aims**

on the partner [33]. According to Hazan and Shaver [33], a lack of self-worth and a negative model of self tend to produce anxiety for not being loved and being abandoned; in contrast, a negative view of the other leads to mistrust feelings, expressed by avoidant behaviors and fear

Adult and adolescent victims of abuse have higher attachment insecurity and display more anxiety and/or avoidance in close relationships [15, 34]. In particular, 70% of female victims of sexual abuse have insecure romantic attachments [35]. Lower satisfaction and couple adjustment are also reported in female victims compared to the women who were not abused [34, 36, 37]. In addition, high levels of insecurity in adult attachments and romantic attachments are reported to be associated with increased distress and psychopathology, in particular

The attachment patterns characterized by insecure or negative IWMs seem to increase the risk of a post-traumatic stress disorder and promote post-traumatic symptoms [38, 40]. In contrast, secure attachment is reported to be a protective factor in adult trauma survivors, moderating

Different studies confirm that insecure schema of self and the other generate interpretation biases in interpersonal stressful situations. This mechanism leads to dysfunctional responses characterized by hyper-activation or deactivation of emotion regulation [30, 41]. In particular, the attachment patterns characterized by high levels of anxiety are likely to display hyperactivation of emotional and behavioral response to stress, causing an exaggerated seeking of proximity. In contrast, people with avoidant attachment deactivate the interpersonal strategies of stress response and suppress the search for support [42]. As a consequence, attachment serves as a regulatory system for the stress response; a mental representation of the other's unresponsiveness during stressful situations can be the mechanism responsible for the

In both PTSD and insecure attachments, there is a lack of security in social and interpersonal contexts. Indeed, people suffering from PTSD report feelings of distrust and a state of anxious apprehension which impedes them from having satisfying interpersonal relationships [43].

As a consequence, both the difficulties in emotion regulation and the lack of interpersonal security represent key variables in association with insecure romantic attachment and post-

Up until now, there are only a few studies investigating the relationship between romantic attachment and the PTSD symptoms in childhood trauma victims. Hence, further studies are needed in order to examine the role played by anxiety and avoidance on the development and the severity of the post-traumatic stress disorder in adult victims of interpersonal traumatic

Available studies in this field suggest mediating or moderating role for social support, emotion regulation and coping strategies [30]. Few studies showed that romantic attachment styles characterized by high levels of anxiety and avoidance influence the relationship between early traumatic experiences and the development of psychopathology, including post-traumatic

traumatic stress disorder in victims of childhood traumatic experiences.

depression, anxiety, substance abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder [35, 38, 39].

the relationship between a traumatic event and the development of PTSD.

112 A Multidimensional Approach to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - from Theory to Practice

increased vulnerability to post-traumatic symptoms [42].

of intimacy.

experiences.

The present study aims to investigate a nonclinical sample of female students: (1) the prevalence of PTSD in adulthood; (2) the association between reported childhood traumatic experiences and the presence of post-traumatic stress disorders in adulthood and the role played by romantic attachment.
