**1. Introduction**

The set of techniques which could be included in geomatics has always been helpful in forensic investigation. Not having the purpose of making an exhaustive list, the main areas of interest in which of geomatics and forensic engineering are especially linked are described below.


**Figure 1** shows the suitability of the most common instruments and techniques used in forensic crime scene investigations. They are ranked according to a qualitative score of the following parameter: sensor precision and resolution, portability, autonomy, distance range and among others.

**Figure 1.** Suitability of different instruments in forensic analysis.

**1. Introduction**

4 Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice

and robust information [3].

ing between them.

way.

The set of techniques which could be included in geomatics has always been helpful in forensic investigation. Not having the purpose of making an exhaustive list, the main areas of interest in which of geomatics and forensic engineering are especially linked are described below.

**• Interactive 3D reconstruction**. Using different techniques such as panoramic photogra‐ phy or terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) point clouds can virtually recreate crime scenes. 3D recreations facilitate researching tasks because investigators can take measurements whenever they want or interactively recreate the facts through simulation methods. All this become a key, not only as a support in criminal investigations, but it can be used by lawyers,

**• Biometric studies**. Biometry is a researching area whose purpose is the automation of the identification and the recognition of human beings based on their morphological character‐ istics [2]. Facialrecognition by means of computer vision is a proven method to verify human identity. The development of 3D facial models overcomes the limitations of traditional 2D images derived from differences in lighting, depth and perspective, yielding more reliable

**• Anthropological studies**. Skulls and bones 3D modelling has been one of the fields in which geomatics has contributed more efficiently with forensic analysis [4]. Thanks to the possibil‐ ities offered by computer vision, it is possible overlapping portrait pictures taken before the death of an individual, with the rendering skull and to establish different levels of match‐

**• Footprint studies**. These studies are used to recognize prints in general, specifically footprints, shoeprints or those left by vehicle tires [5]. The main contribution of geomatics in this area is to provide an accurate geometric graphic documentation that allows the automation of the process of comparison with data stored in database. High‐density 3D

**• Ballistic:** The use of sensors such as TLS opens the door to new possibilities to analyse bullet trajectories, improving the quality on the determination of angles and directions regarding with rest of the scene and evidences. At this point, the employment of special ballistic rods, invariants to deformations [6], allows extrapolate the inner gunshot trajectory in a rigorous

**• Forensic GIS.** Geographic information system (GIS) and the current spatial data infrastruc‐ ture (SDI) are the most suitable technologies to combine spatial data coming from different geomatic sensors, as GNSS (global navigating satellite system) or satellite imagery, with database and cartography. Therefore, GIS becomes a powerful tool to map, manage and analyse any kind of spatial data in forensic and criminology. Controlling suspicious movements in GIS from the data on their mobile phones could be a good example. Another example is the elaboration of crime maps that allow build patterns in crime commission and relate them with other geographical, social or economic variables, which it is necessary in

police planning tasks, promoting the understanding and prevention of crime [7].

models are needed to provide an accurate level of detail for this purpose.

judges and experts to observe the reactions of defendants [1].

Crime scene documentation tasks (indoors and outdoors) imply firstly an ocular inspection. In these tasks, the police must carry out a meticulous work of observation and documentation of direct evidences, whose purpose is to collect any data to discover, document and demon‐ strate the facts and their circumstances.

Photography, video and infographic design can be considered as classical techniques able to integrate and complement the ocular inspection phase. Through these techniques, crime scene information is exhaustively gathered in a non‐invasive way. While general data set collected are on the basis to propose broad hypothesis about the events, detailed data from specific areas become extremely important because they permit to link individual evidences.

Although the use of photographic documentation in crime scenes is a constant in police investigation, it is the hybridization of sensors, caused by the rise of digital photography, electronics, computers and telecommunications, which has led to the extension of geomatic methods to technical documentation in forensic analysis.

After this introduction, this chapter shows, in Section 2, the main requirements for graphic information. Geometric accuracy is shown as the key question since provides not only relevant data about the object in the scene, but allows to establish relationships between different elements in order to determine distances, heights, surfaces or volumes. The aim of Section 3 was to make a review of the current geomatic techniques that are being applied in 3D crime scene reconstruction and their interrelation. Section 4 will be focused in three new approaches into geomatic applications in forensic analysis. Finally, Section 5 outlines the concluding remarks of the different methods and techniques.
