**2.3. Penetration resistance**

In the field, penetration resistance (PR) was evaluated by randomly selecting 15 positions in each grass aerial cover category, and PR readings were taken in the topsoil surface layer. The PR of the soil, which is a proxy for soil compaction, was determined using a handheld cone penetrometer [29]. Notably, PR measurements were taken before the soil surface was disturbed for soil sample collection.
