**3.2. Ecological urban design and landscape design**

ecological land-use planning process, strategic environmental assessments, impact assess‐

Land use involves the process of biologically and technically reshaping, converting and managing land for socio-economic benefits [24]. Built environment growing together with the economic development has taken a toll on the natural resources [22, 23]. Overexploitation and utility of resources due to extensive economic growth have now become the common causes of environmental degradation [24]. One the one hand, land-use decisions on the settlements impact economic actions, this also affect the physical environment, land surface, soil, and natural biotopes, on the other hand, negative impacts of these actions on ecological structure cause environmental problems [23]. Furthermore, the interconnectivity of ecosystems is increasingly jeopardized by the uncontrolled development, land-use conversion, tourism activities, and endless disturbances caused by anthropogenic agents [24]. There is a need also for cost-benefit analysis in planning process, so that it can bring ecological benefit, besides of economic development in growth process of the cities. While some of land-use decisions economically benefit in the short run, whereas they cause ecological costs in the long run [21,

Therefore, the land-use decisions should be defined by environmentally sensitive/ecological planning process, during which natural characteristics and potentials of the lands must be examined by ecological threshold analysis [21–23]. The aim of ecological planning was to protect of natural resources and to create ecological cities and settlements. Ecological plan‐ ning is not only physical planning understanding, but also a planning process which aims

On the one hand, one of the most important approaches in the creation process of ecological cities is to utilize of natural resources efficiently and without consumption of them. On the other hand, one of the basic principles in ecological planning process is to create an integrat‐ ed green network in the cities. The management of urban lands, namely adding green components to open spaces is an increasingly important subject. Urban biodiversity is essential for residents as recreational areas, and their presence in the neighborhood unit is an appreci‐

sustainability of an integrative urban-nature development [23].

ments, and ecological risk analysis are of great importance as basic phases [5, 21, 22].

**Figure 4.** Function of planning.

258 Sustainable Urbanization

23].

In rethinking the city as a "human ecosystem", urban design is emerging as one tool for adaptation as we face complex, wide-ranging issues from food security to sea-level rise. The practice of urban design is interdisciplinary in nature, often claimed by several professions and residing somewhere at the intersection of urban planning, architecture, and landscape architecture.

Urban design process is a period in which planning decisions change to applications. In this context, urban spaces are created adding third-dimensional to two-dimensional planning decisions. Urban design is both an interface and a bridge between planning and architecture. The aim in urban design process including designing of the streets, avenues, squares, public spaces, green areas, plants, and surface waters was to create healthy living areas, besides fictionalize of an aesthetic environment. The main issue of ecological urban design process is urban ecology. Green areas, plants, and water surface are ecological components of urban landscape surrounding buildings. With the ecological urban design and ecological land‐ scape design approaches, urban design, landscape ecology, the knowledge of policy makers, and the demands of neighborhood dwellers are integrated for creation of new patterns of greenery areas, buildings, and land covers.

Recently, due to rapid urbanization, green infrastructure within the built environment has gained importance. Thus, most of the cities in the world have been designed adding green areas to public and open spaces. Plants as green elements make environment relaxing, green, and aesthetic in addition to healthy for city community. Linking plant ecology with urban design and landscape design can help to take advantage of urban design projects as useful tools for ecological researches [9]. Plants at the parcel scale including open spaces, multifunc‐ tional land uses, and pedestrian walkways are of great importance, namely in high-density neighborhood designs to enhance physical performance and improve citizens' life [28].

When the world's cities are becoming increasingly crowded and polluted, green spaces in urban areas provides a lot of ecosystem services that could help struggle with many urban ills and improve living for citizens, namely their health [29]. From urban ecology aspects, green and ecological networks have been important elements of urban planning in recent years and have been organized based on ecological and social services to provide regulated climate, recreational occasions, environmental conservation and biodiversity, while they also supply social and psychological necessities of the community [30]. While residential landscapes have been taken into account for their aesthetic value, recently, residential landscapes, especially trees, have been interested, due to their role in ecosystem services, such as reducing air pollution, reducing energy use, and regulating microclimatic conditions in the cities [31].

There is a need to gain experience to make a bridge between human and nature from urban and landscape design aspects. Our neighborhoods and cities, as designed mess, face to the lack of practice of design, which concerns comprehension of ecology [32]. As emphasized by Ryn and Cowan "*in* [32]", "until our everyday activities keep ecological integration by design, their cumulative effect will keep to be destroying". Ecological planning, ecological urban design, and landscape design provides a framework for retrofitting and redesigning urban environ‐ ments, streets, avenues, landscapes, buildings, and cities with the natural components, besides of physical elements. Urban designers imagine the future of the city, and point out their architectural and infrastructural perspectives from the neighborhood to the regional scale [9]. These approaches are essential principles for profession experts on architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning to plan and design in urban areas.

#### **3.3. Ecological architecture/ecological design**

Beginning planning process and keeping on urban and landscape design at urban scale, ecological principles, and indicators should be also taken into account at building design. Ecological principles in spatial planning can be realized when they are kept on architecture. This approach based on ecology is essential either for sustainability or sustainable urbaniza‐ tion.

Ecological design was defined "as any form of design that minimizes environmentally destroying effects by integrating itself with living processes" by Ryn and Cowan "*in refer‐ ence* [32]*"*. This integrative definition addresses ecologically responsible design, which is not only a style, but also a form integrated with nature. In the context of the definition, "ecologi‐ cal architecture is eco-design approach to policies that an enhanced thought systematic", enhancing the conservation and improvement of microclimate, the new buildings for green areas by improving the energy and ecological principles of old buildings, and is located in the renewal of ecological architecture thought systematics [33]. Based upon the principle of ecological architectural design, it discusses architectural ecological design strategy from water saving, energy saving, earth resource saving, humanistic environment, and greening ecolog‐ ical environment, so as to enhance the sustainability of urban development and realize the sustainable development of architectural industry.

With the ecological/sustainable design approach, the effects on the environment of the construction materials used in building should be examined [34]. The scope of ecological design embraces the study of architects rethinking their preferences of building materials [32]. The production process of building materials has negative effect on the nature; "harvesting trees could result in deforestation; mining mineral resources destroys the nature and causes environmental pollution" [34].

As it should be in both planning and urban design-landscape design process, one of the ecological indicators of architecture is to integrate of architecture and greenery as a part of urban green network. Some researches on sustainability of cities have promoted the applica‐ tion and protection of green components in the urban context. At this point, green architec‐ ture and green planning are of great importance. The benefits of plants, which will improve the climate and ventilation, reduce energy and water usage, are not just environmental but recreational, aesthetic, and emotional. In the last 10 years, a lot of studies about the full benefits of plants in building and the role they play in the ecology of cities were conducted. In addition, many indicators were evaluated by researchers for measuring of ecological benefits of green components in architecture.

With the multiple expressions based on "design with nature" approach, recently, "ecological accounting" has become a major force in architecture and construction. The guidance of ecology in design, it creates new aspects to design to minimize energy and materials use, reduce pollution, improve climate, preserve habitat, and to increase community well-being.

### **3.4. Eco-technologies**

social and psychological necessities of the community [30]. While residential landscapes have been taken into account for their aesthetic value, recently, residential landscapes, especially trees, have been interested, due to their role in ecosystem services, such as reducing air pollution, reducing energy use, and regulating microclimatic conditions in the cities [31].

There is a need to gain experience to make a bridge between human and nature from urban and landscape design aspects. Our neighborhoods and cities, as designed mess, face to the lack of practice of design, which concerns comprehension of ecology [32]. As emphasized by Ryn and Cowan "*in* [32]", "until our everyday activities keep ecological integration by design, their cumulative effect will keep to be destroying". Ecological planning, ecological urban design, and landscape design provides a framework for retrofitting and redesigning urban environ‐ ments, streets, avenues, landscapes, buildings, and cities with the natural components, besides of physical elements. Urban designers imagine the future of the city, and point out their architectural and infrastructural perspectives from the neighborhood to the regional scale [9]. These approaches are essential principles for profession experts on architecture, landscape

Beginning planning process and keeping on urban and landscape design at urban scale, ecological principles, and indicators should be also taken into account at building design. Ecological principles in spatial planning can be realized when they are kept on architecture. This approach based on ecology is essential either for sustainability or sustainable urbaniza‐

Ecological design was defined "as any form of design that minimizes environmentally destroying effects by integrating itself with living processes" by Ryn and Cowan "*in refer‐ ence* [32]*"*. This integrative definition addresses ecologically responsible design, which is not only a style, but also a form integrated with nature. In the context of the definition, "ecologi‐ cal architecture is eco-design approach to policies that an enhanced thought systematic", enhancing the conservation and improvement of microclimate, the new buildings for green areas by improving the energy and ecological principles of old buildings, and is located in the renewal of ecological architecture thought systematics [33]. Based upon the principle of ecological architectural design, it discusses architectural ecological design strategy from water saving, energy saving, earth resource saving, humanistic environment, and greening ecolog‐ ical environment, so as to enhance the sustainability of urban development and realize the

With the ecological/sustainable design approach, the effects on the environment of the construction materials used in building should be examined [34]. The scope of ecological design embraces the study of architects rethinking their preferences of building materials [32]. The production process of building materials has negative effect on the nature; "harvesting trees could result in deforestation; mining mineral resources destroys the nature and causes

architecture, urban planning to plan and design in urban areas.

**3.3. Ecological architecture/ecological design**

sustainable development of architectural industry.

environmental pollution" [34].

tion.

260 Sustainable Urbanization

Although technologic improvement and economic development have increased in most countries, the numbers of livable cities and healthy environments have decreased. It is time to exchange damaging behaviors of the human and to reduce ecological footprints on the earth and on the settlements [5]. The cities experienced unpredicted economic development in recent years, have faced severe challenges caused by ecological and environmental degradation due to over-consumption of natural resources. Although ecology and technology look as if they are contrary to each other, taking into account the connection between them makes cities livable and sustainable.

Despite susbstantial socioeconomic achievements, concerns are growing over water availa‐ bility and pollution, land degredation, and depletion of exhaustible resources [35]. Rapid urbanization associated with economic development is thus considered to be unsustainable, and supporting the ambitious goals of building an economically livable and environmental‐ ly sustainable society is difficult over the long term [35]. Urbanization is an integral compo‐ nent of economic development and civil evolution, as observed in both developed and developing countries. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions are a direct result of the urbanization and industrialization process. Urbanization planning must include purposeful CO2 emission control through comprehensive and scientific design [36].

Ecological engineering and eco-technology can be defined "as the design of human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both" [37]. Eco-technology can also be identi‐ fied "as the usage of technological methods for environmental management so as to mini‐ mize damage to the environment" [38]. However, as technology uses methods causes harmful impact on environment, eco-technology uses remediation techniques with the aim of a greenery environment and environmentally friendly products or processes [38].

The protection of natural environment resources, which are impossible regain, is bound up with eco-economic policies, adoption of eco-technologies and usage of them. Environmental consequences of productions and services have also become a significant theme for enter‐ prise management. Resent approach on enterprises' environmental precautions aims envi‐ ronmental performance of production process, especially, through eco-innovation [39]. In order to minimize environmental effects of a production and to realize its life cycle, design, and post-design processes should be organized in accordance with ecological principles.
