**2.2. Artisanal fishermen**

*cavalla* (9.9%) and *Thunnus albacares* (3.1%) in surface line and "corrisco" operations; *Opistho‐ nema oglinum* (23.1%), *Scomberomorus brasiliensis* (14.1%) and *Euthynnus alleteratus* (6.3%) in mid-water gillnet operations; *Carangoides bartholomaei* (5.6%), *Ocyurus chrysurus* (5.3%) and *Rhizoprionodon porosus* (5.3%) in bottom net operations; *Hemiramphus brasiliensis* (78.2%) and *Hyporhampus unifasciatus* (21.1%) in set gillnet operations; only *Hirundichthys affinis* in flying

Corral fishing has also been recorded in the region, which involves a fixed trap made of stakes and wire similar to a fence, which imprisons fishes inside until their removal at low tide. These traps are deployed in regions where the continental shelf is wide and has a low incline. This practice is mainly found in the states of Ceará (91.1%) and Pernambuco (8.0%). In the state of Maranhão, only 10% of fishery production comes from corral fishing due to the high cost and need for constant maintenance. Fifty-seven species distributed among 26 families and 13 orders have been recorded, among which 22 species have commercial value in the region, such as *Scomberomorus brasiliensis, Centropomus parallelus, Cynoscion acoupa, Mugil curema* and *Megalops*

The trawl net is bottom gear for catching shrimp that has structures, denominated otter boards, to maintain the net open. *Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis, Penaeus schmitti* and *Xiphopenaeus kroyeri* are the main species targeted in such operations [16]. The use of this gear is restricted to the mouths of important rivers due to the occurrence of reefs throughout nearly the entire coastal region [18], which impede trawling. The state of Alagoas accounted for the largest production of shrimp in the region between 1991 and 2001, followed by the states of Ceará and

Lobster fishing is performed over bottoms with calcareous algae on the continental shelf using three catch methods: (1) traps (locally denominated "covo" or "manzuá"), very similar to the fish traps employed in the state of Pernambuco, at depths of 10 to 40 m; this was the first method developed for catching lobster, but is currently little used due to its low degree of productivity; (2) dive fishing, in which the fisher dives with an air tank, catching lobsters in an active fashion; and (3) a gillnet made with multi-filament nylon 0.3 to 0.4 mm in diameter, buoys on the upper section and lead sinkers on the lower section at depths of 20 to 70 m [16]. Despite the fact that dive fishing and gillnet fishing are widely employed in the northeastern region, Brazilian law n 11.959 issued on June 29th, 2009 [20] prohibits these practices, which are considered predatory methods. In one community in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, 53.2% of the interviewees caught lobster using a gillnet, 20.6% performed dive fishing and only 9.5% deployed traps [21]. The same has been found in a community in the state of Ceará [26], demonstrating that illegal lobster fishing practices continue to be employed in the region due

to the greater yields leading to overexploitation and unsustainability of this fishing.

The state of Ceará was the largest national lobster producer between 1991 and 2001, followed by the state of Rio Grande do Norte, with *Panulirus argus* and *Panulirus laevicauda* the main species targeted [16]. In recent decades, lobster stocks have suffered from overfishing due to the large number of vessels, illegal catch methods and catches of juveniles smaller than the permitted size [26]. Thus, this type of fishery has a defense period in the breeding season (December to May), when lobster fishing is prohibited by Law n 11959/2009 [20] and Norma‐

fish net operations; and *Pseudupeneus maculatus* in trap operations (45.6%) [24].

*atlanticus* [16, 25].

92 Sustainable Urbanization

Sergipe [16].

Coastal areas in Brazil have very productive ecosystems, in which fishery and forest resources are important, as such environments ensure the survival of different human populations [34], including artisanal fishermen. Fishermen need to have empirical knowledge regarding natural environments, which was constructed through the process of appropriation of the environ‐ ment during the practice of fishery activities both materially in the form of technologies and symbolically in the form of cognitive systems created in society [35]. Such knowledge involves understanding the environmental variables that affect fishing practices, such as tidal patterns, winds and seasonality, knowing how to manage fishing equipment as well as identifying the different forms of use and ecology of the targeted species, which constitutes vital information to the success of the activity. These characteristics have led to the denomination of artisanal fishermen as traditional peoples. According to Brazilian decree n° 6040 issued on February 7th, 2007 [36], "traditional peoples and communities are culturally differentiated groups that recognize themselves as such, have their own forms of social organization, occupy and utilize territories and natural resources as a condition for their cultural, social, religious, ancestral and economic reproduction, using knowledge, innovations and practices generated and transmit‐ ted through tradition." Communities such as artisanal fishing communities constitute an inestimable cultural heritage [37], but generally reside on the margins of society, overlooked by the government and public policies.

Marine artisanal fishing in Brazil is predominantly a male occupation [21–23, 38–43], which is mainly related to characteristics that favor men, such as the need for physical strength and long periods on the high sea. Women are culturally responsible for other tasks, such as household chores and raising children, which render marine fishing impossible. When women participate in artisanal fishing, they are more involved in shellfish gathering, which is an important activity in the estuaries of northeastern Brazil.

Marine artisanal fishing involves individuals of all ages, from youths to the elderly. In the city of Recife (state of Pernambuco), 80.5% of fishermen are adults [43]. In the community of Itacaré in the state of Bahia, 68% of fishermen are between 26 and 45 years of age [33]. In a rural community in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, 54% of fishermen are between 31 and 50 years of age [21]. The striking presence of adults in fishing communities in the economically active age range confirms the importance of fishery activities to the local economy.

Fishermen generally have a low degree of schooling [43–46]. However, advances in schooling between generations have been found in a community in the city of Recife, where most fishermen have incomplete elementary (26.1%) or high school (25.0%) educations, 61.1% of their parents are illiterate and 25.4% of their descendants have a complete high school education [43]. However, this is not the case in the state of Bahia, where 40.0% of fishermen remain illiterate [44], or the state of Rio Grande do Norte, where 78.8% have an incomplete elementary or middle school education and only 4.7% have a complete high school education [21]. With the reduction in the illiteracy rate in Brazil [47], some urban fishing communities have a higher level of education, which may be related to the proximity to large cities, where schools are more accessible. The low degree of schooling among fishermen exerts a direct effect on the social organization of this class of laborers [42], which may result in the unawareness of workers' rights, thereby weakening this category of professionals and causing both disadvantages and negative repercussions regarding the negotiation of the price of the catch.

Artisanal fishermen generally have ties with the community in which they live and a longer period of time spent in such communities leads to a greater feeling of belonging [48]. This characteristic is fundamental to strengthening the activity, as a united community faces difficulties with greater ease. In the state of Bahia, fishermen reside an average of 40 years in the rural community [44]. In a community in the city of Recife, a large portion of fishermen have resided in the location since birth (42.0%) or since the creation of the neighborhood (10.2%) [43], which demonstrates that, even in an urban community, the influence of urbani‐ zation has not yet changed this important aspect of artisanal fishing.

The type of residence varies considerably with the socioeconomic status of each community. For fishermen in an urban area of the city of Recife, most homes are made with bricks and mortar [43, 45]. In a rural community in the state of Paraíba, a large portion of residences are made of wood and clay [48], but this form of home is being replaced by the practicality and durability of bricks and mortar in the capital of the state [49]. In a rural community in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, the majority of homes were made with sticks and mud. However, the municipal authorities benefitted the residents by constructing homes made of bricks and mortar, thereby changing the face of the community [30].

Sanitation is another factor that varies with the characteristics of the location. Rural fishing communities are generally isolated, with inadequate living conditions, such as the coastline or areas near mangroves, where sanitation conditions are often precarious [46, 48]. For the urban fishermen in the city of Recife [43] and the state of Paraíba [49], the conditions might be considered better. However, a similar situation is reported. Even with more frequent trash collection, most urban waste is dumped into rivers and estuaries near fishing communities, which does not differ from many large cities in Brazil with a sewage system, the treatment of which is incomplete and precarious [50], demonstrating that the deficiency in sanitary conditions is not only found within fishing communities.

Fisheries are important to coastal communities due to the large number of direct and indirect occupations created in the different sectors of the productive chain [37]. In one community in the state of Pernambuco, mean monthly income was higher than the minimum wage at the time, with higher salaries for those with their own fishing vessels. However, 20.9% exerted other activities to complement their income [43]. In communities in the state of Bahia, 55% of fishermen exercise other activities to increase their income [33]. The same is reported for communities in the state of Ceará [21, 26]. Despite the economic importance of fishery activities, income varies based on the yield and many fishermen seek other activities to complement their income, which demonstrates the low yields and economic under-valuation of artisanal fishing practices in northeastern Brazil.
