**7. Area description**

the importance of sustainability in this context, Bai et al. [21] argue that 'the battle for sustain‐

In general, urban land is both precious and scarce, like some other sources. Thus, the main objective of urban planning is providing reuse of the already scarce urban sources taking into account the public interest [12]. To do so, urban planning should be obliged to enable the public interest principle, and establish and apply necessary rules reconciling private interests with the public interest depending on the character of the economic structure and political regime

Nevertheless, decisions on the future of cities should be taken with the participation of the relevant stakeholders mainly consisting of the state sector, local government sector, private sector, civil society organisations, local residents as well as academics. In this context, a sustainable urban renewal strategy should take into consideration the entire life cycle of urban structures from design and construction to the operation and maintenance as well as life

Finally, as a living organism, the city is a hybrid system consisting of structures with natural areas. But, rapid and unplanned urbanisation is the biggest threat in terms of the sustainability of the natural and cultural sites. According to Sancar, technical infrastructure and transporta‐ tion are extremely important for sustainable organisation and also decisive in terms of the quality of urban life [22]. The adequacy or quality of the technical infrastructure is considered to be among the issues to be addressed first. In addition, transportation systems of the vehicles and pedestrian in the city need to be re-evaluated within the understanding of a holistic

In spite of its similarities with the West, urban renewal process in Turkey contains quite significant differences depending on the social and political dynamics. In Turkey, Urban renewal applications usually come on the agenda mainly for political and economic reasons. So, sustainability of these applications is relatively different than the ones explained in the above-mentioned Stockholm's Hammarby Sjöstad district model. The urban renewal projects implemented in Turkey have changed the physical structure of the place, but their results have not been evaluated yet [6]. Besides, being far from the ecological approach, these applications

In addition, in Turkey urban regeneration is almost identical to the Mass Housing Adminis‐ tration (TOKİ), an organisation legally authorized to operate in urban transformation projects and connected to the Prime Ministry of Turkey. TOKİ is also one of the actors in urban renewal applications that provide habitat with local governments, and aims to improve the quality of life, stabilize the increasing economic imbalances, global pressures and social inequality as well as resolve the problems such as the housing shortage. And right now, there are more than two thousand urban renewal projects completed by TOKİ in Turkey, and this number is considered to increase continuously due to the growing need for urban renewal applications.

planning approach in order to achieve the goal of sustainable urbanisation.

could raise serious concern for the future availability and sustainability of cities.

ability will be won or lost'.

160 Sustainable Urbanization

of every country [5].

quality of the residents [8].

**6. Urban renewal in Turkey**

According to the results of Address Based Population Registration System, Turkey's popula‐ tion is 78 million 741 thousand 53 people as of December 31, 2015. In 2015, the population residing in Turkey increased by 1 million 45 thousand 149 people compared to the previous year, and so Turkey's annual population growth rate stood at 13.4 per thousand, whereas it was 13.3 per thousand in 2014. Proportion of the residents in the provinces and districts was 91.8% in 2014, which rose to 92.1% in 2015, and the proportion of the people living in districts and villages was set at 7.9% [23]. These data reveals how much the population has increased in urban centres because of the migrants coming from rural areas.

As for Trabzon, it is a city situated in the North eastern Black Sea region of Turkey with a population of about 768,417 and covers an area of approximately 4685 square kilometres [24]. And Trabzon's population growth rate has increased by 1635% over the previous year. Proportion of the residents in the city centre is 41.67%. In addition, located to the Southeast coast of the Black Sea, Trabzon is between the 38°30′–40°30′ east meridians and 40°30′–41°30′ northern latitudes, as well as surrounded by the cities of Rize in the East, Giresun in the West, and Gümüşhane in the South. Extending Northward from the South, the mountains reach the Black Sea coast as ridges split by valleys and are over 2000 m in places. The amount of active green areas of the province of Trabzon is 867, 673 m2 , and the passive green space is 437, 960 m2 (**Figure 1**).

**Figure 1.** The geographic location of Trabzon [6].

In 1950s, squatting and illegal construction began in Trabzon just like in the other cities of Turkey especially with immigrations to urban areas, rent conflicts, as well as the reflections of amnesty laws that have extended until today. Hosting many physical, social and environ‐ mental problems in this process, the city of Trabzon has adopted urban transformation projects as an important method for the solution of these problems. While Trabzon is a city famous with its natural and social richness, providing sufficient opportunities for people and having a magnificent history of 4000 years, now it is slowly losing its natural green texture, natural coast and the urban memory mainly because of the population growth, rapid and unplanned construction, expanding the coast towards the sea and the environmental pollution. So urban renewal work has been unavoidable for this city too, just like the other cities in the country.

Urban renewal and development projects are implemented in Trabzon by the cooperation of local governments and Mass Housing Administration (TOKİ). Out of a total of 62 projects being implemented, only seven urban renewal application areas will be evaluated in this article. These are the urban transformation projects of Zağnos Valley, Tabakhane Valley, Town Square, Pelitli, Hagia Sophia and Narlıbahçe (**Figure 2**). Of these projects, only Hagia Sophiaurban transformation project is already completed, and 3 of the 4 stages of Zağnos Valley project are completed. Demotion is continuing at the same time in the last stage of Zağnos Valley, Tabakhane Valley, Çömlekçi and Pelitli suburbs. Renovations and infrastructure work in the final stage of the Square Park are ongoing, while in the urban renewal area of Narlıbahçe, no application work has started yet. Continuation of the demolition in four separate places at the same time suggests that some unplanned or unseen social problems are likely to arise in the near future due to the slow progress of the work and rapidly growing housing problem.

**Figure 2.** Urban renewal projects applied in Trabzon (Photos, Trabzon's municipal archive).

The first serious urban planning in Trabzon was conducted in 1938 by Jaquest Lambert, a French architect and urban planner in its history of 4000 years. According to Lambert plan which entered into force in 1938, Zağnos and Tabakhane valleys have been considered as air corridors to provide natural air flow and a planning approach has been adopted in this regard. These valleys are in the city centre and located in very close proximity to the housing, commercial and administrative centres. Located in valleys, Tabakhane and Zağnos bridges are the constructions well worth to preserve, because they have preserved their characteristics so far in the urban fabric and have an important place in the urban transportation. In addition, the limit of Zağnos valley is surrounded by Ortahisar castle in the Protected Area in Grade 1. Migration of the urban people to the city and the rapid increase in urbanisation has led to a distorted and unhealthy construction as well as degeneration of the natural structures of Zağnos and Tabakhane valleys (**Figure 3**). Urban renewal project work of Zağnos Valley was started with a protocol dated November 27, 2004, and signed between Trabzon Municipality and TOKİ, and the urban renewal project work of Tabakhane Valley was started in the same way with a similar protocol dated November 12, 2007 (**Table 1**).

with its natural and social richness, providing sufficient opportunities for people and having a magnificent history of 4000 years, now it is slowly losing its natural green texture, natural coast and the urban memory mainly because of the population growth, rapid and unplanned construction, expanding the coast towards the sea and the environmental pollution. So urban renewal work has been unavoidable for this city too, just like the other cities in the country.

162 Sustainable Urbanization

Urban renewal and development projects are implemented in Trabzon by the cooperation of local governments and Mass Housing Administration (TOKİ). Out of a total of 62 projects being implemented, only seven urban renewal application areas will be evaluated in this article. These are the urban transformation projects of Zağnos Valley, Tabakhane Valley, Town Square, Pelitli, Hagia Sophia and Narlıbahçe (**Figure 2**). Of these projects, only Hagia Sophiaurban transformation project is already completed, and 3 of the 4 stages of Zağnos Valley project are completed. Demotion is continuing at the same time in the last stage of Zağnos Valley, Tabakhane Valley, Çömlekçi and Pelitli suburbs. Renovations and infrastructure work in the final stage of the Square Park are ongoing, while in the urban renewal area of Narlıbahçe, no application work has started yet. Continuation of the demolition in four separate places at the same time suggests that some unplanned or unseen social problems are likely to arise in the near future due to the slow progress of the work and rapidly growing housing problem.

**Figure 2.** Urban renewal projects applied in Trabzon (Photos, Trabzon's municipal archive).

**Figure 3. (a)** Zağnos valley, **(b)** Tabakhane valley (Photos, Trabzon's municipal archive).

Three stages of Zağnos Valley have been completed until 2016, and expropriation and demolition work continues for the 4th stage. Recreational landscaping and residential work has been made in the completed part of the project. In addition, three buildings of historical value have been restored for the present and future generations. Property owners of this valley, where mainly low-income people used to reside, have had to evaluate the proposals presented to them and move to new residential places after receiving their expropriation money. Their options include buying one of the houses built by TOKİ with long-term debt payment or another house they like or moving to any residential place they prefer. So, the residents of this valley have been obliged to separate from each other and live in different places because of this urban renewal project.

Consequently, due to the historical texture of the valley, this application form can be defined as an urban renewal or urban renovation on the one hand, but urban gentrification on the other.


**Table 1.** The views from 1st, 2nd and 3rd stage, the urban renewal project of Zağnos valley (Photos, Yavuz A.).

As for Tabakhane Valley, the detection process in this area has been completed until 2016 and in addition to expropriation work, demolition process continues (**Table 2**). Under the project, recreational landscape work and 353 housing production will be carried out. Undergoing the same process applied to the people living in Zağnos Valley, also the residents of this valley have been obliged to be separated from each other and move into other residential places, which seem quite normal or fair for the central and local governments as the main stakeholders of urban renewal or urban renovation projects.

But the same thing cannot be said for the people who are compulsorily dispersed from their residential place, because of having been obliged to accept one of following three options: Buying a house or flat constructed by TOKİ, or by the private sector. As for the third or last option, it is renting a reasonable house or abandoning the project area before the demolishing work starts, especially for the poor, but a short-term solution lasting just until the money they have been paid has gone.

The Relationship Between Sustainable Urbanisation and Urban Renewal: An Evaluation of Trabzon City Sample http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62951 165


**Zağnos valley I,II, III, 4th stage urban renewal project**

164 Sustainable Urbanization

of urban renewal or urban renovation projects.

have been paid has gone.

Beginning/ending year 2004/— Area 30 hectare Number of destroyed buildings 583 The total number of buildings will be demolished 636

**Table 1.** The views from 1st, 2nd and 3rd stage, the urban renewal project of Zağnos valley (Photos, Yavuz A.).

As for Tabakhane Valley, the detection process in this area has been completed until 2016 and in addition to expropriation work, demolition process continues (**Table 2**). Under the project, recreational landscape work and 353 housing production will be carried out. Undergoing the same process applied to the people living in Zağnos Valley, also the residents of this valley have been obliged to be separated from each other and move into other residential places, which seem quite normal or fair for the central and local governments as the main stakeholders

But the same thing cannot be said for the people who are compulsorily dispersed from their residential place, because of having been obliged to accept one of following three options: Buying a house or flat constructed by TOKİ, or by the private sector. As for the third or last option, it is renting a reasonable house or abandoning the project area before the demolishing work starts, especially for the poor, but a short-term solution lasting just until the money they

**Table 2.** The views from Tabakhane valley urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

The first phase of the urban renewal process in Meydan Park (park square) was completed in 2012, and the second phase work is still ongoing (**Table 3**). Under the project, historical buildings have been restored and the square has been renovated and rid of traffic jams. This project can be defined as renewal application–renovation.


**Table 3.** The views from Meydan Park urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

Çömlekçi neighbourhood urban renewal project work was launched in May 17, 2011, with the agreements signed between TOKİ and Trabzon Municipality (**Table 4**). The detection work of this project has been completed, but the expropriation studies are still ongoing. In the project area, a new centre of attraction is aimed to create in addition to the housing and communal ling areas for the city. This application can be defined as urban clearance.

#### **Çömlekçi urban renewal project**

**Meydan park urban renewal project**

166 Sustainable Urbanization

Beginning/ending year 2011 Area 1.6 hectare

Number of destroyed buildings 0 The total number of buildings will be demolished 0

**Table 3.** The views from Meydan Park urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

ling areas for the city. This application can be defined as urban clearance.

Çömlekçi neighbourhood urban renewal project work was launched in May 17, 2011, with the agreements signed between TOKİ and Trabzon Municipality (**Table 4**). The detection work of this project has been completed, but the expropriation studies are still ongoing. In the project area, a new centre of attraction is aimed to create in addition to the housing and communal

**Table 4.** The views from Çömlekçi urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

Pelitli urban regeneration work began on April 4, 2007, as decided in a protocol signed between TOKİ and Trabzon Municipality (**Table 5**). Detection, expropriation and project work were completed until 2016. Demolishing work was almost over. The project aims to create a new attraction centre in the project area as well as the commercial and common living area. This project also aims to construct TOKİ houses at a 1.5 km. to the seaside for the house owners in the project area in order to extend the suburb toward the south. Besides, 12 pieces of land will be produced and half of them will be given to the landowners and the others sold to the public. So this is a typical urban clearance.



**Table 5.** The views from Pelitli urban renewal project area (Photos, Yavuz A.).

Ayasofya (St. Sophia) urban renewal project work stared on May 27, 2009, with the protocols signed between TOKİ and Trabzon Municipality, and in 2014 it was completed (**Table 6**). Position of St. Sophia museum in the city silhouette has been emphasized in the project scope besides the recreational landscaping work. Now St. Sophia has been one of the most interesting places of the city for the local and foreign tourists who come to Trabzon. Application of the project has made Ayasofya neighbourhood more liveable and legible, and contributed to its socio-economic development.

#### **Ayasofya(St. Sophia)urban renewal project**

**Pelitli urban renewal project**

168 Sustainable Urbanization

Beginning/ending year 2008/ Area 7.8 hectare

Ayasofya (St. Sophia) urban renewal project work stared on May 27, 2009, with the protocols signed between TOKİ and Trabzon Municipality, and in 2014 it was completed (**Table 6**). Position of St. Sophia museum in the city silhouette has been emphasized in the project scope besides the recreational landscaping work. Now St. Sophia has been one of the most interesting places of the city for the local and foreign tourists who come to Trabzon. Application of the project has made Ayasofya neighbourhood more liveable and legible, and contributed to its

Number of destroyed buildings 154 The total number of buildings will be demolished 159

**Table 5.** The views from Pelitli urban renewal project area (Photos, Yavuz A.).

socio-economic development.


**Table 6.** The views from Ayasofya (St. Sophia) urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

On June 06, 2011, a protocol was signed between TOKİ and Trabzon Municipality for Narlı‐ bahçe urban renewal project work (**Table 7**). This area, local government buildings, is the second largest centre of the city. Actually, there would be a kind of renewal or renovation application here due to the existence of some historical buildings. But the project is still in the decision process due to some disagreements between the stakeholders. Actually, expropriation price is considered to be relatively high because of the high land values in this area. So, TOKİ does not want to get involved in this project unless the expropriation is lowered to a more affordable level. In this case, when the parties will reach an agreement is not known yet, but the absence of a fast and effective decision mechanism to resolve this sort of disagreements or conflicts legally, rationally and fairly is obvious.

**Narlibahçe urban renewal project**

Beginning/ending year —/— Area 16 hectare

Number of destroyed buildings The total number of buildings will be demolished

**Table 7.** The views from Narlıbahçe urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

On the other hand, the rapid growth and development movements occurring in large cities since the 1950s have led to changes in the physical structure of the city Trabzon, and Beşirli and Pelitli regions are united due to this process. In addition, housing demand and the consequent increase in land prices have excessively disrupted the reconstruction in the city and caused the expansion of landfills in coastal areas. Although completed 5 years ago, the coastal landfills are now ongoing again with an additional project and the coast is subject to constant change. The city has been affected by the movements of migration from the neigh‐ bouring provinces due to urbanisation movement. In addition, a new restructuring process has been started in the city, which includes Havaalanı district, the ports, universities, business areas and public buildings. So the people residing in these reconstruction areas have been forced to find new settlements, choosing one of the several proposals presented to them. The report by Trabzon Provincial Environmental Status Report dated 2010 says the city cannot benefit from the air currents and wind corridors as in the past, and especially the intensity of winter air pollution in the city has reached disturbing levels [25]. Besides, Trabzon cement factory, located outside of the city once, increases the air and visual pollution of the district. Also the other small- and medium-scale industries still existing near this factory relatively worsen the present situation.

does not want to get involved in this project unless the expropriation is lowered to a more affordable level. In this case, when the parties will reach an agreement is not known yet, but the absence of a fast and effective decision mechanism to resolve this sort of disagreements or

Beginning/ending year —/— Area 16 hectare

On the other hand, the rapid growth and development movements occurring in large cities since the 1950s have led to changes in the physical structure of the city Trabzon, and Beşirli and Pelitli regions are united due to this process. In addition, housing demand and the consequent increase in land prices have excessively disrupted the reconstruction in the city and caused the expansion of landfills in coastal areas. Although completed 5 years ago, the coastal landfills are now ongoing again with an additional project and the coast is subject to

Number of destroyed buildings The total number of buildings will be demolished

**Table 7.** The views from Narlıbahçe urban renewal project (Photos, Yavuz A.).

conflicts legally, rationally and fairly is obvious.

**Narlibahçe urban renewal project**

170 Sustainable Urbanization

Zağnos valley is known to be the oldest residential place in Trabzon. Unplanned construction began in this valley especially with the migrations from the neighbouring provinces Gümüşh‐ ane and Bayburt, and continued for years. When looked over the historical Zağnos Bridge, twisted and ugly buildings stand out instead of the historical and cultural values. So, renova‐ tion in this valley was really significant due to the various problems accumulated for years or centuries. The project implemented here has taken the historical and cultural values of this residential place into consideration. There are few restored housed and some trees the in the valley converted almost into its original form, so it looks like a very large place for recreational activities. All the residents are gone.

Trabzon Meydan'ı (town square), was the departure and destination point of the public transportation as well as one of the main reasons of the traffic problem in the city. But now, the square has thoroughly changed and the traffic is no more a serious problem in the district due to the rationally made and implemented renewal project. It is now important place providing important activities such as meeting, sitting, rest and relaxation without disturbance from traffic noise.

Çömlekçi regions, one of the city's oldest commercial and residential neighbourhoods, as a typical residential place, have to deal with not only their own socio-economic and cultural problems, but also the problems arising from their commercial section. These problems began to increase, especially in the 1990s when the Russian and Georgian retailers, customers as well as tourists chose this neighbourhood most convenient for their needs. And this situation significantly accelerated the economic development of the district on the one hand, but increased the architectural, environmental as well as socio-cultural problems in an intolerable way on the other. Therefore, this neighbourhood desperately requires a sustainable regener‐ ation.

In the 1980s, Beşirli and Pelitli zones were among the favourite places of interest in terms of urbanisation. But the sustainable urbanisation strategy specifically established for these districts could not be implemented in Pelitli zone because of various reasons. Unlike Beşirli suburb, Pelitli suburb sped up the urbanisation process in an uncontrollable way in order to meet the rapidly growing need for housing of the people such as university students and industrial workers. As a result, this suburb is going to have a new process of regeneration before the still ongoing urbanisation one is completed, and this is not only an ordinary failure or ridiculous mistake, but also an extraordinary experience for all the stakeholders who involve in 'sustainable' urban renewal processes.

Unlike the Pelitli suburb example, the regeneration process implemented in Ayasofya (St. Sophia) neighbourhood is an architectural wonder with the church dating back to Trabzon Pontus Greek Empire period, and the neighbourhood, a small-scale commercial as well as residential place. Due to the implemented renewal project, this neighbourhood and the church, now functioning as a historical museum, are relatively more legible. The project has also contributed to the socio-economic and cultural development of the neighbourhood. Especially, the church area is also used for social and recreational activities (**Figure 4**). When looked from the highway passing through the seaside, you cannot stop admiring the natural beauty and architectural structure and success of the urban renewal application in this neighbourhood. In fact, a specific attention must have been paid to this project due to the historical value, natural beauty and location of the neighbourhood.

**Figure 4.** The examples of different activities: open space photography, TV interview (Photos, Yavuz A.).

So, when slum areas and illegal structures are converted by the urban renewal projects, new housing is being built especially for the low-income citizens and sold to them through longterm and low-interest loans. As a result, prices of housing constructed by the private sector have fallen to a reasonable level due to the competition created for the benefit of people. This urban renewal process increases people's living standards, environmental awareness as well as socio-economic power in a positive way and significantly encourages both urbanisation and modernisation despite relatively harming the existing ecosystem of the urban areas due to some unexpected or unavoidable reasons. But whether or not the urban renewal work done in Trabzon is truly sustainable is not so obvious; and it is hoped that the rubbish policies followed in the past in terms of creating unhealthy and unsustainable urbanisation will remain in the past and never reoccur in the future as repeatedly recurring cancer cases. So, the following are considered highly recommendable:
