**3. Result and analysis**

*2.2.1.3. Infrastructure*

20 Sustainable Urbanization

As seen from the development of urban areas, transport infrastructure will necessarily accelerate the expansion of urban land‐use and is one of the primary driving forces of urban expansion [70]. Chen and Xia [71] also reported that a cross‐regional high‐speed rail network had greatly advanced China's urban development. In this study, we therefore presented a qualitative analysis of the impact of railways in the Indochinese Peninsula on urbanization during the period from 2000 to 2015. **Figure 7** shows existing, under construction, and planned/ potential railways in countries of the Indochinese Peninsula in 2012. These data were obtained from the GMS Core Environment Program of ADB and were developed based on the Inter‐ national Vector Data and ADB maps [72]. These data provided the state of the railways in the

According to the econometric analysis by Huff and Angeles [73], in some Southeast Asian countries, the measures of globalization are more predictive of urbanization than domestic factors. Increasingly, the five countries in the Indochinese Peninsula are linked with the global economy through both trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) [74], and their increased outward orientation toward regional and global markets was regarded as a key contributing factor to the rapid growth during the 2000s [75]. To present a comprehensive analysis of the driving forces for urban expansion in this region, the FDI inward data and Total Merchandise Exports (TME) data were used in this chapter; they were designed to investigate the impact of foreign economic and trade relations on the region's urbanization. These two data sets were obtained from the GMS Statistics data set on the ADB Website [66], and the source of their data was the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTD) [76]. **Figure 8** shows the FDI

**Figure 8.** Map showing the FDI inward to Myanmar, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos for the period from 2001

In addition, as a neighboring country, China has played an important role in the economic development for the five countries of the Indochinese Peninsula; in GMS, according to Poncet [77], there has been a high degree of trade linkage between China's Yunnan Province and its

Indochinese Peninsula around 2012 for academic research.

inward (a) and TME (b) for the five countries in the region.

to 2013 **(a)** and TME of the five countries for the period from 2001 to 2014 **(b)**.

*2.2.1.4. Foreign economic and trade relations*

#### **3.1. Analysis of urban expansion in the Indochinese Peninsula**

For clear information about urban expansion at the national level, the spatial data on built‐up areas for the East Asian region for the period from 2000 to 2010 developed by WB were used first (data source: Platform for Urban Management and Analysis (PUMA) of WB [4]). **Fig‐ ure 10** shows the built‐up area in the countries of the Indochinese Peninsula in 2000 and 2010. Generally, as shown in the figure, regionwide from 2000 to 2010, the built‐up area increased approximately 1963.2 km2 , expanding from 11,022.21 to 12,985 km2 . In addition, Thailand and Vietnam had much larger urban land areas in both 2000 and 2010 than the other three countries. **Table 7** shows the expansion area, expansion rate, and annual change rate for urban sprawl of the five countries for the period from 2000 to 2010. The expansion rate shows a clear heterogeneity in the region and that Thailand and Vietnam's expansion rates were higher than those of the other countries.

**Figure 10.** Built‐up area (km<sup>2</sup> ) in countries of the Indochinese Peninsula in 2000 and 2010.


**Table 7.** Expansion area, rate, and annual change rate for urban sprawl in countries of the Indochinese Peninsula for the period from 2000 to 2010.

**Table 8** shows the built‐up areas of Bangkok, Chonburi, Yangon, Naypyidaw, Hanoi, Bien Hoa, Phnom Penh, and Vientiane in 2000, 2010, and 2015 (Vientiane in 2000 and 2010), and **Table 9** shows the expansion rate and annual change rate for urban sprawl in those eight cities for the period from 2000 to 2015 (Vientiane for the period from 2000 to 2010). As shown in the tables, the built‐up area of the cities in the Indochinese Peninsula, except for Phnom Penh and Vientiane, increased quickly with increased urbanization from the period from 2000 to 2015. In 2015, the built‐up area of Bangkok reached 1211.55 km<sup>2</sup> , increasing 397.19 km<sup>2</sup> compared to the year 2000, which shows that Bangkok has experienced a rapid urban expansion in terms of space during the past 15 years. The high annual change rate also indicates Bangkok's rapid urbanization from 2000 to 2015, especially in the past 5 years. Chonburi, Thailand, also experienced rapid urban development in the past 15 years, and the built‐up area of Chonburi was approximately 94.51 km<sup>2</sup> in 2000 but reached 466.56 km<sup>2</sup> in 2015, which appears approx‐ imately five times larger than in 2000; moreover, Chonbur's annual change rate is 37.7%, the largest among the cities studied, from 2010 to 2015, which indicates a much more rapid urban development than Bangkok and the other cities in that period. In Myanmar, the built‐up areas of Yangon in 2000, 2010, and 2015 are all larger than those of Naypyidaw, which indicates a high urbanization level in Yangon. Nevertheless, the expansion rate and the annual change rate of Naypyidaw are much larger than those of Yangon during the period because Myanmar's capital was moved to Naypyidaw from Yangon in 2006, thus greatly promoted urban devel‐ opment in the latter city. Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, has the biggest built‐up areas among the eight cities. The built‐up areas of Hanoi expanded immensely in the past 15 years, increas‐ ing from 284.4 to 1164.1 km<sup>2</sup> . The annual change rate in Hanoi from 2010 to 2015 is 36.6%, whereas it was 4.5% in the period from 2000 to 2010, which shows that Hanoi has experienced more rapid urban development in the past 5 years. Bien Hoa, as an industrial city in Vietnam, also rapidly expanded its built‐up area from 2000 to 2015, with its area increasing from 58.38 to 121.54 km2 . Bien Hoa's proximity to Ho Chi Minh City and its convenient transportation are considered two important contributions to its rapid urban development. Similar to the situation in the national level, the built‐up area in Phnom Penh and Vientiane are both small and the urban development levels of the two cities are relatively low. The lower expansion rate and the annual change rate also prove that the urbanization of Phnom Penh and Vientiane is slower than in other cities, and there is room for growth in their urban development.


**Table 8.** Built‐up area (km<sup>2</sup> ) of the eight cities selected in this study for the years 2000, 2010, and 2015.

**Figure 10.** Built‐up area (km<sup>2</sup>

the period from 2000 to 2010.

was approximately 94.51 km<sup>2</sup>

ing from 284.4 to 1164.1 km<sup>2</sup>

Expansion area (km<sup>2</sup>

22 Sustainable Urbanization

Expansion rate (km<sup>2</sup>

) in countries of the Indochinese Peninsula in 2000 and 2010.

) 182.54 749.88 897.63 60.59 72.58

/year) 20.28 83.32 99.74 6.73 8.06

**Item Myanmar Thailand Vietnam Laos Cambodia**

**Table 7.** Expansion area, rate, and annual change rate for urban sprawl in countries of the Indochinese Peninsula for

**Table 8** shows the built‐up areas of Bangkok, Chonburi, Yangon, Naypyidaw, Hanoi, Bien Hoa, Phnom Penh, and Vientiane in 2000, 2010, and 2015 (Vientiane in 2000 and 2010), and **Table 9** shows the expansion rate and annual change rate for urban sprawl in those eight cities for the period from 2000 to 2015 (Vientiane for the period from 2000 to 2010). As shown in the tables, the built‐up area of the cities in the Indochinese Peninsula, except for Phnom Penh and Vientiane, increased quickly with increased urbanization from the period from 2000 to 2015.

the year 2000, which shows that Bangkok has experienced a rapid urban expansion in terms of space during the past 15 years. The high annual change rate also indicates Bangkok's rapid urbanization from 2000 to 2015, especially in the past 5 years. Chonburi, Thailand, also experienced rapid urban development in the past 15 years, and the built‐up area of Chonburi

in 2000 but reached 466.56 km<sup>2</sup>

imately five times larger than in 2000; moreover, Chonbur's annual change rate is 37.7%, the largest among the cities studied, from 2010 to 2015, which indicates a much more rapid urban development than Bangkok and the other cities in that period. In Myanmar, the built‐up areas of Yangon in 2000, 2010, and 2015 are all larger than those of Naypyidaw, which indicates a high urbanization level in Yangon. Nevertheless, the expansion rate and the annual change rate of Naypyidaw are much larger than those of Yangon during the period because Myanmar's capital was moved to Naypyidaw from Yangon in 2006, thus greatly promoted urban devel‐ opment in the latter city. Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, has the biggest built‐up areas among the eight cities. The built‐up areas of Hanoi expanded immensely in the past 15 years, increas‐

, increasing 397.19 km<sup>2</sup>

. The annual change rate in Hanoi from 2010 to 2015 is 36.6%,

in 2015, which appears approx‐

compared to

Annual change rate (%) 1.11 1.80 2.37 4.15 3.69

In 2015, the built‐up area of Bangkok reached 1211.55 km<sup>2</sup>


**Table 9.** Expansion rate and annual change rate for urban sprawl in the eight cities for the period from 2000 to 2015.

**Table 10** shows the increased and annual change rate of population growth in cities with populations of more than 300,000 in the Indochinese Peninsula. In general, the total increased population in Thailand is approximately 3,419,230 persons for the period from 2000 to 2010


**Table 10.** Increased (1000 persons) and annual change rate (%) for population growth in cities of the Indochinese Pen‐ insula with populations of more than 300,000.

and 2,408,580 persons from 2010 to 2015. The mean of the annual change rate is approximately 7.78% from 2000 to 2010 and approximately 3.12% from 2010 to 2015, which shows that the UP increased much more slowly in the past 5 years than in the past. It is particularly necessary to note that Samut Prakan, Rayong, and Lampang's UPs grew faster than in the other cities from 2000 to 2010, and this is also the case during the most recent 5 years. The high annual change rate indicates that the three cities have higher urbanization levels than other cities. For cities with populations of more than 300,000 in Vietnam, the UP is also increasing rapidly, with the number growing by 4,312,660 for the period from 2000 to 2010 and 2,844,730 from 2010 to 2015. The mean of the annual change rate is approximately 4.78% and 2.03% for the period from 2000 to 2010 and from 2010 to 2015, respectively, and UP growth also slowed in recent years. In Thailand, no city showed an obvious population increase for the past 15 years, except for Can Tho. There are six cities with populations of more than 300,000 in Myanmar, and the increased population in those cities is 2,291,120 for the period from 2000 to 2010 and 904,590 for the period from 2010 to 2015. The mean of the annual change rate is 30.1% for the period from 2000 to 2010 but only 1.53% from 2010 to 2015. It should be noted that the annual change rate in Naypyidaw for the period from 2000 to 2010 is far greater than in other cities, which proves once again that moving the capital significantly contributed to population growth in Naypyidaw. Unlike the situation of urban expansion, the population of Vientiane, Laos, grew rapidly during the past 15 years; this growth was more obvious in the previous decade. Phnom Penh's population only increased by approximately 582,580 persons over the past 15 years and its population growth rate remains lower compared to other cities during that period.

#### **3.2. Analysis of driving forces for urban expansion in the Indochinese Peninsula**

## *3.2.1. Geographical elements*

Geographical location, including absolute and relative location, plays an important role in the formation and development of the city, and the correlation between urban growth and geographical location is primarily reflected in the interaction between urban and geographic elements. A city's location is the characteristic of the combination of the city, nature, politics, and economics in space, and a favorable geographic location will promote urban development. In addition, the urban area's geographical location can also decide the specificity of the city's function and size. The urban development in the countries of the Indochinese Peninsula is generally affected by their relative geographical location, and cities with populations of more than 500,000 are primarily distributed around the coastal areas of the Peninsula (see **Fig‐ ure 1**). Ho Chi Minh City, the largest city in Vietnam, is one of the world's largest seaports, and its urban development is primarily credited to its favorable geographical location, which is close to the rivers. Haiphong, Vietnam's urban development is largely influenced by the international maritime services. In addition, a favorable geographical location is also consid‐ ered as one of the key factors in the urban development of Yangon, Myanmar. In any event, geographical location has determined the development of cities in the Indochinese Peninsula, at least to some extent.

#### *3.2.2. Transport infrastructure elements*

and 2,408,580 persons from 2010 to 2015. The mean of the annual change rate is approximately 7.78% from 2000 to 2010 and approximately 3.12% from 2010 to 2015, which shows that the UP increased much more slowly in the past 5 years than in the past. It is particularly necessary to

**Table 10.** Increased (1000 persons) and annual change rate (%) for population growth in cities of the Indochinese Pen‐

insula with populations of more than 300,000.

**Cities Country Population**

24 Sustainable Urbanization

**growth from 2000 to 2010**

Bangkok 1852.88 2.9 1056.46 1.3 Chonburi 184.14 9.9 147.49 4.0 Hat Yai 79.16 4.2 48.97 1.8 Lampang 131.20 8.7 100.55 3.6 Nakon Patchasima **Thailand** 98.40 4.8 62.90 2.1 Nonthaburi 74.57 2.5 41.40 1.1 Rayong 121.53 11.2 101.92 4.4 Samut Prakan 703.96 18.1 721.48 6.6 Udon Thani 173.39 7.7 127.41 3.2 Bien Hao 228.45 5.0 147.83 2.2 Can Tho 412.09 9.4 324.05 3.8 Da Nang 237.35 4.2 146.88 1.8 Hanoi 1151.28 6.9 818.47 2.9 Haiphong **Vietnam** 290.34 4.8 186.50 2.1 Hue 71.47 3.0 40.97 1.3 Nha Trang 32.09 1.2 15.61 0.5 Ho Chi Minh City 1800.00 4.1 1108.41 1.8 Vung Tau 89.59 4.4 56.01 1.9 Bago 136.10 4.7 90.13 2.1 Mandalay 222.81 2.7 133.67 1.3 Mawlamyine **Myanmar** 93.82 2.8 56.43 1.3 Monywa 140.95 5.9 98.89 2.6 Naypyidaw 908.04 162 65.68 0.7 Yangon 789.40 2.5 459.79 1.2 Vientiane **Laos** 318.99 7.2 235.45 3.1 Phnom Penh **Cambodia** 361.01 2.2 221.57 1.1

**Annual change rate from 2000 to 2010**

**Population growth from 2010 to 2015**

**Annual change rate from 2010 to 2015**

> There is a complicated relationship between urban development and the transport infrastruc‐ ture, and urban development creates many advanced vehicles to improve the urbanization

process. The influence of the transport infrastructure on urban development primarily emanates from two important aspects. First, we consider metropolitan transportation and exterior traffic conditions. Very convenient transportation conditions can optimize the industrial layout of the city, and its changes can directly affect the city's structure and industrial layout. Second, convenient transportation conditions also have a substantial impact on economic development, thus accelerating urbanization. Moreover, the direction of emigration is decided by the transport infrastructure, and convenient transportation conditions provide opportunities for labor‐force exchanges. In the cities of the Indochinese Peninsula, in addition to the influence of seaway transportation, regional railways' transportation conditions determine urban development. **Figure 7** shows that the big cities in the region all follow convenient railway transportation. This phenomenon can be better illustrated by the urban development differentials among the five countries. As mentioned above, the level of urban development in the five countries reveals heterogeneity, and the urbanization process for the period from 2000 to 2015 varies by country. Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar, which have more developed railway networks, show much stronger capabilities in their urban develop‐ ment than do Laos and Cambodia. To improve the railways, basic facilities construction is essential for urbanization in Laos and Cambodia. Furthermore, with the development of high‐ speed rail, the cities in the Indochinese Peninsula will obtain a new development opportunity.

### *3.2.3. Economic growth elements*

Most empirical studies report that economic growth promoted the increase of both the built‐ up areas and UP growth, and there is a strong correlation between economic growth and urbanization [81, 82]. **Table 11** shows the summary statistical results from the linear regression model examining the relationship between urbanization and GDP in the countries of the Indochinese Peninsula during the period from 2001 to 2014. In general, we learn that there is an obvious correlation between UP (% of total) and GDP in each country, with an average value of 0.981. Additionally, there are no significant differences in the *R* values among the countries. Furthermore, the functions of the linear regression model indicate that UP grows with the increase of GDP, demonstrating the most direct influence on UP growth by economic growth in the cities.


a The functions were valid because they all passed the *F*‐test, and all of the regression coefficients passed the *t*‐test (at the level of 0.05).

**Table 11.** Relationship between urbanization in the countries of the Indochinese Peninsula and GDP during the period from 2001 to 2014 (*n* = 14).
