**5. Turkish current spatial planning process**

Governance is a broader concept than administration or government. If governance is the structure, then it is easily claimed that elitist planning decisions come from the authority beyond will not be the case for sustainable urban planning. A participatory democratic decision-making process is seen as the requirement of the sustainable planning that gover‐

Another important subject is the inclusive decision-making strategy. This is defined as a strategy where norms of good governance are put into practice [5]. Inclusiveness is related with participatory decision-making processes, equal opportunities, safeness, information clarity, equal access to urban services, and consideration of urban poor and marginal groups. Another determinant and essential factor of sustainable planning is the monitoring process after plan making. Though it is not included in the plan-making process, it has a very crucial meaning for the proper implementation of the plans. When sustainability is considered, monitoring stage is used to test whether primarily defined sustainable goals are accomplish‐

These goals are highly related with sustainability indicators. Another factor for the sustaina‐ ble urban planning is the integration of sustainability indicators into the planning process. Rosales and Yazar insisted on the importance and necessity of these indicators in planning. Rosales [6] defines them as ex-ante tools in urban planning. These indicators are classified as environmental, economic, and social. These indicators were first discussed in first Aalborg Conference in 1994 [7] and emphasized that they ought to take place within urban planning

In this part, the focus is on the basic characteristics and application of a rational comprehen‐ sive planning method instead of a detailed history of urban planning and legal aspects of

History of the Turkish spatial planning system dates back to the second half of the nine‐ teenth century of the Ottoman period. These efforts are known as spatial arrangements rather than an official urban planning. This situation is also true for the 1920s and 1930s; the first years of the new Turkish Republic. Urban spatial planning was first institutionalized after the acceptance of the first Development and Zoning Law in 1956 numbered as 6785. This date was important as urbanization in Turkey was really accelerated after 1950 hand in hand with

As masses of people from rural areas started to migrate to big cities, such as Ankara and İstanbul, new urban planning arrangements and efforts on spatial planning were started with the first Development and Zoning Law accepted in 1956. This law gave way to a rational comprehensive planning approach for the Turkish spatial planning system. Also regarding the whole planning concept; "planned era" was started in 1960 at the country level with the establishment of State Planning Organization. (Note: It was transformed into Ministry of

nance is the key in the process.

274 Sustainable Urbanization

in the second Aalborg Conference in 2004 [8].

industrialization efforts.

**4. A brief history of Turkish spatial planning system**

spatial planning in Turkey as it has a very changing structure.

ed or not.

The Turkish urban planning system is a rational comprehensive one with a strict hierarchy of various kinds of plans varying from strategy plans to urban design stage. Though urban design is appreciated at the Project level, provisions concerning urban design are added to the legislation. Especially, the implementation of the urban decisions is shown at the scale of Implementation Plan level.

"Regulation on Making Spatial Plans" accepted in 2014 clearly defines the hierarchical system of the Turkish planning system [10]. This hierarchy shows the comprehensive character of the planning system as the hierarchy of the plans is one of the most important characteristic of the rational comprehensive urban planning.

Regarding general planning hierarchy, various plan types can be listed as follows:


Especially, Country Plans and Regional Plans are socioeconomic in character while the spatial strategy plan is in between socioeconomic character and high physical plan level. Environ‐ mental Order Plans can be included into high physical plan level. Master Development Plan level and Implementation Plan levels are characterized by the local physical plan levels.

The plan-making process represents the comprehensive rational planning process that is divided into the four main groups, these are listed in a hierarchical manner as follows:


Basic characteristics of the spatial planning system can be itemized as follows:

– All plans have to obey the decisions of the current upper plans and all of them have to direct the lower plan hierarchies.

– Regarding land use and built-up environment, development authorities and the all stake‐ holders in the society and citizens have to obey the decisions of Spatial Strategic Plans, Environmental Order Plans, and Master Plans.

– All other plans have to maintain inputs for these plans.

– Local governments have to obey the decisions of Environmental Order Plans while prepar‐ ing the Master Development Plans and Implementation Plans.

The main characteristics of these plans have to be identified to understand the convenience of the system for sustainable urban planning and sustainable urban development.

#### **5.1. Spatial strategic plans**

These plans are appreciated as the level which integrates the national development policies and regional development strategies with the spatial level. In other words, this plan level stays between the socioeconomic level and the physical plan level. It helps to transform the decisions of national and regional plans into spatial planning of the localities.

It has the following several characteristics:

– Relates the National Development Policies and Regional Development Policies with the spatial level.

– Defines the spatial strategies related to the urban growth, transportation system, and social and technical infrastructure.

– Relates the spatial strategies with sectoral strategies.

– Especially prepared by using schematic and thematic graphic language on 1/250,000 or 1/500,000 or upper scales.

– Prepared for the regions or localities that are appreciated as this plan is necessary.

Planning principles for Spatial Strategic Planning are as follows:

– Conservation of historical and cultural values;

– Minimizing the threats and risks of disasters;

– Maintain sustainable use of resources;

– Country Plans

276 Sustainable Urbanization

– Regional Plans

– Spatial Strategy Plans

– Implementation Plans

– Environmental Order Plans

– Master Development Plans

**a.** Spatial Strategy Planning

**b.** Environmental Order Plans

**c.** Master Development Plans

**d.** Implementation Plans

the lower plan hierarchies.

**5.1. Spatial strategic plans**

Environmental Order Plans, and Master Plans.

It has the following several characteristics:

– All other plans have to maintain inputs for these plans.

ing the Master Development Plans and Implementation Plans.

of national and regional plans into spatial planning of the localities.

Especially, Country Plans and Regional Plans are socioeconomic in character while the spatial strategy plan is in between socioeconomic character and high physical plan level. Environ‐ mental Order Plans can be included into high physical plan level. Master Development Plan level and Implementation Plan levels are characterized by the local physical plan levels.

The plan-making process represents the comprehensive rational planning process that is divided into the four main groups, these are listed in a hierarchical manner as follows:

– All plans have to obey the decisions of the current upper plans and all of them have to direct

– Regarding land use and built-up environment, development authorities and the all stake‐ holders in the society and citizens have to obey the decisions of Spatial Strategic Plans,

– Local governments have to obey the decisions of Environmental Order Plans while prepar‐

The main characteristics of these plans have to be identified to understand the convenience of

These plans are appreciated as the level which integrates the national development policies and regional development strategies with the spatial level. In other words, this plan level stays between the socioeconomic level and the physical plan level. It helps to transform the decisions

the system for sustainable urban planning and sustainable urban development.

Basic characteristics of the spatial planning system can be itemized as follows:

– Distributing infrastructure, service, and production facilities suitable for development policies along urban and rural areas ;

– Maintain public utilization and efficiency in resource use, productivity, and transparency;

– Maintain multidisciplinary mode of planning with contribution of institutions that affect or can be affected from planning such as Development Agencies, Non-Governmental Organiza‐ tions (NGO's), Chambers, Local Governments, Universities, Private Sector Represents;

– Maintain spatial harmony;

– Making of necessary spatial arrangements to establish innovative, flexible, and competi‐ tive economic structure;

– Adaptation capability to the changing conditions.

Elements of the Spatial Strategic Plan are as follows:

– Sectoral and thematic decision sheets/maps on settlement systems, transportation, water, risky situations, infrastructure, economy, and specialized regions.

– Sectoral or thematic sheets/maps of several regions if it is prepared for a region.

– Spatial strategy report including vision and priorities, principles, strategies, sectoral decisions, provisions of the plan, and main headings of the action plan.

Application and monitoring of the Strategic Spatial Planning is maintained by the activity reports of the relevant institutions. These are evaluated in accordance with these institutions and revised if necessary.

As it is the one of the most important stages of all plan levels, also quite a few information and data are collected. These data are with regard to dangerous areas, all types of ecosystems, water resources, site areas, settlement systems, national parks, demographic data, sectoral data, sectoral plans, national development plans, transportation networks, housing strategies, etc.

#### **5.2. Environmental Order Plans**

These plans are implemented at least on the province level or especially at statistical region‐ al units that appreciated as the high-level spatial plan performed at the scale of 1/100,000 or 1/50,000.

Planning principles and essentials can be listed as follows:

– It has to be coherent with spatial strategic plans;

– Regional dynamics and potentials have to be evaluated;

– Sectoral investment decisions that can affect spatial decisions of the related public institu‐ tions have to be evaluated;

– Appropriate ecological and economic decisions have to be decided together to the sustain‐ able development;

– Conservation and improvement of the natural structure and the landscape such as histori‐ cal and cultural assets, forests, agricultural lands, and water resources;

– Maintain unity of land use to preserve continuity of ecological balance and ecosystems;

– Generate routes of transportation network;

– Determine preventing strategies and policies for the environmental problems and generate land use decisions;

– Take precautions for the destructive effects of disasters.

Within the process of preparing Environmental Order Plans, these types of analyses have to be fulfilled:


resources, site areas, settlement systems, national parks, demographic data, sectoral data, sectoral plans, national development plans, transportation networks, housing strategies, etc.

These plans are implemented at least on the province level or especially at statistical region‐ al units that appreciated as the high-level spatial plan performed at the scale of 1/100,000 or

– Sectoral investment decisions that can affect spatial decisions of the related public institu‐

– Appropriate ecological and economic decisions have to be decided together to the sustain‐

– Conservation and improvement of the natural structure and the landscape such as histori‐

– Determine preventing strategies and policies for the environmental problems and generate

Within the process of preparing Environmental Order Plans, these types of analyses have to

– Site areas and other conservation areas, and sensitive areas that have to be preserved;

– Maintain unity of land use to preserve continuity of ecological balance and ecosystems;

**5.2. Environmental Order Plans**

tions have to be evaluated;

able development;

land use decisions;

be fulfilled:

Planning principles and essentials can be listed as follows:

– Regional dynamics and potentials have to be evaluated;

cal and cultural assets, forests, agricultural lands, and water resources;

– It has to be coherent with spatial strategic plans;

– Generate routes of transportation network;

– Take precautions for the destructive effects of disasters.

– All types of borders (administrative, planning etc.);

– Administrative and regional structure;

– Sectoral developments and employment;

– Urban and rural settlements and land use;

– Demographic and social structure;

– Physical and natural structure;

– Economic structure;

– Infrastructural systems;

– Open spaces and green areas;

1/50,000.

278 Sustainable Urbanization


Environmental Order Plans are prepared at the scales of 1/100,000 or 1/50,000. On the other hand, the sensitivity of the 1/25,000 scale is expected. All necessary information and docu‐ ments are gathered by experts and land works. Geographic information systems and remote sensing methods have to be applied in the planning process and a database is generally structured after the work.

If the Environmental Order Plan is not satisfied with the needs or the vision, aims, targets, strategies, and policies are not satisfied with the upper decisions, then a revision of the whole plan has to be made. The revision becomes necessary at the following special circumstances:

– When the population needs are not satisfied,

– When new regional investment opportunities arise which change the basic strategies and policies of the plan,

– When the new land use demand is occurred that has a potential effect on regional issues,

– When there are changes at regional dynamics through new developments.

According to these factors, a plan change can be made, which cannot damage the integrity of the plan decisions and plan continuum.

#### **5.3. Land Development Plans**

This plan is considered as the special spatial plan that allows the application of Spatial Strategic Plan decisions and Environmental Order Plan decisions at the settlement level. These urban plans include constituted alternative solutions for settlement patterns and their growth trends. Land use decisions are the main part of Development Plans. In addition, there are decisions on conservation, limitation, organization, and application.

Land Development Plans are divided into two parts as Master Development Plans and Implementation Plans. All types of Land Development Plans are prepared and approved by the related municipalities.

These plans have to obey the decisions of upper scale plans. In a plan-making process, geological and geotechnical land etudes have to be completed, field surveys, threshold analysis, and other compulsory analysis have to be accomplished, and opinions of the public institutions have to be taken into consideration.

There are several principles that dominate the preparation and application of Land Develop‐ ment Plans in general. These can be listed as follows [11]:


#### *5.3.1. Master Development Plans*

Master Development Plan is prepared at the scale of 1/5000. Plan determines the alternative growth and development structure of the following:


There are several principles that dominate the preparation and application of Land Develop‐

**b.** Principle of clarity: Urban planning decisions and plan have to be known by every stakeholder in the public. This can be maintained by participation of different institu‐

**c.** Principle of universality: Especially, Master Development Plans and upper scale plans

**d.** Hierarchy principle: There is a hierarchical relation between different plans. The main aim is coordination between plans. Upper scale plans have to direct lower scale plans. Their

**e.** Public welfare: One of the important aims of making Land Development Plans is maintaining public welfare. Primarily, urban spatial plans are prepared for public welfare.

**f.** Obligatory characteristics: Plan decisions have to be obeyed by every stakeholder in the

**g.** Flexibility: Urban plans have not to be changed without very important reasons. On the other hand, due to dynamic social structure, and rapidly increasing population, these plans have to be changed within a given time period. So, flexibility covers revision plans

**h.** Long range characteristics: Land Development Plans are long range plans. New regula‐

**i.** Being scientific: Scientific data and information have to be collected and evaluated in the planning process. All analyses that have to be carried out are related to this principle.

**j.** Participation principle: That means individuals taking the decisions about the physical and built-up environment and collaboration in the planning process. According to the Regulation of Making Spatial Plans, participation tools include surveys, opinion re‐ search, meetings, workshops, information services, etc. It becomes important to take

Master Development Plan is prepared at the scale of 1/5000. Plan determines the alternative

society. Also, coherence of various level decisions is important.

show the general and common decisions, and they do not deal with details.

ment Plans in general. These can be listed as follows [11]:

tions and citizens in the planning process.

decisions have to be coherent.

280 Sustainable Urbanization

or additional plans.

tion defines the period as 20 years.

decisions about all stakeholders.

– Area restrictions for special conditions;

growth and development structure of the following: – All kinds of administrative, planning boundaries;

– Housing areas and housing development areas;

*5.3.1. Master Development Plans*

– Administrative centers;

**a.** Obey the state of law: Plan has to depend on legal basis.


– Technical infrastructure such as roads, auto parks, different transportation modes, water infrastructure, waste treatment, and garbage areas.

While preparing Master Development Plans, the data listed below are analyzed and land work studies are conducted:


– Site areas, national parks, natural parks, wildlife conservation area, and protected water basins;


– Sectoral structure (agriculture, industry, services, transportation, energy, mining, and construction) ;


The Master Development Plan process consists of the following six steps:

	- Opinions of public institutions;
	- Field studies:
	- **a.** Building characteristics (storey heights, use, type, etc.);
	- **b.** Survey study (housing, working places, industry, administrative units, social utilities, etc.);

#### *5.3.2. Implementation Plans*

This stage of the spatial planning system represents the application of all planning decisions on the urban space. It is prepared at the lot and parcel level with the scale of 1/1000. That is

why it is called as "Implementation Plan." It can be performed at once as well as stage by stage. It is the plan level, which urban standards have applied at the lots level. Building conditions are the main point of Implementation Plans. Especially, it is the best plan type at planning level to take decisions at third dimension apart from the urban design stage.

Some important principles of Implementation Plans are as follow:

– Defining building conditions, such as, lot coverage ratio, floor area ratio, floor area index, building heights, setback distances, etc.;

– It is important to develop design principles for maintaining accessibility of handicapped, elder ones, and children to all social infrastructure and urban uses;

– It is essential to develop pedestrian and bicycle networks and bicycle parks;

– Natural and historical site areas are given importance within the plan.

As similar to upper planning scales, some set of data have to be gathered while preparing the Implementation Plan. In light of these data, the following analysis and research have to be performed:


– Sectoral structure (agriculture, industry, services, transportation, energy, mining, and

construction) ;

282 Sustainable Urbanization

– Mining areas; – Military zones;

– Solid waste and recycling facilities;

– Risky areas and risk plan if exist;

**ii.** Gathering planning data:

– Field studies:

utilities, etc.);

ate zones for settlement.

planning decisions are made.

drawings and plan report.

*5.3.2. Implementation Plans*

– Decisions of environmental order plans.

**i.** Determination of the planning area;

– Opinions of public institutions;

The Master Development Plan process consists of the following six steps:

**a.** Building characteristics (storey heights, use, type, etc.);

**b.** Survey study (housing, working places, industry, administrative units, social

sorts of analyses have to be completed. These data are superposed and then synthe‐ sis maps are produced. Hence, it is able to determine appropriate land for settle‐ ment growth. Analyses are executed on land use, slope, natural factors, geology, physical data on buildings, population density, structure analysis, land ownership pattern, land values, transportation networks, transportation zones, and upper scale plan decisions. Synthesis studies are conducted on natural threshold, and appropri‐

**iii.** Analysis and synthesis: After field surveys and evaluation of various opinions, some

**iv.** Clarify plan decisions: Different plan alternatives are produced after the analysis part

**v.** Plan drawing and report preparation: Once the best alternative has been chosen, the

This stage of the spatial planning system represents the application of all planning decisions on the urban space. It is prepared at the lot and parcel level with the scale of 1/1000. That is

**vi.** Evaluation and approval of the plans by Municipality Councils.

and evaluation of the socioeconomic structure. These alternatives are evaluated and

plan is nearly completed. Urban Master Development Plan is a unity with its

– Waste water discharge areas and facilities;


Implementation Plans contain notations of the following areas or functions:

– All types of boundaries including administrative, planning and restriction zones, and risky area zones;


Adjustment tools utilized within plan-making process are zoning, surveillance of building lots, and norms and standards. Zoning consists of functional, density, and height zoning. Division of building lots is needed for the implementation of architecture of buildings on building parcels. Standards are used for the comfort, livability, and sustainable living of urban residents.

Implementation plans are implemented on urban space with programs. These programs are especially prepared for the five-year period. It has to be executed successively. Continuity is the essential principle in this process. Municipalities have to prepare programs within a time period of three months after the completion of the plan.
