*3.1.4. ASCs for the production of adipose tissues and other connective tissues*

Adipose cell sheets can be generated in vitro using the self-assembly technique supplemented with ascorbic acid and adipogenic differentiation factors. These sheets share many adipocyte features [64]. ASCs have the ability to respond to media composition and motion allowing them to be an optimal cell type for tissue engineering. Using the self-assembly technique, fully autologous vascular tissues were also engineered from ASCs in vitro, with an organized structure and matrix components [65]. Other studies showed that ASCs could be used to bioengineer near-to-native skin [31] and bladder mucosa equivalents [66] in vitro.

#### *3.1.5. Urogenital tissues*

In vitro reconstruction of a bladder substitute using the self-assembly technique was first documented by Magnan *et al*. [67], where a single porcine biopsy was processed and allowed the generation of an endothelialized bladder equivalent. Subsequently, seeding urothelial cells on a dermal fibroblast stroma generated tubular urethral grafts for in vivo replacement. To mimic in vivo tissue architecture, the engineered construct was placed under perfusion in a bioreactor [68]. ECs were also added to the model [69]. The human tissue–engineered bladder model can be used to screen common prescribed medicine. For instance, this model was used to study ketamine, an anesthetic agent and a drug used in chronic pain management, which is excreted in the urine. The drug application on the 3D bladder model showed that ketamine directly damages the urothelium, especially the structure and the interconnections that characterize the intermediate epithelial layers, by inducing apoptosis [70].
