**7. Conclusion**

The stiffness of films, characterized by the elastic constants, depends on the film microstructure, and its precise characterization is crucial when thin layers have structural functions. The interest in the measurement of the elastic constants is witnessed by the number of new techniques, or of improvements of existing techniques, being proposed.

The techniques which exploit either propagating acoustic waves or standing oscillations involve exclusively elastic strains: they therefore offer the most direct and clean access to the elastic properties, and potentially the most accurate measurements. Among the methods

Acoustic Waves: A Probe for the Elastic Properties of Films 143

Bryner, J., Profunser, D.M., Vollmann, J., Mueller, E. & Dual, J. (2006). Characterization of

Carini, G., Tripodo, G. & Borjesson, L. (2008). Thermally activated relaxations and

Chirita, M., Sooryakumar, R., Xia, H., Monteiro, O. R. & Brown, I. G. (1999). Observation of

Comins, J. D., Every, A. G., Stoddart, P. R., Zhang, X., Crowhurst, J. C. & Hearne, G. R.

Comins J.D. (2001). Surface Brillouin scattering, in *Handbook of Elastic Properties of Solids,* 

Crowhurst, J.C., Hearne, G.R., Comins, J.D., Every, A.G. & Stoddart, P.R.. (1999). Surface

Czaplewski, D.A., Sullivan, J.P., Friedmann, T.A. & Wendt, J.R. (2005). Temperature

D'Evelyn M.P. & Taniguchi, T. (1999). Elastic properties of translucent polycrystalline cubic

Devos, A. & Côte, R. (2004). Strong oscillations detected by picoseconds ultrasonics in

Djemia, P., Roussigné, Y., Dirras, G.,F. & Jackson, K.M. (2004). Elastic properties of SiC films by Brillouin light scattering, *Journal of Applied Physics,* Vol. 95, pp. 2324-2330 Every, A.G. (2001). The Elastic Properties of Solids: Static and Dynamic Principles, In:

Every, A.G. (2002). Measurement of the near surface elastic properties of solids and thin supported films, *Measurement Science and Technology*, Vol.13, pp. R21-R39 Every, A.G., Kotane, L.M. & Comins, J. D. (2010). Characteristic wave speeds in the surface

Farnell, G.W. & Adler, E.L. (1972). Elastic wave propagation in thin layers. In: *Physical* 

Ferrari, A. C., Robertson, J., Beghi, M. G., Bottani, C. E., Ferulano, R. & Pastorelli, R. (1999).

scattering, *Applied Physics Letters*, Vol.75, pp. 1893-1895.

carbon thin films, *Applied Physics Letters*, Vol.87, paper n. 161915

*Ultrasonics,* Vol.44, pp. e1269-e1275

Vol.60, pp. 5153-5156.

*Ultrasonics,* Vol.38, pp. 450-458.

Academic Press, New York

*Physical Review B*, Vol.78, paper n. 024104

*Physical Review B*, Vol.60, pp. R14990-R14993

*of Solids,* pp. 3-36, Academic Press, New York

Vol.81, paper n. 224303

*Related Materials*, Vol.8, pp. 1522-1526

125208

York

Ta and TaN diffusion barriers beneath Cu layers using picosecond ultrasonics,

vibrational anharmonicity in alkali-borate glasses: Brillouin scattering study.

guided longitudinal acoustic modes in hard supported layers. *Physical Review B,*

(2000). Surface Brillouin scattering of opaque solids and thin supported films.

*Liquids, and Gases,* M. Levy, H. E. Bass and R. R. Stern & V. Keppens (Eds.), Volume I: *Dynamic Methods for Measuring the Elastic Properties of Solids,* pp. *349*-378,

Brillouin scattering at high pressure: Application to a thin supported gold film.

dependence of the mechanical properties of tetrahedrally coordinated amorphous

boron nitride as characterized by the dynamic resonance method, *Diamond and* 

silicon: evidence for an electronic structure effect, *Physical Review B*, Vol.70, paper n.

*Handbook of Elastic Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases,* M. Levy, H. Bass, R. Stern & V. Keppens (Eds.), Volume I: *Dynamic Methods for Measuring the Elastic Properties* 

Brillouin scattering measurement of elastic constants of crystals. *Physical Review B*,

*Acoustics,* W.P. Mason & R.N. Thurston (Eds.), Vol. 9, pp. 35-127, Academic, New

Elastic constants of tetrahedral amorphous carbon films by surface Brillouin

based on vibrations, those which exploit, for excitation and/or detection, the contact-less and inertia-less nature of light, have an important role.

An overview of the variety of existing methods was presented here, trying to present a unified picture, and underlining the peculiarities of each of them, in particular for what concerns the experimental uncertainties. It turns out that, under appropriate conditions and experimental procedures, several techniques can achieve significant precision and accuracy.

### **8. References**


based on vibrations, those which exploit, for excitation and/or detection, the contact-less

An overview of the variety of existing methods was presented here, trying to present a unified picture, and underlining the peculiarities of each of them, in particular for what concerns the experimental uncertainties. It turns out that, under appropriate conditions and experimental procedures, several techniques can achieve significant precision and accuracy.

Alfano, M. & Pagnotta, L., (2006). Measurement of the dynamic elastic properties of a thin

ASTM E1875-08 (2008). *Standard Test Method for Dynamic Young's Modulus,Shear Modulus, and Poisson's Ratio by Sonic Resonance*, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM E1876-09 (2009). *Standard Test Method for Dynamic Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus,* 

Auld, B. A. (1990). *Acoustic fields and Waves in Solids,* Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company,

Beghi, M. G., Bottani, C. E. & Pastorelli, R. (2001). High accuracy measurement of elastic

Beghi, M.G., Ferrari, A. C., Teo, K.B.K., Robertson, J., Bottani, C.E., Libassi, A. & Tanner, B.K.

Beghi, M.G., Every, A.G. & Zinin, P.V. (2004). Brillouin scattering measurement of SAW

Beghi, M. G., Di Fonzo, F., Pietralunga, S., Ubaldi, C. & Bottani, C. E. (2011). Precision and

Belliard, L., Huynh, A., Perrin, B., Michel, A., Abadias, G. & Jaouen, C. (2009). Elastic

Berezina, S., Zinin, P. V., Schneider, D., Fei, D. & Rebinsky, D. A. (2004). Combining

Bi, B., Huang, W.-S., Asmussen, J. & Bolding, B. (2002). Surface acoustic waves on nanocrystalline diamond, *Diamond and Related Materials*, Vol.11, pp. 677--680. Bienville, T., Robillard, J.F., Belliard, L., Roch\_Jeune, I, Devos, A. & Perrin, B. (2006).

Bottani, C.E., Li Bassi, A., Beghi, M.G., Podesta, A., Milani, P., Zakhidov, A., Baughman, R.,

characterization of thick DLC films, *Ultrasonics*, Vol.43, pp. 87 - 93

picosecond ultrasonics, *Ultrasonics,* Vol.44, pp. e1289-e1294

*and Poisson's Ratio by Impulse Excitation of Vibration*, ASTM International, West

constants of thin films by surface Brillouin scattering. In *Mechanical properties of structural films*, C. Muhlstein, C. & Brown, S.B. (Eds.), pp. 109-126. ASTM STP 1413,

(2002). Bonding and mechanical properties of ultrathin diamond-like carbon films,

velocities for determining near-surface elastic properties, in *Ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation,* T. Kundu (Ed.), pp. 581-651, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

accuracy in film stiffness measurement by Brillouin spectroscopy, *Review of* 

properties and phonon generation in Mo/Si superlattices, *Physical Review B* Vol.80,

Brillouin spectroscopy and laser-SAW technique for elastic property

Individual and collective vibrational modes of nanostructures studied by

Walters, D.A. & Smalley, R.E. (2003). Dynamic light scattering from acoustic modes in single-walled carbon nanotubes, *Physical. Review. B* , Vol.67, paper n. 155407

coating, *Review of Scientific Instruments,* Vol.77, Paper No. 056107

American Society for Testing and Materials, Conshohoken, PA

*Applied Physics Letters*, Vol.81, pp. 3804-3806

*Scientific Instruments,* Vol.102, Paper No. 053107

Revised edition in press (2011)

Paper No. 155424

and inertia-less nature of light, have an important role.

**8. References** 

Conshohocken, PA.

Malabar, Florida


Acoustic Waves: A Probe for the Elastic Properties of Films 145

Neubrand, A. & Hess, P. (1992). Laser generation and detection of surface acoustic waves: Elastic properties of surface layers, *Journal of applied physics,* Vol.71, pp. 227-238 Nieves, F.J., Gascòn, F. & Bayòn, A. (2000). Precise and direct determination of the elastic

Ogi, H., Fujii, M., Nakamura, N., Shagawa, T. & M. Hirao, M. (2007). Resonance acoustic-

Ohno, I. (1976). Free vibration of a rectangular parallelepiped crystal and its application to

Pang, W., Stoddart, P.R., Comins, J.D., Every, A.G., Pietersen, D. & Marais P.J. (1997). Elastic

Polomska, A.M., Young, C.K., Andrews, G.T., Clouter, M.J., Yin, A. & Xu, J. M. (2007).

Prakapenka, V. (2010). On-line Brillouin Spectroscopy at GSECARS: Basic Principles and

Robillard, J.-F., Devos, A., Roch-Jeune, I. & Mante, P. A. (2008). Collective acoustic modes in

Rossignol, C., Perrin, B., Bonello, B., Djemia, P., Moch, P., & Hurdequint, H. (2004). Elastic

Schneider, D., Schwarz, T., Scheibe, H.-J. & Panzner, M. (1997) Non destructive evaluation

Schneider, D., Schultrich, B., Scheibe, H.-J., Ziegele, H. & Griepentrog, M. (1998). A laser

Schneider, D., Witke, T.H., Schwarz, T.H., Schoneich, B. & Schultrich, B. (2000). Testing

Schwarz, R.B., Hooks, D.E., Dick, J.J. & Archuleta, J.I. (2005). Resonant ultrasound

Sinogeikin, S., Bass, J., Prakapenka, V., Lakshtanov, D., Shen, G.Y., Sanchez-Valle, C &

trinitramine, *Journal of Applied Physics*, Vol.98, paper N. 056106.

*Scientific Instruments*, Vol.77, article n. 103905

*Instruments,* Vol.71, pp. 2433-2439

*Letters*, Vol. 90, paper n. 191906.

*Applied Physics Letters*, Vol.90, paper n. 201918

*Physical Review B*, Vol.78, paper n. 064302

*Films, Vol.*295, pp. 107—116

Vol. 332, pp. 157—163.

pp.136-141

G. Güntherodt (Eds.), pp. 173-206, Springer, Berlin

*Earth*, Vol.24, pp. 355–379.

179-185.

15.

constants of a cylinder with a length equal to its diameter, *Review of Scientific* 

phonon spectroscopy for studying elasticity of ultrathin films, *Applied Physics* 

determination of elastic constants of orthorhombic crystal, *Journal of Physics of the* 

properties of TiN hard films at room and high temperatures using Brillouin scattering, *International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials*, Vol.15, pp.

Inelastic laser light scattering study of an ordered array of carbon nanotubes.

Application for High Pressure Research, *Synchrotron Radiation News* Vol.23, pp. 14-

various two-dimensional crystals by ultrafast acoustics: Theory and experiment,

properties of ultrathin permalloy/alumina multilayer films using picosecond ultrasonics and Brillouin light scattering, *Physical Review.B,* Vol.70, paper n. 094102 Sandercock J.R. (1982). Trends in Brillouin scattering – Studies of opaque materials,

supported films, and central modes, in *Light Scattering in solids III*, M. Cardona and

of diamond-like carbon films by laser induced surface acoustic waves, *Thin Solid* 

acoustic method for testing and classifying hard surface layers, *Thin Solid Films,*

ultra-thin films by laser-acoustics, Surface and Coatings Technology, Vol.126,

spectroscopy measurement of the elastic constants of cyclotrimethylene

Rivers, M. (2006). Brillouin spectrometer interfaced with synchrotron radiation for simultaneous X-ray density and acoustic velocity measurements. *Review of* 


Ghislotti, G. & Bottani, C. E. (1994). Brillouin scattering from shear horizontal surface

Grimsditch, M., (2001). Brillouin scattering, in *Handbook of Elastic Properties of Solids, Liquids,* 

Kim, J. Y., Chung, H. J., Kim, H. J., Cho, H. M., Yang, H. K. & Park, J. C. (2000). Surface

Kubisztal, M., Kubisztal, J., Chrobak, A., Haneczok, B., Budniok, A. & Rasek, J. (2008).

Kundu, T. (2004). Mechanics of elastic waves and ultrasonics non-destructive evaluation, in

Lefeuvre, O., Pang, W., Zinin, P., Comins, J.D., Every, A.G., Briggs, G.A.D., Zeller, B.D. &

aluminium by Brillouin spectroscopy. *Thin Solid Films*, Vol.350, pp. 53-58. Lehmann, G., Hess, P., Weissmantel, S., Reisse, G., Scheible, P. & Lunk, A. (2002). Young's

dispersion of surface acoustic waves, *Applied Physics A,* Vol.74, pp. 41—45 Li, M., Li, F.F., Gao, W., Ma, C.L., Huang, L.Y., Zhou, Q.A. & Cui, Q.L. (2010). Brillouin

Lou, N., Groenen, J., Benassayag, G. & Zwick, A. (2010). Acoustics at nanoscale: Raman-

Mante, P.A., Robillard, J.F. & Devos, A. (2008). Complete thin film mechanical

Migliori, A., Sarrao, J.L., Visschera, W.M., Bella, T.M., Leia, M., Fisk, Z. & Leisure, R.G.

Murakami, M., Asahara, Y., Ohishi, Y., Hirao N. & Hirose, K. (2009). Development of in situ

Nakamura, N., Nakashima, T., Oura, S., Ogi, H. & Hirao, M. (2010). Resonant-ultrasound

interior. *Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,* Vol.174, pp. 282-291 Murakami, M. & Bass, J.D. (2010). Spectroscopic Evidence for Ultrahigh-Pressure Polymorphism in SiO2 Glass. *Physical Review Letters*, Vol.104, pp. 025504. Nakamura, N., Ogi, H. & Hirao, M. (2004). Resonance ultrasound spectroscopy with laser-

*Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A*, Vol.18, pp. 1993—1997

substrate, *Surface and Coatings Technology*, Vol.202, pp. 2292–2296

Raton, FL. Revised edition in press (2011)

*Journal of Chemical Physics*, Vol.133, paper n. 044503

elastic moduli of solids, *Physica B*, Vol.183, pp. 1–24.

Vol.97, article n. 141908

Vol.42, pp. 491–494

*Ultrasonics,* Vol.50, pp. 150–154

*B,* Vol.50, pp. 12131-12137.

Press, New York

phonons in silicon-on-insulator structures - Theory and experiment, *Physical Review* 

*and Gases,* M. Levy, H. E. Bass and R. R. Stern & V. Keppens (Eds.), Volume I: *Dynamic Methods for Measuring the Elastic Properties of Solids,* pp. 331-347, Academic

acoustic wave propagation properties of nitrogenated diamond-like carbon films,

Elastic properties of Ni and Ni + Mo coatings electrodeposited on stainless steel

*Ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation,* T. Kundu (Ed.), pp. 1-142, CRC Press, Boca

Thompson, G.E. (1999). Determination of the elastic properties of a barrier film on

modulus and density of nanocrystalline cubic boron nitride films determined by

scattering study of liquid methane under high pressures and high temperatures.

Brillouin scattering from thin silicon-on-insulator layers, *Applied Physics Letters*,

characterization using picoseconds ultrasonics and nanostructured transducers: experimental demonstration on SiO2, *Applied Physics Letters,* Vol.93, paper n. 071909

(1993). Resonant ultrasound spectroscopic techniques for measurement of the

Brillouin spectroscopy at high pressure and high temperature with synchrotron radiation and infrared laser heating system: Application to the Earth's deep

Doppler interferometry for studying elastic properties of thin films, *Ultrasonics*,

spectroscopy for studying annealing effect on elastic constant of thin film,


**7** 

 *China* 

**Evaluation Method for Anisotropic Drilling** 

**Characteristics of the Formation by Using** 

In drilling engineering, we must have solid understanding of the underground geological environment which is not only complicated and diversified but also someway concealed. Thus, in order to find an effective method of predicting it, a long-term research and practice must be required. In drilling engineering for oil & gas, problems including borehole deviation & its control, wellbore instability & its control, influence directly drilling quality & efficiency of a deep or complicated well for exploration and production of oil & gas fields. For instance, because of the complicated surface and underground conditions as well as the depth (over 5000 m) of oil & gas reservoirs in western China, such unstable factors such as hole deviation and instability often encountered with each other in deep drilling engineering. Because we did not have access to the geological parameters of the formations to be drilled including the rock drillability anisotropy and so on, huge economic loss had been caused and the steps to explore and produce oil & gas in western China had been seriously restricted. Hence, there are many researches and development programs to do for the right cognition and scientific evaluation of the geological environments, and for the further study of mechanism of the drilling process instability, and so on. The solution of these problems is the key to improve the performance of drilling & HSSE (health, safety,

The factors influencing the instability can be sorted into subjective category and objective category. In the objective category, there are the types of geological structure and in-situ stress, rock anisotropy, porosity, permeability, lithology, pressures, and mineral components, as well as rock strength and weak layer of the formation to be drilled, and so on. In the subjective category, there are the performance of down hole drilling system, the drilling parameters (weight and torque on bit, etc.), the drilling fluid performances (water loss, viscosity, rheological property and density) and its hydration on shale, the direction and open time of wellbore, the erosion and surge pressure of drilling fluid on the hole wall, the interaction between drillstring and hole wall. Thereby, in researches on the instability, the factors from the both categories should be taken into comprehensive

Whether in vertical drilling or in directional drilling, it is always a complicated academic and technological problem how to control the well trajectory exactly along the designed

security, environment) and lower well construction cost.

**1. Introduction** 

consideration.

**Acoustic Wave Information** 

*China University of Petroleum at Beijing, Beijing* 

Deli Gao and Qifeng Pan

