**5.4. Flour, bread, and biscuits**

One year after Chernobyl, corn, grains, bread, shortbreads, and pasta were seriously conta‐ minated with radiocaesium. In 1987, cereals from 1986 were taken into production. Seven of 17 breads and shortbreads and one pasta were over the limit value of 1250 Bq/kg and had to be withdrawn. Twenty-one more samples were over the tolerance level of 100 Bq/kg. As a consequence, the control of flour and flour products was intensified over the next years. However, with the exception of one sample in 1988, no more violations of the tolerance value were noticed. In 2011, the radiation level fell down to approximately 0.5 Bq/kg radiocaesium in cereals.

Natural radionuclides are present in cereals (radium 1–5 Bq/kg and thorium 0.1–1 Bq/kg). The levels of radium are near the limit value of 5 Bq/kg.

### **5.5. Meat**

Our own γ-analyses of meat in 1986 showed values in two categories: for cows and calves, the level was low (57±71 Bq/kg), whereas meat from sheep and lamb was quite higher contami‐ nated (645±744 Bq/kg radiocaesium). In the following year, the radiocaesium levels were elevated to the same level: sheep and lamb 550±198 Bq/kg and cow and calf 417±384 Bq/kg. During 1986, the Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (former Federal Office for Veterinary Affairs) analysed more than 1700 meat samples of sheep, goat, cow, pig, and game mainly from eastern and southern Switzerland. The contamination levels in the meat were higher in regions with higher depositions of fallout. In southern Switzerland, the radiocaesium activity concentrations varied from 40 to 4400 Bq/kg. The highest value was found in a goat. In contrast to this, in eastern Switzerland, values were from 40 to 1300 Bq/kg. In the other parts of Switzerland, even lower values were found. Almost 2000 samples from imported meat were analysed. Here, 251 samples had to be rejected due to values more than 600 Bq/kg. During the year 1986, a reduction of the contamination level was observed, with the exception of southern Switzerland (cantons of Ticino and Grison). The biological half-life for radiocaesium was calculated to be approximately 50 days for sheep and goat and approximately 30 days for game. Pigs showed a half-life of 90 days [49].

#### **5.6. Game**

Game became of interest when high radioactive contaminations of reindeer were reported in Norway and Sweden. The northern European countries were more highly contaminated with radioactive fallout from Chernobyl than other European countries. Wild berries, mushrooms, and lichens are the main food of reindeers. These were seriously contaminated with this fallout. Thousands of animals had to be burnt because of a violation of radiocaesium values that were too high. The survey of game in Switzerland began in autumn 1986. We analysed meat from five roe deer and deer with γ-ray spectrometry. The activities were not high. Nevertheless, in 1987, the contamination of the game meat showed higher values up to 7 kBq/kg radiocaesium. From 1986 on, game was investigated yearly. In 1990, four objections had to be executed according to our measurements. It seemed that chamois were the most contaminated game in Switzerland. After 1995, the monitoring programme was reduced. The detected radioactivity was under the tolerance limit of 600 Bq/kg.

Wild boars are an exception. The southern parts of Switzerland, such as in Bavaria (Germany), are more contaminated landscapes. Here, the contamination of wild boar remains a problem up to today. Wild boars search for their food on the ground. Elaphomyces, a truffle species, grow underground and are able to enrich radiocaesium from soil. It is estimated that these fungi can be up to 20% to 30% of the food of wild boars. In 2012, in southern Bavaria and the Bavarian Wood, the contamination levels were up to 9.8 kBq/kg wild boar and up to 430 Bq/kg in roe deer [50]. In Switzerland, the State of Ticino, in collaboration with the Federal Office of Public Health, investigated wild boars in 2013 and 2014. In 2013, 28 wild boars of a total of 470 animals violated the limit value of 1250 Bq/kg. In 2014, they found 13 such contaminated animals. These animals had to be confiscated [17]. In contrast, in the State of Zurich, the State Laboratory Zurich found no violations when they analysed 80 wild boars. The mean activity was low with 28 Bq/kg radiocaesium [51]. In 2014, the Umweltinstitut München reported from their monitoring programmes for wild-grown vegetables and game. More than 2000 samples showed contamination levels over the limit value of 600 Bq/kg, and 141 samples showed radiocaesium activities of more than 10,000 Bq/kg. Ten samples contained more than 16,000 Bq/kg. The maximum value was 27,800 Bq/kg [52]. Therefore, the serious contamination rests a problem in Bavaria.

Wild boars have to be surveyed over the coming years. Fortunately, they are not a widely consumed game. More important are deer and roe deer, which show considerably lower contaminations [53, 54].
