**8. Animal‐based vitamin K2 food products**

#### **8.1. Meat**

Concerning the vitamin K, only plants and fermented food commodities are considered as a major natural source, but limited attention has been paid to meat for its menaquinones contents. Recently, Rødbotten et al. reported that cattle meat such as Jersey and Norwegian Red have better amount of menaquinones predominately MK‐4 [48]. Jersey meat has higher amount of MK‐4 in *M. longissimus dorsi* (LD), *M. biceps femoris* (BF), and *M. psoasmajor* muscles compared to Norwegian Red Cattle. Some traces of MK‐6 and MK‐7 were also detected in both types of cattle meats. Moreover, it is suggested that vitamin K2 content has no association with intramuscular fat and tenderness of meat. Contrary, Fujiwara et al. reported that poultry birds rely on natto did not improve the menaquinones content of meat [49]. Previously, Elder et al. [50] quantified the MK‐4 in beef, chicken, fish, and liver of calf available in retail outlets or fast food restaurants of various cities of USA and reported that MK‐4 was present in chicken in substantial amount ranged from 6.3 to 22.1 μg/100 g as compared to other tested animal meat and meat products (**Table 3**).

DPPH activity were observed in Bacillus fermented soybean than that of soaked or cooked

During fermentation process of soybean, peptides are released by the hydrolysis of soybean proteins. Specific bioactive peptides such as glycinin and β‐conglycinin are synthesized through the hydrolysis of soybean proteins. These bioactive peptides may act as regulatory compounds and have potential to minimize the physiological dysfunctions such anti‐diabetic

Generally, fermented products are still widely synthesized by traditional methods. Conse‐ quently, it was recommended to develop standard operating producers and adhere with the good manufacturing practice (GMP) for individuals directly involved in its production for

Sensory response including color, flavor, odor, texture, and overall acceptability is the main contributing parameters for the acceptance of products. Sensory evaluation of fermented soybean is mostly carried out using seven‐point hedonic scale. The prepared natto obtained higher scores for color, appearance, taste, and viscosity than non‐fermented cooked soybean [46]. Similarly, chungkukjang flavor, taste, and overall acceptability are evaluated using nine‐ point hedonic scale and reported that fermented soybean has high savory flavor and lower

Moreover, soybean fermented with *B. subtilis TN51* has superior aroma than that of conven‐ tionally fermented soybean [27]. In another study, sensory traits of natto, *that are,* color, aroma, stickiness, bitterness, sweetness, sourness, and chewiness were determined through continu‐ ous linear intensity‐scale of 10 cm with multiple demographic panelists such as Chinese, Japanese, and American. There were non‐significant variations observed in sweetness or sourness and flavor in commercial available natto and laboratory prepared similar product

Concerning the vitamin K, only plants and fermented food commodities are considered as a major natural source, but limited attention has been paid to meat for its menaquinones contents. Recently, Rødbotten et al. reported that cattle meat such as Jersey and Norwegian Red have better amount of menaquinones predominately MK‐4 [48]. Jersey meat has higher amount of MK‐4 in *M. longissimus dorsi* (LD), *M. biceps femoris* (BF), and *M. psoasmajor* muscles compared to Norwegian Red Cattle. Some traces of MK‐6 and MK‐7 were also detected in both types of cattle meats. Moreover, it is suggested that vitamin K2 content has no association with

soybean [19].

and anticancer activities [45].

42 Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing

bitterness than traditional natto [47].

[37].

**8.1. Meat**

**7. Sensory response of fermented products**

**8. Animal‐based vitamin K2 food products**

ensuring its safety [43].


**Table 3.** Menaquinones contents of meat of various fresh meat (μg/100 g).

Some studies indicated that thigh raw chicken meat contained the menaquinone‐7 about 27  ng/g [21], whereas other only reported menaquinone‐4 in both leg and breast meat of chicken ranged from 89.9 ng/g to 8.9 μg/100 g [13, 21]. Similarly, beef meat including raw, raw ground low, medium, and high fat meats from Japan, Netherlands, and USA contained menaquinone‐ 4 ranged from 0.6 to 8.1 μg/100 g. However, Japanese origin beef meat contained menaquinone‐ 7 as 15 μg/100 g. Likewise, cattle meat including Jersey and Norwegian *Biceps Femoris* meat merely contained MK‐4, MK‐6, and MK‐7, whereas other parts did not contained MK‐7, but their amount is very low [13, 21, 48, 50]. Additionally, pork and horse fresh meat contained the limited amount of MK‐7 and all other tested meat such as luncheon, hare, deer goose, and duck contained only MK‐4 (**Table 3**).

**Meat Type Country MK‐4 MK‐5 MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 Reference** Chicken Liver Braised (μg/100 g) USA 6.7 – – – – [50] Chicken heart Fresh (ng/g) Japan 142.6 – 0.1 ND ND [51] Horse liver Raw (ng/g) Japan 2.1 – 1.0 2.3 1.2 [51] Horse heart Fresh heart (ng/g) Japan 0.4 – 0.2 ND ND [51] Pork heart Raw (ng/g) Finland 10.8 ND ND 16 25 [53] Pork liver Fresh Japan 1.2 0.2 1.1 ND [51] Pork Raw Netherlands 0.3 – – 0.3 – [13] Pork Raw Liver (ng/g) Japan 5.9 – 0.4 6.1 5.6 [51]

**Food Type Country MK‐4 MK‐5 MK‐6 MK‐7 Reference**

USA 5.6 – – – [50]

Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63902 45

USA 1.7 – – – [50]

USA 7.2 – – – [50]

USA 5.1 – – – [50]

USA 0.9 – – – [50]

Beef product Hot dogs, regular fat USA 5.7 – – – [50] Beef product Ham roasted and pan broiled USA 5.1 – – – [50]

Beef product Beef meat roasted (ng/g) Finland 28 1.2 ND 1.17 [53] Beef product Beef products USA 1.7–8.1 – – – [50] Beef product Roasted beef 2–4 – – – [53]

Pork product Meat franks, regular fat USA 9.8 – – – [50] Pork product Pork steak Netherlands 2.1 – – 0.5 [13]

ND = not detected; (–) = unknown or not reported.

**Table 4.** Vitamin K‐2 content of different organ meats.

Beef product Bacon (raw, pan‐fried, microwaved, cooked and baked)

Beef product Broiled ground beef (low‐fat steak)

(medium fat)

Pork product Loin (raw, broiled, pan‐broiled, braised)

ND = not detected; (–) = unknown or not reported.

**Table 5.** Vitamin K‐2 content of different animal meat‐based products (μg/100 g).

Beef product Broiled ground beef

Beef product Broiled ground beef (high fat)

In various countries, people used the organs of animal as a source of meat. Therefore, concen‐ tration of vitamin K2 is also very important to know in the commonly consumed organs such as liver, kidney, and heart. Hirauchi and coworkers reported that the organs meat of horse, chicken, and pork had significant amount of MK‐4 compared with long‐chain menaquinones (MK‐7 to MK‐13) and phylloquinone [51]. However, bovine liver was rich in MK‐13 (215  ng/g) followed by MK‐12 (215.6 ng/g), whereas the lowest concentration was noticed of MK‐9 (15.3 ng/g). Other livers of various tested animal contained traces of higher menaquinones. The higher amount of long‐chain menaquinones are possibly synthesized by gut microflora and stored in liver [52].

However, roasted beef contained 2–4 μg/100 g of MK‐4, while other menaquinones such as MK‐5, MK‐7 and MK‐8 were also present with low concentration [53]. Few publications are available regarding the vitamin K2 content of meat (**Tables 4** and **5**). Previously, it was reported that beef meat has limited amount of vitamin K2 without specifying the type of muscle and breeds [50, 53].



ND = not detected; (–) = unknown or not reported.

Some studies indicated that thigh raw chicken meat contained the menaquinone‐7 about 27  ng/g [21], whereas other only reported menaquinone‐4 in both leg and breast meat of chicken ranged from 89.9 ng/g to 8.9 μg/100 g [13, 21]. Similarly, beef meat including raw, raw ground low, medium, and high fat meats from Japan, Netherlands, and USA contained menaquinone‐ 4 ranged from 0.6 to 8.1 μg/100 g. However, Japanese origin beef meat contained menaquinone‐ 7 as 15 μg/100 g. Likewise, cattle meat including Jersey and Norwegian *Biceps Femoris* meat merely contained MK‐4, MK‐6, and MK‐7, whereas other parts did not contained MK‐7, but their amount is very low [13, 21, 48, 50]. Additionally, pork and horse fresh meat contained the limited amount of MK‐7 and all other tested meat such as luncheon, hare, deer goose, and duck

In various countries, people used the organs of animal as a source of meat. Therefore, concen‐ tration of vitamin K2 is also very important to know in the commonly consumed organs such as liver, kidney, and heart. Hirauchi and coworkers reported that the organs meat of horse, chicken, and pork had significant amount of MK‐4 compared with long‐chain menaquinones (MK‐7 to MK‐13) and phylloquinone [51]. However, bovine liver was rich in MK‐13 (215  ng/g) followed by MK‐12 (215.6 ng/g), whereas the lowest concentration was noticed of MK‐9 (15.3 ng/g). Other livers of various tested animal contained traces of higher menaquinones. The higher amount of long‐chain menaquinones are possibly synthesized by gut microflora and

However, roasted beef contained 2–4 μg/100 g of MK‐4, while other menaquinones such as MK‐5, MK‐7 and MK‐8 were also present with low concentration [53]. Few publications are available regarding the vitamin K2 content of meat (**Tables 4** and **5**). Previously, it was reported that beef meat has limited amount of vitamin K2 without specifying the type of muscle and

**Meat Type Country MK‐4 MK‐5 MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 Reference** Beef liver Raw (μg/100 g) USA 0.4 – – – – [50] Beef liver Pan‐fried (μg/100 g) USA 0.4 – – – – [50] Beef liver Braised (μg/100 g) USA 1.9 – – – – [50] Beef liver Raw (ng/g) USA 8.2 – 24.5 181.8 48.4 [51] Beef liver Raw (ng/g) Finland 6.8 ND 9.44 25.6 13.8 [53] Beef liver Fresh heart (ng/g) Japan 21.7 – 2.8 0.9 ND [51] Calf liver Raw (μg/100 g) USA 5.0 – – – – [50] Calf liver Pan‐fried (μg/100 g) USA 6.0 – – – – [50] Calf liver Braised (μg/100 g) USA 1.1 – – – – [50] Chicken Liver Raw (ng/g) Japan 39.6 – 0.3 ND 0.9 [51] Chicken Liver Raw (μg/100 g) USA 14.1 – – – – [50] Chicken Liver Pan‐fried (μg/100 g) USA 12.6 – – – – [50]

contained only MK‐4 (**Table 3**).

44 Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing

stored in liver [52].

breeds [50, 53].

**Table 4.** Vitamin K‐2 content of different organ meats.


**Table 5.** Vitamin K‐2 content of different animal meat‐based products (μg/100 g).

#### **8.2. Animal‐based sea foods**

Fishes such as rainbow trout contained MK‐4 (31 ng/g), MK‐5 (0.9 ng/g), and MK‐7 (2.0 ng/g), whereas MK‐6 and MK‐8 were not present (**Table 6**). Similarly, pike‐perch also contained these menaquinones along with MK‐6. Baltic herring and salmon only contained MK‐4. Moreover, plaice and eel contained MK‐4 as 0.2 and 1.7, MK‐6 as 0.3 and 0.1, and MK‐7 as 1.6 and 0.0, respectively. Horse mackerel from Netherlands and Japan only contained MK‐4 content (0.4 and 0.6 μg/100 g). Furthermore, shrimp also had MK‐4 (0.2 μg/100 g). Canned crab and tilapia fillets did not contain any form of menaquinones [13, 21, 50].

MK‐10 about 230 nmol/g of dry cells. Moreover, these strains also have capacity to synthesis the ample amount of long‐chain menaquinones in reconstituted non‐fat dry milk and soy milk. Therefore, the milk‐based fermented foods have significant amount of menaquinones and considered as an important dietary sources of vitamin K2 [55]. Earlier, it was document‐ ed that the human milk only contained phylloquinone, but menaquinones were not detect‐

Some of the fresh milk only contained MK‐4 and other menaquinones are not detected or contained in the whole milk with varied concentration of fat from different animals (**Table 7**). Likewise, various creams and dressing also had MK‐4 as source of vitamin K2. Interestingly, fermented milk and sourced milk contained higher amount of long‐chain menaquinones such as MK‐6, MK‐7, MK‐8, and MK‐9 while MK‐4 and MK‐5 were not present. Similarly, butter milk also contained MK‐4 to MK‐8 but in limited quantity, butter contained only MK‐4 (15 

**Food Type Country MK‐4MK‐5MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 MK‐9 Reference** Fresh Milk 1% fat USA 0.4 – – – – – [50] Fresh Milk 2% fat (Regular and chocolate) USA 0.5 – – – – – [50] Fresh Milk Whole milk USA 1.0 – – – – – [50] Fresh Milk Cow 3.5% fat (μg/L) Italy 8.60 – – – – – [54] Fresh Milk Buffalo 5.0% fat (μg/L) Italy ND – – – – – [54] Fresh Milk Sheep 5.5% fat (μg/L) Italy 17.4 – – – – – [54] Fresh Milk Goat 5.0% fat (μg/L) Italy ND – – – – – [54] Fresh Milk Donkey 1.0% fat (μg/L) Italy ND – – – – – [54] Fresh Milk Whole milk Japan 2.03 – – ND [12]

lands

Yoghurt Yogurt plain (ng/g) Finland 3.6 1.01 ND ND ND ND [53] Yoghurt Whole milk Japan 0.6 0.1 0 0.2 – – [51] Yoghurt Skimmed milk Japan 0 0 0 0.1 – – [51] Yoghurt Yogurt, plain (whole milk) Japan 1.0 – – 0.1 – – [12]

lands

lands

0.8 0.1 – – – – [13]

Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63902 47

0.6 0.1 – – 0.1 [13]

USA 2.6 – – – – – [50]

– – 11.65 – – [57]

ed [56].

μg/100 g).

Fresh Milk Whole milk Nether

Yoghurt Whole yoghurt Nether

Yoghurt Fortified MK‐7 Nether

Cream Ice cream Regular fat

(vanilla and chocolate)


**Table 6.** Menaquinones contents of various sea foods (μg/100 g).

#### **8.3. Milk**

Fresh milk having varied amount of fat also contained some amount of menaquinones especially MK‐4. Sheep and cow whole milk contained about 17.4 and 8.60 ng/g of MK‐4, respectively, while menaquinones were not detected in goat and donkey milk [54]. Moreover, milk having 1% fat had 0.4 μg/100 g of MK‐4, whereas milk with higher amount of fat (2%) and whole milk showed more MK‐4 contents as 0.5 and 1.0 μg/100 g which is available in retail outlets of USA [50].

There are various microorganisms such as *L. lactis* subsp. *cremoris*, *L. lactis* subsp. *Lactis,* and *Leuconostoc lactis* which have potential to produce long‐chain menaquinones like MK‐7 to MK‐10 about 230 nmol/g of dry cells. Moreover, these strains also have capacity to synthesis the ample amount of long‐chain menaquinones in reconstituted non‐fat dry milk and soy milk. Therefore, the milk‐based fermented foods have significant amount of menaquinones and considered as an important dietary sources of vitamin K2 [55]. Earlier, it was document‐ ed that the human milk only contained phylloquinone, but menaquinones were not detect‐ ed [56].

**8.2. Animal‐based sea foods**

46 Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing

ND = not detected; (–) = unknown or not reported.

**8.3. Milk**

outlets of USA [50].

**Table 6.** Menaquinones contents of various sea foods (μg/100 g).

Fishes such as rainbow trout contained MK‐4 (31 ng/g), MK‐5 (0.9 ng/g), and MK‐7 (2.0 ng/g), whereas MK‐6 and MK‐8 were not present (**Table 6**). Similarly, pike‐perch also contained these menaquinones along with MK‐6. Baltic herring and salmon only contained MK‐4. Moreover, plaice and eel contained MK‐4 as 0.2 and 1.7, MK‐6 as 0.3 and 0.1, and MK‐7 as 1.6 and 0.0, respectively. Horse mackerel from Netherlands and Japan only contained MK‐4 content (0.4 and 0.6 μg/100 g). Furthermore, shrimp also had MK‐4 (0.2 μg/100 g). Canned crab and tilapia

**Food Type Country MK‐4 MK‐5 MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 Reference** Fishes Rainbow trout (ng/g) Finland 31 0.9 ND 2.0 ND [53]

Fish Mackerel Netherlands 0.4 – – – – [13]

Fish Horse mackerel, raw Japan 0.6 – – ND – [12]

Crab Canned USA ND – – – – [50] Shrimp Cooked and canned USA 0.2 – – – – [50] Salmon Raw, Alaska wild USA 0.3 – – – – [50] Tilapia fillets Raw and baked USA ND – – – – [50]

Pike‐perch (ng/g) Finland 1.9 0.49 0.52 4.9 ND [53] Baltic herring (ng/g) Finland 2.07 – ND ND ND [53]

Plaice Netherlands 0.2 – 0.3 0.1 1.6 [13] Eel Netherlands 1.7 – 0.1 0.4 – [13] Salmon Netherlands 0.5 – – – – [13]

Mackerel, raw Japan 1.0 – – ND – [12]

Fresh milk having varied amount of fat also contained some amount of menaquinones especially MK‐4. Sheep and cow whole milk contained about 17.4 and 8.60 ng/g of MK‐4, respectively, while menaquinones were not detected in goat and donkey milk [54]. Moreover, milk having 1% fat had 0.4 μg/100 g of MK‐4, whereas milk with higher amount of fat (2%) and whole milk showed more MK‐4 contents as 0.5 and 1.0 μg/100 g which is available in retail

There are various microorganisms such as *L. lactis* subsp. *cremoris*, *L. lactis* subsp. *Lactis,* and *Leuconostoc lactis* which have potential to produce long‐chain menaquinones like MK‐7 to

fillets did not contain any form of menaquinones [13, 21, 50].

Some of the fresh milk only contained MK‐4 and other menaquinones are not detected or contained in the whole milk with varied concentration of fat from different animals (**Table 7**). Likewise, various creams and dressing also had MK‐4 as source of vitamin K2. Interestingly, fermented milk and sourced milk contained higher amount of long‐chain menaquinones such as MK‐6, MK‐7, MK‐8, and MK‐9 while MK‐4 and MK‐5 were not present. Similarly, butter milk also contained MK‐4 to MK‐8 but in limited quantity, butter contained only MK‐4 (15  μg/100 g).



skimmed milk contained higher amount of MK‐4, whereas very low concentration of other

Fortified yoghurt drink with MK‐7 significantly improved serum concentration from 0.38 ng/ ml to 2.00 ng/ml, whereas yoghurt supplemented with MK‐7 along with other vitamins increased better serum MK‐7 level as 2.17 ng/ml. Fortified MK‐7 yoghurt and soft gel contain‐

Soft cheese as well as blue cheese have tremendous amount of vitamin K2 as 1100 and 700  ng/g [58]. Earlier, menaquinones content of these cheeses has never been reported because soft and blue cheeses were not evaluated in respect of their vitamin K2 content. These cheeses have higher amount of menaquinones possibly due to the activity of lactic acid bac‐ teria particularly *Leuconostoc* species and yeasts or molds which are involved in ripening of cheeses. Most of the soft (from table name) and blue cheeses characterized had high con‐ tents of vitamin K2 [59]. Generally, MK‐9 was present in soft and blue cheese almost fourfold than that of MK‐8. It is suggested that *lactococci* is responsible for the production of MK‐9 in the dairy products. However, these bacteria also produced MK‐8 comparatively constant ra‐ tio. Likewise, *propionibacteria* also synthesized the MK‐9 as a key menaquinone in cheese. Menaquinone‐9 concentration was higher in Norwegian Jarlsberg cheese trailed by Swiss Emmental cheese. However, Appenzeller or Gruye're cheeses had extremely low concentra‐ tions of MK‐9. Additionally, Comte and Raclette cheeses contained lesser amount of MK‐9

**Food Type Country MK‐4 MK‐5 MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 MK‐9 Reference**

Semi‐hard cheese (ng/g) Denmark – – 16.1–19.8 7.1–13.5 25–35.8 115.3–185.1 [58] Semi‐hard cheese (ng/g) Poland – – 9.8–15.8 ND 27.8–56.4 124.5–166.3 [58]

Emmental type (ng/g) Finland 52.3 ND Traces Traces ND Nd [53]

Blue cheese (ng/g) England – – 96.7 223 103 301 [58]

Soft cheese Soft cheese (ng/g) France – – 13.7–25.9 0–17.1 89.2–139.9 176.1–939.7 [58] Cheese Edam type (ng/g) Finland 33 10.2 5.6 12.6 105 300 [53]

Blue cheese Blue cheese (ng/g) France – – 14.4–35.4 24.6 59.8 189–230 [58]

Cheddar Hard cheddar (ng/g) England – – 8.7–29.9 0–23.1 10.5–61.8 0–66.9 [58]

4.7 1.5 0.8 1.3 16.9 ‐ [13]

Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63902 49

3.7 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.0 ‐ [13]

0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 5.1 ‐ [13]

– – 14.5–34.5 0–14.1 33.9–73.1 100–321 [58]

lands

lands

lands

lands

menaquinones such as MK‐5, MK‐6 and MK‐7 was present (**Table 7**).

ing MK‐7 showed statistically non‐significantly variations [57].

than both Jarlsberg and Emmental cheeses (**Table 8**).

Soft cheese (μg/100g) Nether

Curd cheese (μg/100 g) Nether

Semi‐hard cheese (ng/g) Nether

Cheeses Hard cheeses (μg/100g) Nether

**8.5. Cheeses**

Semi‐hard cheese

**Table 7.** Menaquinones contents of various dairy products (μg/100 g).

Recently, Knapen et al. delineated that vitamin K fortified foods are healthy choice to increase the nutritional intake of MK‐7 [57]. The fortified yoghurt drink containing MK‐7 about 28 μg/ ml has similar absorption pattern as the soft gel containing same amount of pure menaquinone‐ 7. It is therefore suggested that to fortify food products that are ideal choice among the public to enhance the nutritional intake of menaquinones in the body.

#### **8.4. Yoghurt**

Thermophilic bacteria such as *Lactobacillus delbrueckii*, *Streptococcus thermophilus,* and *Bifido‐ bacterium* which are mostly used a lactic acid bacteria starter culture not have ability to produce the menaquinones. Therefore, yogurt type milk‐based products prepared with pure culture of thermophilic bacteria have limited or no menaquinones. However, among other milk‐based fermented products, 60% contained some amount of vitamin K2 (**Table 7**). The mesophilic lactic acid bacteria species which as used as starter culture for the fermentation have a capability to produce ample amount of vitamin K2[53, 58]. However, yoghurt including plain, whole and skimmed milk contained higher amount of MK‐4, whereas very low concentration of other menaquinones such as MK‐5, MK‐6 and MK‐7 was present (**Table 7**).

Fortified yoghurt drink with MK‐7 significantly improved serum concentration from 0.38 ng/ ml to 2.00 ng/ml, whereas yoghurt supplemented with MK‐7 along with other vitamins increased better serum MK‐7 level as 2.17 ng/ml. Fortified MK‐7 yoghurt and soft gel contain‐ ing MK‐7 showed statistically non‐significantly variations [57].

#### **8.5. Cheeses**

**Food Type Country MK‐4MK‐5MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 MK‐9 Reference** Cream Cream Japan 8 – – ND – – [12]

5.4 – – – – [13]

1.5 – – – – – [13]

0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 [13]

15.0 – – – – – [13]

lands

Dressing Mayonnaise (whole egg type Japan 17 – – ND – – [12] Dressing Mayonnaise (egg yolk type Japan 38 ND – – [12]

lands

lands

lands

Soured milk(ng/g) Finland 5.7 2.93 1.7 4.1 20.1 47 [53]

Mesophilic fermented milk (MFM) ng/g France – – 1.3–4.9 1.2–6.1 7.237.9 29–145 [58]

MFM (ng/g) Germany– – 2.1–6 4.1–6.3 31–42 88.4–198.5[58]

MFM (ng/g) Poland – – 0.5–11.93.2–10.97.1–89.317–414.2 [58]

Recently, Knapen et al. delineated that vitamin K fortified foods are healthy choice to increase the nutritional intake of MK‐7 [57]. The fortified yoghurt drink containing MK‐7 about 28 μg/ ml has similar absorption pattern as the soft gel containing same amount of pure menaquinone‐ 7. It is therefore suggested that to fortify food products that are ideal choice among the public

Thermophilic bacteria such as *Lactobacillus delbrueckii*, *Streptococcus thermophilus,* and *Bifido‐ bacterium* which are mostly used a lactic acid bacteria starter culture not have ability to produce the menaquinones. Therefore, yogurt type milk‐based products prepared with pure culture of thermophilic bacteria have limited or no menaquinones. However, among other milk‐based fermented products, 60% contained some amount of vitamin K2 (**Table 7**). The mesophilic lactic acid bacteria species which as used as starter culture for the fermentation have a capability to produce ample amount of vitamin K2[53, 58]. However, yoghurt including plain, whole and

Cream Whipping cream Nether

48 Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing

Chocolate Market (brand or type is no specified) Nether

Buttermilk Market (brand or type is no specified) Nether

Butter Market (brand or type is no specified) Nether

ND = not detected; (–) = unknown or not reported.

**Table 7.** Menaquinones contents of various dairy products (μg/100 g).

to enhance the nutritional intake of menaquinones in the body.

Fermented milk

Fermented milk

Fermented milk

**8.4. Yoghurt**

Soft cheese as well as blue cheese have tremendous amount of vitamin K2 as 1100 and 700  ng/g [58]. Earlier, menaquinones content of these cheeses has never been reported because soft and blue cheeses were not evaluated in respect of their vitamin K2 content. These cheeses have higher amount of menaquinones possibly due to the activity of lactic acid bac‐ teria particularly *Leuconostoc* species and yeasts or molds which are involved in ripening of cheeses. Most of the soft (from table name) and blue cheeses characterized had high con‐ tents of vitamin K2 [59]. Generally, MK‐9 was present in soft and blue cheese almost fourfold than that of MK‐8. It is suggested that *lactococci* is responsible for the production of MK‐9 in the dairy products. However, these bacteria also produced MK‐8 comparatively constant ra‐ tio. Likewise, *propionibacteria* also synthesized the MK‐9 as a key menaquinone in cheese. Menaquinone‐9 concentration was higher in Norwegian Jarlsberg cheese trailed by Swiss Emmental cheese. However, Appenzeller or Gruye're cheeses had extremely low concentra‐ tions of MK‐9. Additionally, Comte and Raclette cheeses contained lesser amount of MK‐9 than both Jarlsberg and Emmental cheeses (**Table 8**).



contained 9.0 μg/100 g and hard cooked whole egg contained 7.0 μg/100 g compared to fresh

Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63902 51

Elder et al. reported that various fast food products including hamburgers, sandwiches, burrito, taco, pepperoni, and shakes contained MK‐4 [50]. Regular hamburger contained lower amount of MK‐4 which was subsequently increased by the addition of cheese or sauces or both in the hamburgers. Likewise, Chicken sandwich contained relatively higher amount of MK‐4 as 2.7–10.6 μg/100 g than that of hamburger due to higher amount of chicken that possibly contained higher amount of MK‐4. Burrito prepared with beans, beef, or chicken contained MK‐4 ranged from 0.6 to 2.7 μg/100 g. Pepperoni contained almost similar amount MK‐4 as present in the burrito. Shakes available in USA market including chocolate and vanilla also

**Food Type Country MK‐4 Reference Hamburger** Regular, with cheese, sauces, and both USA 1.4–2.9 [50] **Sandwich** Prepared the various meat‐based products chicken sandwich USA 2.7–10.6 [50] **Sandwich** Fish sandwich USA 0.3 [50] **Burrito** Burrito with bean, beef, and chicken USA 0.6–2.7 [50] **Taco** Taco regular, with beef, chicken, or cheese USA 1.0–4.5 [50] **Pepperoni** Pepperoni (regular, thin, and thick crust) or meat and vegetables USA 1.9–2.1 [50] **Shakes** Shakes, chocolate, and vanilla USA 3.4 [50]

**Food Type Country MK‐4 MK‐6 MK‐7 Reference** Egg yolk Netherlands 31.4 0.7 – [13] Egg albumen Netherlands 0.9 – – [13] Egg Whole and raw Japan 7 – ND [12] Egg Raw yolk Japan 64 – ND [12] Egg White fresh raw USA 0.4 – – [50] Egg Yolk fresh raw USA 15.5 – – [50] Egg Whole and fresh USA 5.6 – – [50] Egg Whole and fried USA 9.0 – – [50] Egg Whole and hard cooked USA 7.0 – – [50]

whole egg 5.6 μg/100 g [13, 21, 50].

Other menaquinones were not detected or quantified.

**Table 9.** Menaquinones contents of hen egg (μg/100 g).

have some amount of MK‐4 (**Table 10**).

Other menaquinones were not quantified in this study.

**Table 10.** Menaquinones contents of various fast foods (μg/100 g).

**8.7. Fast foods**

MK‐7 was not detected in fresh whole egg and raw egg yolk.

**Table 8.** Menaquinones contents of various cheeses

Positive correlation was found in propionate concentration and viable propionibacterial cell count which is contributed toward the production of MK‐9 in cheeses [59]. Earlier, different reports showed that components of menaquinones are varied among the types of cheeses. In this context, menaquinones concentration is better in Edam‐type cheeses than Emmental‐type cheeses‐specific bacterial activity [53]. Starter culture has prime importance during the preparation of cheese with higher amount of menaquinones. Commonly, Swiss‐type cheeses are prepared with *propionibacteria* and lactic acid bacteria, while Edam‐type cheese are produced with the action of lactic acid bacteria only such as *Lc. lactis* ssp. *Cremoris* and *Lactococcus lactis* ssp. *Lactis* which are mainly responsible for the synthesis of MK‐8 and MK‐9 [60]. Moreover, *Propionibacterium freudenreichii* isolated from Swiss‐type cheese has a potential equivalent to the *Bacillus subtilis* to produce menaquinone‐9 in milk whey [61].

Long‐chain menaquinones such as MK‐6 to MK10 was not present in Comte hard cheese produced in France. Likewise, these menaquinones were not present in the Emmental hard cheese while some amount of MK‐10 and MK‐11 was detected. Interestingly, mozzarella cheese did not have any type of menaquinones because during its production process no fermentation is involved [58]. Accordingly, further research is required to evaluate the stability of mena‐ quinones in cheese that are stored for a long time [59].

#### **8.6. Egg**

Similar to the other animal‐based products, hen egg also contained considerable amount of MK‐4, whereas MK‐7 was not detected or not quantified by the researchers. Egg yolk contained greater concentration of the MK‐4 (31.4–64 μg/100 g) than that of egg white (0.9–7 μg/100 g). Additionally, cooking also increased the MK‐4 content in the egg might be due to loss of moisture content compared with whole fresh egg (**Table 9**). In this context, whole fried egg


contained 9.0 μg/100 g and hard cooked whole egg contained 7.0 μg/100 g compared to fresh whole egg 5.6 μg/100 g [13, 21, 50].

Other menaquinones were not detected or quantified.

MK‐7 was not detected in fresh whole egg and raw egg yolk.

**Table 9.** Menaquinones contents of hen egg (μg/100 g).

#### **8.7. Fast foods**

**Food Type Country MK‐4 MK‐5 MK‐6 MK‐7 MK‐8 MK‐9 Reference** Cheshire hard cheese (ng/g) England – – 15.7 Nd 57.9 241 [58]

> Comte (ng/g) France 55–84 – – – – 52–60 [59] Emmental (ng/g) Swiss 81–86 – – – – 222–314 [59] Gruyere (ng/g) Swiss 81–96 – – – – ND [59] Jarlsberg (ng/g) Norway 84 – – – – 652 [59] Raclette (ng/g) Swiss 50 – – – – 47 [59]

> Swiss cheese (μg/100 g) USA 7.8 – – – – – [50] Mozzarella cheese (μg/100 g) ‐ – – – – – [50] Processed cheese ((μg/100 g) Japan 5 – – 0.3 – – [12]

Positive correlation was found in propionate concentration and viable propionibacterial cell count which is contributed toward the production of MK‐9 in cheeses [59]. Earlier, different reports showed that components of menaquinones are varied among the types of cheeses. In this context, menaquinones concentration is better in Edam‐type cheeses than Emmental‐type cheeses‐specific bacterial activity [53]. Starter culture has prime importance during the preparation of cheese with higher amount of menaquinones. Commonly, Swiss‐type cheeses are prepared with *propionibacteria* and lactic acid bacteria, while Edam‐type cheese are produced with the action of lactic acid bacteria only such as *Lc. lactis* ssp. *Cremoris* and *Lactococcus lactis* ssp. *Lactis* which are mainly responsible for the synthesis of MK‐8 and MK‐9 [60]. Moreover, *Propionibacterium freudenreichii* isolated from Swiss‐type cheese has a potential

Long‐chain menaquinones such as MK‐6 to MK10 was not present in Comte hard cheese produced in France. Likewise, these menaquinones were not present in the Emmental hard cheese while some amount of MK‐10 and MK‐11 was detected. Interestingly, mozzarella cheese did not have any type of menaquinones because during its production process no fermentation is involved [58]. Accordingly, further research is required to evaluate the stability of mena‐

Similar to the other animal‐based products, hen egg also contained considerable amount of MK‐4, whereas MK‐7 was not detected or not quantified by the researchers. Egg yolk contained greater concentration of the MK‐4 (31.4–64 μg/100 g) than that of egg white (0.9–7 μg/100 g). Additionally, cooking also increased the MK‐4 content in the egg might be due to loss of moisture content compared with whole fresh egg (**Table 9**). In this context, whole fried egg

equivalent to the *Bacillus subtilis* to produce menaquinone‐9 in milk whey [61].

quinones in cheese that are stored for a long time [59].

**8.6. Egg**

Leicester Leicester hard cheese (ng/g) France – – 20 21.5 47.6 162.4 [58] Cheese Appenzeller (ng/g) Swiss 43–52 – – – – 20 [59]

Cheese Chedder cheese (μg/100 g) USA 10.2 – – – – [50]

**Table 8.** Menaquinones contents of various cheeses

50 Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing

Elder et al. reported that various fast food products including hamburgers, sandwiches, burrito, taco, pepperoni, and shakes contained MK‐4 [50]. Regular hamburger contained lower amount of MK‐4 which was subsequently increased by the addition of cheese or sauces or both in the hamburgers. Likewise, Chicken sandwich contained relatively higher amount of MK‐4 as 2.7–10.6 μg/100 g than that of hamburger due to higher amount of chicken that possibly contained higher amount of MK‐4. Burrito prepared with beans, beef, or chicken contained MK‐4 ranged from 0.6 to 2.7 μg/100 g. Pepperoni contained almost similar amount MK‐4 as present in the burrito. Shakes available in USA market including chocolate and vanilla also have some amount of MK‐4 (**Table 10**).


**Table 10.** Menaquinones contents of various fast foods (μg/100 g).
