**Author details**

Hossein Ghanbari\* and Roghayyeh Vakili‐Ghartavol

\*Address all correspondence to: hghanbari@tums.ac.ir

Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran

## **References**

the ischemic environment of a critical‐sized bone defect in bone tissue engineering. Further‐ more, a research group reported that the frequency of EPCs increased in the bone marrow and peripheral blood in the early stages of fracture repair and further illustrated incorporation of EPCs into developing blood vessels at the site of bone injury. Further histological results demonstrated that neovascularization did not exclusively involve the EPC population; however, supporting the hypothesis that paracrine signalling from EPCs may also contribute

Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, a discovery that resulted in a Nobel Prize in 2012, are somatic cells from embryonic or adult fibroblasts that are reprogrammed with defined classical transcription factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c‐Myc) [121, 128]. By forcing expression of these transcription factors, iPS cells retain the capacities of embryonic stem cells, including self‐ renewal and pluripotentiality to differentiate into all three germ layers [129]. Using these biological properties, iPS cells with an incorporation of gene therapy will be able to not only treat degenerative syndromes and genetic disorders but also appear as a promising candidate for autologous cell transplantation in bone defects. [129, 130]. Also, iPS cells, without the challenges of immunological rejection and ethical controversy, are preferable to embryonic stem cells and seem to be a potential alternative stem cell source for bone tissue engineering.

Bone regeneration strategies can make convenient, efficacious alternative therapies for or‐ thopaedic usages and is attractive on a several aspects including: (1) *in vitro* tissue engineer‐ ing for transplantation would reduce the necessity for donor tissue as required skeletal cells could be expanded in the laboratory prior to implantation; (2) using scaffolds with similar mechanical characteristics to bone that could integrate with the surrounding native tissue has the potential to alleviate the rate of implant failure and the need for revision surgery; and (3) treatment of damaged tissue at an early stage with mesenchymal stem cells could decrease or even cure the disease, reducing the need for lifelong treatment and improving the quality of life of the patient. Clinical applications include for the support of bone stock, in maxillo‐facial surgery as well fracture and non‐union fractures [131]. However, it is clear that a single approach is not able to support many of the bone tissue requirements, and re‐

fined approaches targeted to a specific application site/problem will be needed.

Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine,

and Roghayyeh Vakili‐Ghartavol

\*Address all correspondence to: hghanbari@tums.ac.ir

Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran

to neovascularization at the ischemic site [127].

*4.2.3. Induced pluripotent stem cells*

16 Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration

**5. Conclusion**

**Author details**

Hossein Ghanbari\*


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