**2. Nuclear fuel cycle technology for fission energy**

Nuclear fuel cycle includes several integrated industries that produce and manage the fuel and its associated wastes before and after irradiation. As any industry, the development and operation of NFC facilities have different effects on the host society and the environment. The compensation between the added value of these facilities and its associated environmental impacts is an important challenge for the sustainability of these industries, epically with strengthen regulatory requirements that emerged recently [3, 4]. **Table 1** lists NFC processes, its associated wastes, and impacts [3, 5]. Research and development efforts in NFC could be divided into two classes: the first is directed to enhance current commercial technology's performance, in terms of operational safety improvements and cost and environmental impact reductions. The second class is concerned with getting innovative technologies into industrial scale applications. Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) developed reports that summarize current and anticipated trends in NFC development within 20 years [5, 6]. **Tables 2** and **3** list these trends for front- and back-end NFC processes, respectively [3, 5–15].



**Table 1.** Nuclear fuel cycle and their associated nuclear waste [3, 8–11, 13].



**Table 2.** Current and anticipated trends in front-end NFC [2, 3, 5–7].

**Process Generated wastes Associated hazard**

hydroxide, contaminated water, gaseous wastes, i.e. UF6, F2 and HF, and

dependent on the reactor type and if open or close nuclear fuel cycle is applied, but generally L&ILW, and High Level Waste (HLW)

**Process Commercial technologies Anticipated trends Strengthen requirement**

sandstone type,

To ensure the sustainability

**•** New deposits will be used, that is, high-grade unconformity-deposits, multi-mineral deposits and

**•** Re-enrichment of depleted uranium,

**•** Using closed NFC and former weapon-grade materials,

ISL and underground mining.

Re-conversion of depleted uranium

Improvements in centrifuge technology.

**•** Improve fuel/moderator distribution,

**•** Reduce parasitic absorption and

Clad and fuel material improvements. Increased concern with

**•** Increase application of

hexafluoride to U3O8.

depleted U3O8 Fabrication The amount and types of waste is

**Table 1.** Nuclear fuel cycle and their associated nuclear waste [3, 8–11, 13].

Back end NFC Irradiation and storage

6 Nuclear Material Performance

Fuel reprocessing and/or disposal

Mining Localized deposits are used via

**•** Underground mining, **•** In situ leaching (ISL), **•** Phosphate by-product

**•** Open pit,

recovery, **•** Heap leaching.

Conversion **•** Ammonium Diuranate,

Enrichment **•** Gaseous diffusion process,

Fabrication Oxide fuel by pellet pressing and vibro-packing.

Irradiation Different reactor types are

**•** Ammonium Uranyl Carbonate.

**•** Gas centrifuge process.

commercially available, that is, LWR, PHWR, AGR, FR.

**in the facility**

Criticality, Radioactivity, Chemical toxicity, Flammability.

**Impacts**

Operational & accidental release, Waste generation.

Increased concern to develop environmental impact assessment and environmental restoration plan.

Increased measure due to the application of 3S

concept.

reactor safety and application of 3S concept.

Operational releases and unanticipated radionuclide migration.


**Table 3.** Current and anticipated trends in backend NFC [3, 8–15].
