**1. Introduction**

Peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology in medical, industrial, and agricultur‐ al fields have served human civilization over several decades. These applications lead to the spread uses of nuclear and radioactive materials in hospitals, clinics, factories, different research centers and universities, and other workplaces. Workers in nuclear fields recognized the importance of keeping their technologies reliable, clean, and improving its sustainability and safety. Major obstacles that face them are lack in some legalizations and technical expertise in some countries, shortage in international recourses, and the growing concerns about nuclear security and safeguards. To combat these obstacles, the International Atomic Energy Authori‐ ty (IAEA) identified requirements to establish national infrastructure that can support nucle‐ ar energy program [1]. The following issues and their associated conditions could be used to judge the program.


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## **19.** Procurement should be subjected to a strict management system.

**6.** Safeguards, governmental commitment to nonproliferation obligations should be ensured. **7.** Regulatory framework, effective independent competent national regulatory body can enhance public and international confidence in a specific program. Key aspect in this area

**8.** Radiation protection, existing national infrastructure for nonnuclear energy program, that is, radiation, waste, and transport safety should be updated in compliance with interna‐

**9.** Electrical grid, nuclear energy is most efficient to run as base load generator and a general accepted principal that a single power plant should not exceed 10% of the total installed

**10.** Human resources development, development of educational and training capabilities especially in nuclear physics, nuclear material sciences for reactor operation, and fuel cycle among other specialties are needed to ensure crucial human resources sustainability. **11.** Stakeholder involvement, reasonable involvement is a requisition of positive stable political and the proficiency of both regulatory body and operator is a key aspect in supporting

**12.** Site and supporting facilities, stepwise selection process should be adopted that aims to

**13.** Environmental protection, program impacts on the environment should be assessed with

**14.** Emergency planning, operating experiences indicated that emergency planning for operation and for workers and public outside the site boundary should be addressed as it

**15.** Security and physical protection, security should be supported by national legalization and multi-preventive security levels are needed and should be coordinated with nuclear safety

**16.** Nuclear fuel cycle (NFC), having clear nuclear fuel management strategy, is essential during the planning for a nuclear program; this should cover front- and backend fuel cycle. For front-end, international supplier can reduce the need to develop infrastructure in this field, whereas for back-end there should be national storage and the disposal development is

**17.** Radioactive waste, some countries that produce and use radioisotopes had developed low and intermediate level radioactive waste (LILW) predisposal and disposal infrastructure, which can support a nuclear energy program. But it should be noted that for spent fuel (SF)

**18.** Industrial involvement, having nuclear energy program requires the enhancement of industrial capabilities, that is, supplying spare parts, consumable, instrument repair, and calibration services, according to the codes and standards under strict management system.

and high level waste (HLW), the only available technology is storage.

special consideration to regular discharge and adopted fuel cycle strategy.

identify safe, secure, and economically and socially accepted site.

complement facility safety and add to the defense in depth.

is the development of competent human and physical resources.

tional measures for nuclear energy program.

capacity.

4 Nuclear Material Performance

public confidence.

requirements.

governmental responsibility.

It could be seen that these requirements are essential for any other nuclear activity and that the enhancement of waste and NFC capabilities has received considerable attention, as it is considered in six issues. In 2008, 3S concept was introduced for new users, but old users started also to consider these issues [2]. This concept aims to strengthen the relationship between safety, security, and safeguard to attain successful peaceful utilization of nuclear technology. Now, great efforts are directed to enhance safety, security, and safeguard aspects. This is achieved by identifying the impacts of current practices, determining anticipated trends toward better performances, and mitigating challenges for commercial application of innova‐ tive technologies. This chapter aims to introduce the technical efforts to improve NFC for fission technologies, trends in fusion research toward commercial utilization of its energy, challenges that face development in radioisotope production, and advances in the manage‐ ment of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) and technically enhance NORM (TENORM).
