**6. Conclusion**

**Current methods Application Feature Challenges**

USA and Russia. High production yield,

No nonproliferation threat. Improvements in target materials,

[23].

intensity,

Theoretical High yield, High energy electron with high power,

Use natural uranium. Less productive,

Flexible process optimization, Reduce waste generation, Efficiently produce isotopes, Better economics [25].

Direct production of 99mTc, Yield depends on the cyclotron

Very low radioactive waste

Yield similar to reactor yield, No ficile material used.

NORM and TENORM residue generation accompanies industrial activities to exploit natural resources, namely mining, physical, wet chemical, and thermal processes that aim to separate, extract, and process these resources. The problems of managing these materials are related to their huge volume, very low specific radioactivity content, their presence in non-radiological industries, and the variability of their chemical, physical, and radiological properties that differ from industry to another and from site to site [4, 28]. Historical poor management practice led to different contamination problems that vary in their extent and properties. Dealing with these problems is affected by ethical, technical, and economical considerations [3, 4, 10, 29–30]. IAEA defined six radiological bands that could be used to support the decision-making process for remediation project [31]. Research and development in this area is directed to enhance the

energy,

[26,27],

Improvement in separation

technology [26].

Low specific activity.

Low separation efficiency

Attainment of high energy, and

Optimize targets to maximize secondary neutron production and

Waste arising similar to that of LEU

High-energy electron with high-

thermalization [26].

Pure Mo target [27].

power attainment [27].

reactor route,

South Africa,

Argentina, South Korea, and Australia [24].

USA, India, Japan, Kazakhstan, Peru, Russia, and Uzbekistan.

(Molybdenum target).

(Molybdenum target).

Tested experimentally, (Uranium target).

**5. NORM/TENORM management**

**Table 5.** Conventional and innovative technologies for 99Mo production [20–27].

performance of remediation technologies and their economics [4, 10].

Heterogeneous LEU

10 Nuclear Material Performance

Heterogeneous reactor –Neutron activation

Homogeneous reactor LEU target

Accelerator production

Proton based Tested experimentally,

Electron Tested experimentally,

targets

This chapter introduces advances in areas where nuclear material is produced and used. It aims to highlight the gaps that need further elaboration toward sustainable, safe, and reliable utilization of these materials. It could be concluded that

