**4. Health and socioeconomic implications of microbial contamination and its effects on international trade**

Provision of safe foods supports national economies, international trade, and consumer confidence, thus underpinning sustainable development. However, globalization and changes in consumers' habits to a more convenient and healthy foods led to increase the awareness of potential and/or emerging hazards for public health. This also triggered a growing consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, thus leading to a more complex food chain.

The consequence of the population growth is an intensification of agriculture and animal production to meet consumer demands. Food safety challenges should consider the potential effect of climate change because temperature changes can modify the risk profile of a given food commodity during the whole production chain [20]. These effects produce a greater degree of responsibility to food producers and handlers to ensure food safety. It should be highlighted that the spread of a localized outbreak can increase largely due to the globalized food chain and international trade. Examples include the contamination of infant formula with melamine in 2008, and the 2011 Enterohemorrhagic *Escherichia coli* outbreak in Germany linked to contaminated sprouts. This multistate outbreak was reported in eight countries in Europe and North America, leading to 53 deaths. Losses caused to farmers and food industries were quantified in US\$ 1.3 billion, while emergency aid payments to 22 EU member states were around US\$ 236 million [21].

According to data reported by USDA, foodborne illnesses are annually costing the economy more than \$15.6 billion. Each year, more than 8.9 million Americans will be sickened by one of the 15 pathogens, with more than 5.4 million of those illnesses due to the stomach churning, but usually short-lived, Norovirus. In EU countries, 5196 foodborne outbreaks, such as waterborne outbreaks, were reported [22]. Governmental authorities should make food safety a public health priority, as they play key role in developing policies and regulatory frame‐ works. They also are in charge of establishing and implementing effective food safety systems that ensure that food producers and suppliers along the whole food chain operate responsibly and supply safe food to consumers.

Among the food commodities causing outbreaks, meat products are the most frequently reported, given the high consumption associated to these products. Vegetable salads are recognized as potential vehicles for enteric pathogens, as they are not subjected to any heat treatment before consumption. In Table 2, notified outbreaks in EU and the United States for produce commodities are reported. Scientific studies highlight the importance of an adequate training of food handlers and implementation of GMPs when elaborating vegetable salads in catering establishments.

Regarding cooked meat products, they are susceptible to be contaminated after heat treatment, during storage, and distribution. This is because they can be subjected to poor handling practices (i.e., slicing, packaging) during preparation in catering establishments. As an example, in Table 3, notified outbreaks in EU countries and the United States associated to consumption of meat products are reported. It is concluded that problems in kitchen design, inadequate handling and disinfection practices, and lack of knowledge on food safety by handlers are the main risk factors influencing microbial contamination.


**Table 2.** Notified foodborne outbreaks in Europe and the United States by the consumption of produce commodities


**Table 3.** Notified foodborne outbreaks in Europe and the United States by consumption of meat commodities
