**2. Mosquito-borne diseases**

With the recent expansion of *Aedes albopictus*, there are epidemiological reports for several mosquito-borne diseases occurred in various parts of Europe [4]. These evidences show that the problem does not constitute an exclusive problem of tropical, subtropical, and/or devel‐ oping countries. In North America, several mosquito vectors species of the *Culex*, *Anopheles*, and *Aedes* genera that transmit several diseases to humans are present [5]. Meanwhile, in Central and South America, the main disease in humans transmitted by mosquito vectors of the *Anopheles*, *Aedes*, *Culex*, and *Ocherotatus* genera are malaria, dengue, yellow fever, filariasis, St. Louis encephalitis, and western equine encephalitis [6].

Mosquito-borne diseases occur when the specific biological agent that causes the disease is transmitted to human hosts through a nonhuman carrier called vector. Therefore, the chain of transmission involves three factors: one host, usually a human, an invertebrate vector respon‐ sible for spreading the disease, and the biological agent that may be a virus, bacterium, or parasite. Vectors may act biologically or mechanically, where the mechanical vectors only transport the pathogenic agent; however, in biological vectors, agent develops and multiplies before becoming infective to the vertebrate host [7]. In that context, mosquito-borne diseases of public health importance are complex, and its occurrence will depend on the interaction of various factors such as biological, ecological, social, and economic factors [8].

#### **2.1. Malaria**

Malaria or paludism is caused by parasites of genus *Plasmodium*, which is transmitted to humans by the bite of female *Anopheles* mosquitoes. *Plasmodium falciporum* is responsible for most severe cases, usually causing coma or anemia in patients, which flows into death. Meanwhile, *Plasmodium vivax* causes recurring fevers and lesions in the brain and liver, but it rarely causes death [9]. Within the measures applied to control, *Anopheles* vectors, for a long time, was based on the application of DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis [ρ-chorophenyl] ethane), but currently it is beginning to use pyrethroids in outbreaks and transmission foci [10].

While the disease appeared to be under control in the 1950s, the infection again reappeared in many countries due to the resistance generated by vectors to insecticides of plasmodia and chloroquine. This disease is responsible for the deaths of between 700,000 and 2.7 million people [11]. Moreover, malaria causes between 400 and 900 million cases of acute fever per year in children fewer than five years in these areas. Therefore, malaria is the disease with the highest prevalence in areas with limited economic resources, causing the largest number of cases in the warm and rainy seasons. The solution to eradicate this disease would be the application of vaccine [12].

#### **2.2. Yellow fever**

and other organisms. Therefore, the only way to avoid epidemics of mosquito-borne diseases is through the control of insect vectors and through knowledge of its biology, behavior, and

Mosquitoes' vector characteristics vary depending on the particular conditions of their habitat of origin. During its life cycle, mosquito goes through four stages, which are egg, larva, pup, and adult, of which the first three stages need stagnant water to develop. Generally, adult mosquitoes are small insects, fragile, with slender bodies, a pair of narrow wings and three pairs of long slender legs. They vary in length from 3.16 to 1.2 inch (5 to 13 mm). They are equipped with an elongated proboscis with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin, which the

Over the last decades, the struggle of pests has been based on the large-scale use of chemical pesticides, as well as the elimination of all containers, artificial or natural, which can be given favorable conditions for the development of the prolific mosquito breeding sites [3]. However, the negative effects of chemicals on nontarget organism populations and the resistance development to these chemicals in mosquitoes, along with the resent resurgence of different diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, have led to search other alternative methods, more simple

With the recent expansion of *Aedes albopictus*, there are epidemiological reports for several mosquito-borne diseases occurred in various parts of Europe [4]. These evidences show that the problem does not constitute an exclusive problem of tropical, subtropical, and/or devel‐ oping countries. In North America, several mosquito vectors species of the *Culex*, *Anopheles*, and *Aedes* genera that transmit several diseases to humans are present [5]. Meanwhile, in Central and South America, the main disease in humans transmitted by mosquito vectors of the *Anopheles*, *Aedes*, *Culex*, and *Ocherotatus* genera are malaria, dengue, yellow fever, filariasis,

Mosquito-borne diseases occur when the specific biological agent that causes the disease is transmitted to human hosts through a nonhuman carrier called vector. Therefore, the chain of transmission involves three factors: one host, usually a human, an invertebrate vector respon‐ sible for spreading the disease, and the biological agent that may be a virus, bacterium, or parasite. Vectors may act biologically or mechanically, where the mechanical vectors only transport the pathogenic agent; however, in biological vectors, agent develops and multiplies before becoming infective to the vertebrate host [7]. In that context, mosquito-borne diseases of public health importance are complex, and its occurrence will depend on the interaction of

Malaria or paludism is caused by parasites of genus *Plasmodium*, which is transmitted to humans by the bite of female *Anopheles* mosquitoes. *Plasmodium falciporum* is responsible for

various factors such as biological, ecological, social, and economic factors [8].

environmental factors that facilitate its transmission [2].

female uses for snacks and to feed on blood.

112 Insecticides Resistance

and sustainable for mosquito control.

**2. Mosquito-borne diseases**

**2.1. Malaria**

St. Louis encephalitis, and western equine encephalitis [6].

This disease is caused by the yellow fever virus, an arbovirus, belonging to the *Flavivirus* genus is present in tropical areas of Africa and South America. *Aedes aegypti* mosquito is the most important vector in the transmission of the yellow fever disease in America [13]. Yellow fever virus infects both humans and monkeys, being monkeys the main reservoir of infection and transmission from monkey to monkey in woodlands and jungle. *Haemagogus jantinomys* and *Sabethes choropterus* mosquitoes are the vectors responsible for the transovarially virus transmission among the primate species [14]. On the other hand, the infection is transmitted to humans through *A. aegypti* mosquito bites. Yellow fever virus causes 200,000 clinical cases of disease and 30,000 deaths each year, of which 90% of the cases correspond to the African continent [15]. Unfortunately, the most of the cases and deaths are not recognized because it occurs in rural areas where surveillance and reporting are inadequate. Yellow fever distribu‐ tion in America ranged from Philadelphia, in the United States, until the line connecting Bahía Blanca and Mendoza in Argentina. On the other hand, in Africa, it is located in the sub-Saharan Africa [16]. This disease can be fatal and acute or mild and inapparent. Because there is no specific antiviral treatment against it, the best strategy to prevent its spread is the prevention of infection [17]. In this context, vaccination is the best preventive measure against yellow fever.

#### **2.3. Dengue**

Dengue is a viral disease caused by infection of four viruses, known as dengue 1, 2, 3, and 4, which is endemic in more than 100 countries in Africa, America, the Eastern Mediterranean, Southeast Asia, and the Western Pacific, the latter two being the most severely affected. These viruses belong to the genus *Flavivirus*, Flaviciridae family. The most important mosquito vector is *A. aegypti* and to a lesser degree *A. albopictus*. Once an infected mosquito bites a human, the virus goes through an incubation period of between 3 and 14 days before disease symptoms appear. Furthermore, passive dispersion through means of transport is one of the most important factors that favor the spread of these mosquitoes and dengue virus from one region to another.

This disease is of major interest to public health because of its great impact on morbidity and mortality in the world since it is the viral disease transmitted by mosquito vectors most common and important worldwide [18]. The World Health Organization estimated that there may be 50 to 100 million dengue infections, a half-million hospitalizations, and 22,000 deaths worldwide every year [19]. Moreover, because of the absence of a vaccine to protect the population at risk, vector control is the most important method for the prevention and interruption of the transmission of the disease. The use of chemical insecticides is a key component in the control of larvae and adult mosquito vector populations. However, derived from overuse for over five decades of these insecticides to interrupt the transmission of the virus, it has generated resistance to different molecules of insecticides by part of mosquito vectors [19].
