**6. Ins and its derivatives in humans: Antinutrients** *versus* **disease prevention**

Once Ins and its derivatives are present in vegetables and these are part of the daily diet of large populations around the world, it is essential to analyze their potential effects on con‐ sumers. The Ins and related metabolites play a heterogeneous physiological role, depending on the concerned organism, plant or animal (including human). In plants, as already men‐ tioned, such compounds help regulate plant homeostasis during periods of stress. In animals (including humans), their influence has very diverse physiological repercussions. Initially, they were only seen as harmful agents because some representatives when present in certain plants could act as antinutritional factors, thereby reducing the bioavailability of important nutrients and the nutritional value of the food. According to Kokhar and Apenten [51], this effect is present a result of a selected adaptive mechanism due to a "chemical warfare" between higher plants and herbivorous pests.

**Figure 3.** KEGG Pathway database diagrams presenting: (A) Inositol Metabolism; (B) Galactose Metabolism, showing the Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides (highlighted in red). Green Box: enzymes with transcriptional modulation data available from stress assays. Red Box: enzymes without transcriptional modulation data available in the literature. Yel‐ low Box: enzymes not covered in this review.

Among the various Ins-derivatives, phytic acid (1-D-myo-inositol-P6; Figure 1) is the most studied, concerning the impacts on human and animal health. Its unique structure provides the ability to chelate cations such as iron, zinc, potassium, magnesium, and copper, forming insoluble salts denominated phytate. These salts adversely affect animal's ability to absorb and digest nutrients [52, 53]. Phytates can form complexes with proteins, changing their structures and their enzymatic activities and characteristics of solubility and proteolytic digestibility [54]. However, there are reports that show positive aspects in phytates consumption. The presence of these in the diet of patients with diabetes has positive effects in reducing the level of blood glucose due to decreased starch digestion rate and slowing of gastric evacuation [55]. There are also reports of activity against HIV replication, kidney stones prevention, reduction of cholesterol and triglycerides levels, as well as assistance in prevention of heart diseases (for review see [54]). Studies also indicate that both Ins [56] and phytic acid [56, 57] have anticancer properties. With regard to RFOs, besides the fact that they are potential antinutritional factors, there are indications that they may act as important immunostimulants in animals (including humans). Also, RFOs' involvement is suggested in universal mechanisms of oxidative balance in several taxa [58].
