**4. Importance of plant integrity in crop research**

yields of protein and starch in dry environments. It can be concluded that a small RSS is related to a low grain yield and malt quality in dry environments, even in genetically diverse varieties.

**Figure 10.** Regression relationship of the wheat grain yield on RSS as averaged from three locations (published in [44]).

Fig. 11 The root is the most sensitive organ of the plant. On the left: tree sample *Pinus silvestris* (Scots pine), standing on the main root, on the 4 m height, due to influence of strong soil erosion. These trees have on the basis of measurements at least twice as large a root system compared to those in a conventional environment. In the other two images are oil rape roots. The left of these images is a root located from a relatively dry, well-prepared soil. The right of these images shows a root from compacted, moist soil. Such changes have an effect on the metabolism of plants, yield, seed quality, stress resistance, i.e. not only variety, provenance, and method of seed storage. In addition, the quality of soil preparation (at field

**Figure 11.** The root is the most sensitive organ of the plant. On the left: tree sample *Pinus silvestris* (Scots pine), stand‐ ing on the main root, on the 4 m height, due to influence of strong soil erosion. These trees have on the basis of meas‐ urements at least twice as large a root system compared to those in a conventional environment. In the other two images are oil rape roots. The left of these images is a root located from a relatively dry, well-prepared soil. The right of these images shows a root from compacted, moist soil. Such changes have an effect on the metabolism of plants, yield, seed quality, stress resistance, i.e. not only variety, provenance, and method of seed storage. In addition, the

The relevance and response to selection for greater RSS of spring barley in field conditions has been studied [46]. The effect of selection in 12 barley populations developed by mutual crossing

Plant integrity looks like as a "very easy and expanded topic," but the reality is very different. "Thanks" to the rigid specialization of scientists, we are losing a holistic view of plants. It is necessary to sense a plant in its entire complexity – both roots and shoots, as well as across their life cycles. Complex research, i.e. the connection of biology, plant nutrition, ecology, and other disciplines, is hardly observable in most scientific work. Only such an integrated approach can allow us to reach the correct interpretations for experimental results **(47–54)**. For example, when interaction of three or more stressors exists, there can be a lower or higher effect of stressors (compensated through the course of metabolism, etc.). The reason is the influence of individual factors on metabolism and their possible antagonistic influences. Stressors always have pleiotropic effects on a plant, and influence on many genes. Therefore,

crops) has a large influence.

**Grain yield (g)**

**4. Importance of plant integrity in crop research** 

quality of soil preparation (at field crops) has a large influence.

roots) in a similar way as for grain yield and can be therefore used in practical breeding.

average difference in the parental segregating generation was +40 and -43%, and in progeny +4 and -2%, respectively. Grain yield responded two times more to the selection (plants with a root size greater by 3.9% had higher yield of 8.1%). Root size was found to be related to grain yield. Some varieties donated greater, some smaller roots into progeny. It was shown that the selection for RSS was effective and responsive (more for greater than for smaller

**r2 = 0.4234; r = 0.6507; p = 0.0047; y = 0.2604 + 3.784\*x**

678 Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

**3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 Root size (nF)**

Plant integrity looks like as a "very easy and expanded topic," but the reality is very different. "Thanks" to the rigid specialization of scientists, we are losing a holistic view of plants. It is necessary to sense a plant in its entire complexity – both roots and shoots, as well as across their life cycles. Complex research, i.e. the connection of biology, plant nutrition, ecology, and other disciplines, is hardly observable in most scientific work. Only such an integrated approach can allow us to reach the correct interpretations for experimental results [47–54]. For example, when interaction of three or more stressors exists, there can be a lower or higher effect of stressors (compensated through the course of metabolism, etc.). The reason is the influence of individual factors on metabolism and their possible antagonistic influences. Stressors always have pleiotropic effects on a plant, and influence on many genes. There‐ fore, it is very important to test the adaptability of new breeding materials by utilizing extreme conditions in more locations, such as in ICARDA (The International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas) and CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) in Mexico [54, 55].

Currently, research is booming for the use of model, standard plants (*Arabidopsis* etc.). It is desirable that agricultural research is conducted with crops and not with so-called model species. The reasons for this requirement is both practical and physiological (diversity of metabolism). If, for example, *Arabidopsis* is used as a "model plant" for oilseed rape, because it is (on the basis of a physiological viewpoint) a similar plant with regards to its metabolic functions, then why not start research work straight away with oilseed rape?

There is also other problem. The differences between biological and agricultural research has increased in many cases. This phenomenon can also be observed in the relationship between contemporary agricultural research and its practical applications. Narrow research speciali‐ zation predominates strongly, and the differences between biological and agricultural research has increased in many research areas. There is a relatively significant lack of new methods for the analysis of this problem. To be honest, lot of different types of internal plant signals, i.e., the transport of information in plant metabolism and their interconnection, memory of plants, and importance of plant neurobiology is also neglected [56].

Productive genotypes have a more efficient metabolic activity throughout all vegetation, with faster spring root growth and better plant cover affecting their subsequent growth and development. In our experiments, the influence of provenance was greater than that of variety (this is not a rule, it may be the opposite due to differences between varieties and locations at each experiment). Provenance has a very significant influence on the physiological character‐ istics of seeds, an even greater influence than seed weight and germination. The results confirm the importance of quality seeds to the cultivation of field crops and especially highlights the importance of plant integrity [57–62]. For example, analysis of the effect of variety and provenance of oilseed rape seeds (*Brassica napus* L. *ssp. oleifera*) on germination under different temperature conditions was provided. The obtained results confirm the importance of seed provenance and emphasize a preference for high-quality seeds. It is known that good seed vigor and provenance guarantees not only better field emergence, growth, and development of overall resistance to stressors (drought, high temperature), but also has a significant impact on seed yield in the subsequent generation (according to better overwintering).

There are several ways to improve the resistance and tolerance (adaptability) of plants to the variable environmental stress conditions with regard to the basis of the whole plant physiology.

The last physiological studies on the rape plant integrity and plasticity have shown, that the crop "responds" to stressors by more than 100 of currently known and measured physiological traits (as mentioned in the previous section of this chapter).There is possibility to use this phenomenon in plant breeding. Selected basic traits of seeds as a vigor, germination percent‐ age, emergence, and stress tolerance of germinated seeds to high and low temperatures has significant influence on the yield of winter oilseed rape varieties [57–63], see below. These problems require more detailed analysis (64–67). Adaptable varieties have a wider possibility for growth and development in field conditions. Unfortunately, the current system of approv‐ ing new varieties in many European countries is not heading in the direction of adaptable varieties, but rather in the direction of morphological homogeneity of the genetic material.


#### **4.1. The results of experiments with the oil rapeseeds**

**Table 1.** Oil rapeseed cultivars at additional tests

On the basis of laboratory additional tests with the selected cultivars (Tab. 1) the following results supporting the importance of the integrity of plants were obtained:


Presented results were confirmed in the other rapeseed varieties (36 cultivars). Important obtained relationships are given in Tab. 2.


Note: Stress tolerant seeds at time of sprouting are one of the lot of guarantors of the of quality crops establishment during growth and development and for winter survival.

\*\*Statistical significance at 1%; \*Statistical significance at 5%

development. In our experiments, the influence of provenance was greater than that of variety (this is not a rule, it may be the opposite due to differences between varieties and locations at each experiment). Provenance has a very significant influence on the physiological character‐ istics of seeds, an even greater influence than seed weight and germination. The results confirm the importance of quality seeds to the cultivation of field crops and especially highlights the importance of plant integrity [57–62]. For example, analysis of the effect of variety and provenance of oilseed rape seeds (*Brassica napus* L. *ssp. oleifera*) on germination under different temperature conditions was provided. The obtained results confirm the importance of seed provenance and emphasize a preference for high-quality seeds. It is known that good seed vigor and provenance guarantees not only better field emergence, growth, and development of overall resistance to stressors (drought, high temperature), but also has a significant impact

on seed yield in the subsequent generation (according to better overwintering).

**4.1. The results of experiments with the oil rapeseeds**

680 Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

**Table 1.** Oil rapeseed cultivars at additional tests

physiology.

There are several ways to improve the resistance and tolerance (adaptability) of plants to the variable environmental stress conditions with regard to the basis of the whole plant

The last physiological studies on the rape plant integrity and plasticity have shown, that the crop "responds" to stressors by more than 100 of currently known and measured physiological traits (as mentioned in the previous section of this chapter).There is possibility to use this phenomenon in plant breeding. Selected basic traits of seeds as a vigor, germination percent‐ age, emergence, and stress tolerance of germinated seeds to high and low temperatures has significant influence on the yield of winter oilseed rape varieties [57–63], see below. These problems require more detailed analysis (64–67). Adaptable varieties have a wider possibility for growth and development in field conditions. Unfortunately, the current system of approv‐ ing new varieties in many European countries is not heading in the direction of adaptable varieties, but rather in the direction of morphological homogeneity of the genetic material.

**Genotype Country of origin Company origin** Californium France Monsanto SAS

Navajo Great Britain CPB Twyford Ltd OP 4947/07 Czech Republic Oseva PRO, s.r.o. Cadeli France Monsanto SAS Grizzly France Société RAGT 2n ČŽL 20 China Breeding material Labrador France SCA Adrien Momont et Fils

Viking Germany NPZ (Norddeutsche Pflanzenzucht)

**Table 2.** Correlation coefficients: seed physiological traits and the yield.

However, one very important problem in plant experiments remains. There is the possibility to select pairs of cultivars with different traits and for simplification from the same latitude it is possible to obtain many conclusions. In this case there is a random drift of results. If we use large groups of cultivars it is possible to obtain, for different physiological types, common and repeatable conclusions.

The cultivars used for scientific experiments are not often appropriate for the analysed target. Shortly: There is in lot of "physiological experiments" with comparison of only two contrasting genotypes (varieties). It is very little number for finding general dependencies. (Then there plays the role random drift as mentioned). This type of scientific work has both physiological and genetic aspects, logical reasoning during the writing of scientific articles, and is at a high level; we can read a productive scientific article, but the practical application of the results for plant production and breeding then becomes impossible. It is not possible to draw general conclusions based on the analysis of two genotypes especially if whole plant physiology is important to the solution of the problem.
