**6. Conclusions**

throughput and non-transgenic techniques which rapidly detect point mutations in mutagen‐ ized populations, and (iii) *Gene* targeting that relies on the following three tools to increase the efficiency of gene targeting: *zinc-finger nucleases* [91, 92], *TALEN* (transcription activator-like effector nuclease) [93] and *CRISPR/Cas* (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic

The wise use of crop management practices which include the time of planting, frequency of tillage and the rate and time of fertilizer application is important particularly in the semi-arid regions where moisture is scarce. Flexibility to change from late maturing crops to early maturing crops when the rainfall arrives late in the season is important. In the central semiarid regions of Ethiopia farmers start their season by planting sorghum in April. When sorghum fails due to late arrival of rain, they sow wheat in June. However, if the rain is still late or not enough for wheat plant establishment, farmers sow tef in July or early August as the last option. Compared to sorghum and wheat, tef requires less moisture and matures early. Suggestions have been earlier given on the type of technologies to be adopted in the semi-arid regions of Southern Africa [96] and West Africa [97]. According to Mir and colleagues, these

Access to agricultural inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizer and chemicals as well as credit and markets is important for farmers. In semi-arid areas where millets are dominantly cultivated, the amount and pattern of rainfall is erratic. Due to this, an insurance system known as Weather Index Drought Insurance has been implemented for the last decade in several African countries including Niger [99], Ghana [100], Kenya [101] and Burkina Faso [102] as well as India [103]. The successful insurance organization called 'Kilimo Salama' which was initially established by Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (SFSA) and imple‐ mented in several East African countries has been recently transferred to the Agriculture and

Collaborations among national and international institutions are required in both research and development, in order first to develop improved millet cultivars and later to disseminate them to the farming community. Among the institutions with a global mandate to improve millets, ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics) has recently added tef to the list of its mandate crops [106]. With its headquarters in Patancheru, India and regional officers in Nairobi (Kenya) and Bamako (Mali), it has been focusing on the improvement of diverse millets. The centre is among the 15 international agricultural research centers that belong to the CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research), the global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for food security. Hence, the research and development of tef, a vital crop in the Horn of Africa that feeds over 50 million people in Ethiopia alone, will receive a global partnership towards its improvement and

repeats)/(CRISPR associated), type II prokaryotic adaptive immune system [94, 95].

technologies should include genomics, physiology and breeding [98].

**5.3. Improved crop management**

652 Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

**5.4. Agricultural inputs and insurance**

Climate Risk Enterprise Ltd. (ACRE) [104, 105].

**5.5. Partnership in research and development**

Millets play a significant role in the livelihood of the population of developing world especially due to their enormous contribution to the food security of these countries. However, these crops have not been sufficiently studied and hence have been named orphan crops. Both conventional and modern improvement techniques have not yet been adequately implement‐ ed. It is believed that the changing climate will have significant effects on the types of crops cultivated in the next century. Currently, widely cultivated crops that provide the daily diet for many (such as wheat) might not be extensively cultivated in the future due to environ‐ mental stresses, especially the increase in global temperature. Millets might provide alternative climate-smart crops, as their adaptations to challenging environment are better than the current major crops of the world. Enhancing the productivity of millets requires concreted efforts of breeders, agronomists, policy makers and donors at both individual and institutional capacities.
