**9. References**

Accordi, F. (1991). The chromaffin cells of urodele amphibians. *Journal of Anatomy* 179: 1–8


The Endocrine Response to Stress - A Comparative View 283

Fuzzen, M. L. M., Alderman S. L., Bristow E. N. and Bernier N. J. (2010). Ontogeny of the

Gallo, P. V., and Civinini, A. (2003). Survey of the Adrenal Homolog in Teleosts. *International* 

Ghosh A, Carmichael S. W., Mukherje M. (2001). Avian adrenal medulla: cytomorphology and

Greenwood, A. K., P. C. Butler, White R.B., DeMarco U., Pearce D. and F. D. Russell (2003).

Harris, J. and D. J. Bird (2000). Modulation of the fish immune system by hormones. *Veterinary* 

Holcik, M. and N. Sonenberg (2005). Translational control in stress and apoptosis. *Nature* 

Hyakumachi, M. and Arora, D.K. (1998). The response of fungal propagules to competitive

Karin, M. (1998). Mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades as regulators of stress responses.

Kultz, D. (2005). Molecular and evolutionary bassis of the cellular stress response. *Annual* 

Laforgia, V., L. Varano, et al. (1991). Comparative morphology of the adrenal gland in selected

Lance, V. A. and R. M. Elsey (1999). Plasma catecholamines and plasma corticosterone

Landsberg, L. and J. B. Young (1992). Catecholamines and the adrenal medulla. *Williams Textbook of endocrinology*. J. J. a. F. Wilson, D.W. Philadelphia, Saunders: pp 621.

Lichtenthaler , H.K. (1998). The stress concept in plants. In: Stress of life. From molecules to man. Ed. by P. Csermely. *Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences* 851, pp. 187-198 Mackenzie, S., Iliev,D., Liarte,C., Koskinnen,H., Planas,J.V., Goetz,F.W., Molsa, H.,

MacKenzie S, Ribas L, Pilarczyk M, Capdevila DM, Kadri S, Huntingford,

Maule, A. and VanDerKooi, S.P. (1999). Stress-induced immune-endocrine interactions. In: *Stress physiology in animals*. Ed. by: P. Balm. Sheffield Biological Sciences. 205-245

species of the genus Podarcis*. Amphibia-Reptilia* 12: 153-160.

Larcher, W. (1987). Streβ bei pflanzen. *Naturwissenschaften* 74: 158-167

with cortisol. *Molecular Immunology*. 43: 1340-1348.

patterns, and transcriptional activities. *Endocrinology* 144(10): 4226-36. Haddad, J. J., N. E. Saade, Safieh-Garabedian, B (2002). Cytokines and neuro-immune-

*and Comparative Endocrinology* 170(3): 604-612.

*Review of Cytology*, Academic Press. 230: 89-187.

function. *Acta Biologica Szegediensis*, 45(1-4):1-11

*Journal of Neuroimmunology* 133(1-2): 1-19.

*Immunology and Immunopathology*. 77: 163-176.

*the New York Academy of Sciences* 851: 139-146

*Academy of Sciences* 851: 139-146

*Review of Physiology* 67: 225-257.

Studies. *PLoS ONE* 4(4): e5314

559-565.

*Reviews in Molecular and Cell Biology* 6(4): 318-327.

corticotropin-releasing factor system in rainbow trout and differential effects of hypoxia on the endocrine and cellular stress responses during development. *General* 

Multiple corticosteroid receptors in a teleost fish: distinct sequences, expression

endocrine interactions: a role for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal revolving axis*.* 

stress in soil. In Stress of life. From molecules to man. Ed. by P. Csermely. *Annals of* 

In Stress of life. From molecules to man. Ed. by P. Csermely*. Annals of the New York* 

following restraint stress in juvenile alligators*. Journal of Experimental Zoology* 283(6):

Krasnov,A., Tort, L. (2006). Transcriptional analysis of LPS-stimulated activation of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) monocyte/ macrophage cells in primary culture treated

F.A. (2009) Screening for Coping Style Increases the Power of Gene Expression


Boonstra, R. (2004). Coping with Changing Northern Environments: The Role of the Stress Axis in Birds and Mammals. *Integrative and Comparative Biology* 44: 95-108. Bury, N. R., A. Sturm, Le Rouzic P., Lethimonier C., Ducouret B., Guiguen Y., Robinson-

Carr, J. A. (2002). Stress, Neuropeptides, and Feeding Behavior: A Comparative Perspective.

Castillo, J., M.Teles, S. Mackenzie, L. Tort (2009). Stress-related hormones modulate cytokine

Chang, C. L. and S. Y. Hsu (2004). Ancient evolution of stress-regulating peptides in

Charmandari, E., Tsigos C, Chrousos G. (2005). Endocrinology of the stress response. *Annualof* 

Chimenti, C. and F. Accordi (2010). Morphology and Ultrastructure of the Pronephros of

Close, D. A., S.-S. Yun, et al. 11-Deoxycortisol is a corticosteroid hormone in the lamprey.

Creel, S. (2001). Social dominance and stress hormones*. Trends in Ecology and Evolution* 16(9):

Dawson, V. L. and T. M. Dawson (2004). Deadly Conversations: Nuclear-Mitochondrial Cross-

DeKloet E.R. (2004). Hormones and the stressed brain. *Annals of the New York Academy Sciences*

Denver, R. J. (2009). Structural and Functional Evolution of Vertebrate Neuroendocrine Stress

Dhabhar, F. S. (2009). Enhancing versus Suppressive Effects of Stress on Immune Function:

Dunlap K. D. Schall J.J. (1995). Hormonal alterations and reproductive inhibition in male fence

Elenkov, I. J. (2004). Glucocorticoids and the Th1/Th2 Balance. *Annals of the New York Academy* 

Engelsma, M. Y.,Huising, M. O., van Muiswinkel, W. B., Flik, G., Kwang, J., Savelkoul, H.

Finkel, T. and N. J. Holbrook (2000). Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing.

Fowles, J. R., A. Fairbrother, Fix, M Schiller S.and Kerkvliet. N. I. (1993). Glucocorticoid effects

Implications for Immunoprotection and Immunopathology. *Neuroimmunomodulation*

lizards (Sceloporus occidentalis) infected with the malarial parasite Plasmodium

F.,Verburg-van Kemenade, B. M. (2002). Neuroendocrine-immune interactions in fish: a role for interleukin-1. *Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology* 87(3-4): 467-

on natural and humoral immunity in mallard. *Developmental and Comparative* 

*Proceedings of the New York Academy of Sciences* 107: 13942-13947.

Talk. *Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes* 36(4): 287-294.

Systems. *Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences* 1163(1): 1-16.

*Endocrinology* 31(1): 141-56.

*Immunology* 27 (3), .493-499

*Review Physiology* 67: 259-284.

*Embryologia* 40(2): 142-148.

491-497.

1018:1-15.

16(5): 300-317.

79.

mexicanum. *Physiological Zoology*, 1995

*of Sciences* 1024(1): 138-146.

*Nature* 408(6809): 239-247.

*Immunology* 17: 165-177.

vertebrates. *Peptides* 25(10): 1681-8.

*Integrative and Comparative Biology* 42: 582-590.

Rechavi M., Laudet V., Rafestin-Oblin M.E., and Prunet P. (2003). Evidence for two distinct functional glucocorticoid receptors in teleost fish*. Journal of Molecular* 

expression in the head kidney of Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata*). Fish and Shellfish* 

Testudo hermanni Gmelin, 1789 (Chelonian Reptiles). *Anatomia, Histologia,* 


The Endocrine Response to Stress - A Comparative View 285

Romero L. Michael and Butler Luke K. (2007). Endocrinology of Stress. *International Journal of* 

Schmidt, K. L., D. S. Pradhan, et al. (2008). Neurosteroids, immunosteroids, and the

Segal G. and E Z Ron. (1993). Heat shock transcription of the groESL operon of *Agrobacterium tumefaciens* may involve a hairpin-loop structure. *Journal of Bacteriology* 175: 3083-30

Sicard,F., Vaudry,H., Braun, B., Chartrel,N., Leprince J., Conlon, J. M. and C. Delarue C.

Sung, Y. , Van Damme,Y., Els J.M., Sorgeloos P. and Bossier P.( 2007). Non-lethal heat shock

Stolte E. H., Lidy Verburg van Kemenade B. M., Savelkoul H. F J and Flik G. (2006). Evolution

Szabo, S. (1998). Hans Selye and the development of stress concept: Special reference to gastroduodenal ulcerogenesis. *Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences* 851: 19-27 Terwilliger, N. B., M. Ryan, Phillips, M., Michelle R. (2006). Crustacean hemocyanin gene

Thornton, J. W. and S. M. Carroll (2011). Lamprey endocrinology is not ancestral*. Proceedings of* 

Tort, L. (2010). Stress in farmed fish. Its consequences in health and performance. In: *Recent* 

Tort, L., M. Pavlidis and N.Y.S. Woo (2011). Stress and welfare in sparid fishes. In*: Sparidae.* 

Turnbull, A. V. and C. L. Rivier (1999). Regulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

Tyrrell, C. L. and A. Cree (1998). Relationships between Corticosterone Concentration and

Ulrich-Lai, Y. M. and J. P. Herman (2009). Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress

Varano, (1980). Comparative aspects of the adrenal chromaffin cells of Vertebrates. In H.

Verburg-VanKemenade, B.M.L., Stolte, E.H., Metz, J.R., Chadzinska, M.,(2009).

Wilkinson S. & Davies W. J. (2002). ABA-based chemical signalling: the co-ordination of

responses to stress in plants. *Plant, Cell and Environment* 25, 195–210.

punctatus*). General and Comparative Endocrinology* 110(2): 97-108.

responses. *Nature Reviews Neuroscience* 10(6): 397-409.

Selye, H. (1936). A syndrome produced by diverse nocious agents. *Nature* 138, 32.

Balkanization of endocrinology*. General and Comparative Endocrinology* 157(3): 266-274.

(2000). Immunohistochemical Localization, Biochemical Characterization, and Biological Activity of Neurotensin in the Frog Adrenal Gland. *Endocrinology* 141(7):

protects gnotobiotic *Artemia franciscana* larvae against virulent Vibrios. *Fish and* 

of glucocorticoid receptors with different glucocorticoid sensitivity. *Journal of* 

family and microarray studies of expression change during eco-physiological stress.

*advances in Aquaculture Research*. Ed: G. Koumoundouros. Transworld Research

*Biology and Aquaculture*. Edited by M. Pavlidis and C. Mylonas. Wiley-Blackwell.

by Cytokines: Actions and Mechanisms of Action. *Proceedings of the New York Academy* 

Season, Time of Day and Confinement in a Wild Reptile (Tuatara,Sphenodon

Parvez and S. Parvez. (eds): *Biogenic Amines in Development.* Elsevier North-Holland.

Neuroendocrine-immune interactions in teleost fish. In: *Fish Neuroendocrinology*, vol.

*Comparative Psychology*, 2007, 20, 89-95.

*Shellfish Immunology* 22, 318-326

*Endocrinology* (2006) 190, 17–28

*Integrative ComparativeBiol* 46: 991-999.

*the New York Academy of Sciences*, 108: E5.

Network.Trivandrum, Kerala, India pp. 55-74

2450-2457

pp:75-94

*of Sciences*: 1-71.

Pp: 159-183.

28. Elsevier, pp. 313-364.


Mauri I., Roher N., MacKenzie S., Romero A., Manchado M., Balasch J.C, Béjar J., Álvarez MC

McCormick, S. D. (1996). Effects of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor I on salinity

Mommsen, T. P., M. M. Vijayan, Moon, T.W. (1999). Cortisol in teleosts: dynamics,

Montero, D., M. Marrero, et al. (1999). Effect of Vitamin E and C and dietary supplementation

Moore I. T., Greene M. J., Mason R.T. (2001) Environmental and Seasonal Adaptations of the

Möstl, E. and R. Palme (2002). Hormones as indicators of stress. Domestic Animal

Palme, R., S. Rettenbacher, Touma, C., El-Bahr, S. M., Möstl, E (2005). Stress Hormones in

Pankhurst, N. W. (2011). The endocrinology of stress in fish: An environmental perspective.

Perry, S. F. and A. Capaldo (2010). The autonomic nervous system and chromaffin tissue:

Perry S. F. and Wood C. M.. (1989). Control and coordination of gas transfer in fishes. *Canadian* 

Pottinger, T.G. (1999). The impact of stress on nimal reproductive activities. In: *Stress physiology* 

Randall, D. J. and Perry, S. F. (1992). Catecholamines. *In* Fish *Physiology,* vol.XIIB (ed. W. S.

Reid, S. G., N. J. Bernier, Perry, S.F. (1998). The adrenergic stress response in fish: control of

Ribas,L., Planas,J.V., Barton,B., Monetti,C., Bernardini,G., Saroglia,M., Tort,L. and

Riedemann T., Patchev A. V., Cho K., Almeida O.F.X. (2010). Corticosteroids: way upstream.

Romero, L. M. (2004). Physiological stress in ecology: lessons from biomedical research. *Trends* 

catecholamine storage and release. *Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology* 120C: 1-27.

Mackenzie,S. (2004). A differentially expressed gene isolated from the gilthead sea bream (*Sparus aurata*) under high-density conditions is up-regulated in brain after in

*in animals*. Ed by P. Balm. Sheffield Academic Press, pp: 130-177.

vivo lipopolisaccharide challenge. *Aquaculture* 241: 195-206

C3. *Fish and Shellfish Immunology*. In press.

to crowding stress*. Aquaculture* 171: 269-278.

Endocrinology 23(1-2): 67-74.

*Sciences* 1040(1): 162-171.

*Molecular Brain*, 3: 2-20

*in Ecology and Evolution*19(5): 249-55.

9(3): 211-268.

cortisol. *General and Comparative Endocrinology* 101(1): 3-11.

amphibians and reptiles. *Hormones and Behavior* 43(1): 39-47.

Norris, D.O. (2007). *Vertebrate endocrinology*. Academic Press 4th Edition 560pp

*General and Comparative Endocrinology* 170(2): 265-275.

vertebrates. *Autonomic Neuroscience* . In Pres

Hoar, D. J. Randall and A. P. Farrell), pp. 255-300

*Journal of Zoology* 67(12): 2961–2970

and Tort L (2011). Molecular cloning and characterization of European seabass (*Dicentrarchus labrax*) and Gilthead seabream (*Sparus aurata*) complement component

tolerance and gill Na+, K+-ATPase in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): interaction with

mechanisms of action, and metabolic regulation. *Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries*

on some immune parameters of gilthead seabream (*Sparus aurata*) juveniles subjected

Adrenocortical and Gonadal Responses to Capture Stress in Two Populations of the Male Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. *Journal of Experimental Zoology* 289:99–108 Moore, I. T. and T. S. Jessop (2003). Stress, reproduction, and adrenocortical modulation in

Mammals and Birds: Comparative Aspects Regarding Metabolism, Excretion, and Noninvasive Measurement in Fecal Samples. *Annals of the New York Academy of* 

Neuroendocrine regulation of catecholamine secretion in non-mammalian


**Part 7** 

**Steroid Induced Osteoporosis** 


**Part 7** 

**Steroid Induced Osteoporosis** 

286 Basic and Clinical Endocrinology Up-to-Date

Wingfield, J. C. and A. S. Kitaysky (2002). Endocrine Responses to Unpredictable

Wingfield, J. C. and Romero, L. M. (2001). Adrenocortical Responses to Stress and Their

Wingfield, J. C. and R. M. Sapolsky (2003). Reproduction and Resistance to Stress: When and

How. *Journal of Neuroendocrinology* 15(8): 711-724.

*Biology* 42: 600-609.

Inc. pp: 453–460

Environmental Events: Stress or Anti-Stress Hormones? *Integrative and Comparative* 

Modulation in Free-Living Vertebrates, *Comprehensive Physiology*. John Wiley & Sons,

**12** 

*1,2Italy 3USA* 

**Genistein Aglycone Demonstrates a Protective** 

**and Reversible Effect on the Development of** 

**Increases Bone Breaking Strength in Rats** 

Robert Levy3, Domenica Altavilla1 and Francesco Squadrito1 *1Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine and Pharmacology* 

*2Department of Biochemical, Physiological and Nutritional Sciences Section of Physiology and Human Nutrition, University of Messina* 

 *Section of Pharmacology, University of Messina* 

*3Primus Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Scottsdale, Arizona* 

**Steroid-Induced Secondary Osteoporosis and** 

Alessandra Bitto1, Francesca Polito2, Bruce P. Burnett3, Herbert Marini2,

Glucocorticoids are used in the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, cancers, and following organ transplantation. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is one of the primary side effects of glucocorticoid use resulting in increased risk of fractures. In a large meta-analysis study of glucocorticoid users, for example, van Staa et al (2002) found a relative risk increase of 1.91 for any fracture, 2.86 for vertebral fracture, 1.61 for hip fracture, and 1.13 for forearm fracture. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is characterized by low bone turnover and fractures, which occur in 30-50% of patients (van Staa et al., 2000). Glucocorticoids affect predominantly cancellous or trabecular bone, increasing the risk of vertebral fractures, which may be asymptomatic and occur early during the first months of glucocorticoid treatment (Laan et al., 1993; van Staa et al., 2000) and (Angeli et al., 2006). Trabecular bone accounts for approximately 20% of the total mass of bone (Bertazzo & Bertran, 2006) and also contributes to the ability of bone to tolerate stress to avoid fracture, especially in the spine. Long-term use of glucocorticoids also increases the risk of all

Published reports suggest no course of glucocorticoid therapy is safe for the skeleton. Regimens of daily prednisone at doses as low as 2.5 mg have been associated with an increased risk of hip and vertebral fractures. The risk increases by 5-fold, with prednisone doses above 7.5 mg daily. A dramatic 17-fold increase in vertebral fracture incidence was observed in subjects who used prednisone continuously more than 10 mg per day for longer than 3 months with increased fracture incidence in postmenopausal females and elderly males. The risk of osteoporotic fractures was also elevated in patients undergoing cyclic corticosteroid treatment at high doses (Van Staa et al., 2006) Although variable in onset,

**1. Introduction** 

osteoporotic fractures.
