**3. Process technologies for preparation of multi-purpose soybean flours and cereal starches by ambient temperature drying**

The technology for preparation of multipurpose soybean flour and cereal starch flour dried at ambient temperature is shown in figs 1 and 2. Soybean flour was added to cereal starch extracted and dried at ambient temperatures at 25% levels of substitution.

The addition of soybean flour at 25% levels of substitution increased the protein and fat contents significantly (P< 0.05) as expected (Table7). Conversely there was a drastic reduction in the carbohydrate content of the blend. In connection with the pasting properties the peak viscosity decreased significantly (P< 0.05) in all fortified meals due majorly to reduced bulk density of the fortified samples following the modification of the fiber content of the samples.

Fig. 1. Process flow diagram for preparation of soybean flour with greater white colour appeal.

Fig. 2. Process flow diagram for preparation of cereal starch flour with minimal colour change.


Mi=Millet; Mii=Millet flour fortified with 25% soybean flour Gc=Guinea corn flour; Gci=Guinea corn flour fortified with 25% soybean flour; Ma=maize flour; Mai=Maize flour fortified with 25% soybean flour.


214 Soybean Physiology and Biochemistry

**3. Process technologies for preparation of multi-purpose soybean flours and** 

The technology for preparation of multipurpose soybean flour and cereal starch flour dried at ambient temperature is shown in figs 1 and 2. Soybean flour was added to cereal starch

The addition of soybean flour at 25% levels of substitution increased the protein and fat contents significantly (P< 0.05) as expected (Table7). Conversely there was a drastic reduction in the carbohydrate content of the blend. In connection with the pasting properties the peak viscosity decreased significantly (P< 0.05) in all fortified meals due majorly to reduced bulk density of the fortified samples following the modification of the fiber content of the

Fig. 1. Process flow diagram for preparation of soybean flour with greater white colour

Fig. 2. Process flow diagram for preparation of cereal starch flour with minimal colour change.

extracted and dried at ambient temperatures at 25% levels of substitution.

**cereal starches by ambient temperature drying** 

samples.

appeal.


KEY: Gel Time=Gelatinization Time; Tvp=Temperature at peak viscosity ; Vp=Peak viscosity during heating ; Mn=Time to reach peak viscosity; Visat 95=Viscosity at 95oC; Mi=Millet; Mii=Millet flour fortified with 25% soybean flour Gc=Guinea corn flour; Gci=Guinea corn flour fortified with 25% soybean flour; Ma=maize flour; Mai=Maize flour fortified with 25% soybean flour.

Table 8. Amylograph Pasting Viscosity of Fortified and unfortified Cereal Meal

Igbian (2004) reported that peak viscosity is an indication of the maximum increase in that value for the starch-water solution upon heating. Therefore lower values of peak viscosities indicated that a greater amount of gelatinization had occurred in the initial samples or there had been fortification of flours with oilseeds. Peak viscosity also indicates the water binding capacity of starch or mixtures, and also provides indication of the viscous load likely to be encountered by a mixing cooker. The lower peak viscosities showed that there fortified samples will imbibe more water and subsequently swell more. This also would translate to serious reduction in cooking time as evidenced by the reduced cooking time of the fortified samples. Despande *etal* (1988) Maria *etal* (1983) and Igbian (2004) have all reported decreased cooking times occasioned by addition of legumes to cereals. These properties showed that such cereal/soybean paste would remain fluid with higher nutrient density and lowered bulkiness. Reduced bulkiness is an indication that infants would take in more than the would have taken the unfortified meals.

The reduced peak time also showed that less energy would be required to cooking the paste and the problem of retrogradation or hardening might not arise.

The extraction of the cereal starch is to solve the problem of coarseness of the roasted cereal flour that would lead to textural and consistency problems of the reconstituted cereal gruel. The ambient temperature drying and subsequent reduction of moisture content to as low as 9-10% is to ensure long term storage. This solves the problem of unhygienic keeping of the watery paste at ambient temperatures by rural women which results in recontamination and infection at the rural and sub urban levels.

#### **4. Developing new weaning foods to meet the challenges of changing climates and nutrional needs of the most vunerable**

One of the greatest challenges of changing climate patterns is the decreased productivity of the familiar food crops that could mitigate hunger and infant malnutrition. There is the overhanging fear that infants and nursing mothers may be more affected nutritionally when there is less food available. The situation is made worse in Sub Saharan Africa where animal sources of protein continue to be out of the reach of the average family. Low wages combined with increased joblessness and difficulty in assessing credit have nearly wiped out the middle class creating a new social order of the rich and the poor. This situation is aggravated by the extended family systems which entails that the average working class person will cater for his or her extended family. This lead to a vicious circle of poverty. Children are therefore born into this unfortunate web hence weaning children presents peculiar challenges.

Weaning food is a meal given to infant prior to withdrawal of breast milk. It begins when parent gradually introduce semi-solid food, other than breast milk in to their baby's diet. This specifically done because young children have high nutritional requirement, and in part because they are growing fast (Aldermal *et al.,* 2004)

Traditionally, most weaning foods of Africa are based on starchy staples food such as cereals including corn ( zeamays) Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolour), legume such as soybeans (Glycine max) Cowpea (vigna Unguiculata) and oil seeds such as peanut (Arachis hypogea) (Mosha and Vincent, 2005) It is therefore necessary to evolve combination of locally available foods to complement each other in such a way that new pattern of nutrients can be created.

The Food Agricultural Organization and World Health Organization (1970) reported that most of the infant foods formulated and consumed in communities of developing nations are deficient in essential nutrients. Osundahunsi, (2006) also reported that most weaning foods prepared traditionally in African countries are inadequate in energy and protein, which has been a major cause of protein energy malnutrition (PEM) in preschool children in Nigeria. The first few years of life is usually the vulnerable period for developing undernutrition, which usually coincides with the introduction of weaning foods. Protein-energy malnutrition(PEM) and micronutrients deficiency therefore become serious problems during the weaning period, as most weaning foods given to the infant do not supply adequate amount of nutrients needed to support optimal growth (Mosha and Vincent, 2005) Effort have been made to improve the nutritional quality of the weaning foods, including fortifying the locally produced food with specific nutrients or blending then with other nutrient rich foods to form nutritious composite mixtures (Ngoddy *et al.,* 1994 ;Anuonye, *etal*  2001;Obatolu 2003.) There are however several fruit-like staples including plantain, banana etc that their nutrient composition and functionality recommends them as foods for fighting hunger and infant malnutrition in the coming years. Innovative processing and development of complementary foods high in protein will go along way in mitigating infant malnutrition and hunger.

According to Manihot and Lancaster (1983) when plantain is cooked, the fruit is extremely low in fat(0.20-0.30%), high in fiber(6-7%) and carbohydrate(35%) while protein is about, (1.2%)and ash ( 0.8%). It is also a good source of potassium, magnesium, phosphorous, calcium and iron as well as vitamin A and vitamin C. According to Ferson and Sharrock, (1998) banana and plantain represent more than 25 percent of the food energy requirements of Africa .

The starch of plantain flour is very low in cholesterol and salt. An average sized plantain fruit (50 to 80gms) will yield on cooking 2 -3gms of protein, 4 – 6gms of fibre and about 0.01 to 0.3gms of fat. It's very rich in potassium, and is commonly prescribed by doctors for people having low level of potassium in their blood (At well, 1999). The potassium in plantain is very good for the heart and helps to prevent hypertension and heart attack. Cooked unripe plantain is very good for diabetics as it contain complex carbohydrate that is slowly released overtime. A diet of green plantain is filling and can be a good inclusion in a weight loss diet plan.

#### **4.1 Processing and utilization of unripe plantain**

216 Soybean Physiology and Biochemistry

watery paste at ambient temperatures by rural women which results in recontamination and

One of the greatest challenges of changing climate patterns is the decreased productivity of the familiar food crops that could mitigate hunger and infant malnutrition. There is the overhanging fear that infants and nursing mothers may be more affected nutritionally when there is less food available. The situation is made worse in Sub Saharan Africa where animal sources of protein continue to be out of the reach of the average family. Low wages combined with increased joblessness and difficulty in assessing credit have nearly wiped out the middle class creating a new social order of the rich and the poor. This situation is aggravated by the extended family systems which entails that the average working class person will cater for his or her extended family. This lead to a vicious circle of poverty. Children are therefore born into this unfortunate web hence weaning children presents

Weaning food is a meal given to infant prior to withdrawal of breast milk. It begins when parent gradually introduce semi-solid food, other than breast milk in to their baby's diet. This specifically done because young children have high nutritional requirement, and in

Traditionally, most weaning foods of Africa are based on starchy staples food such as cereals including corn ( zeamays) Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolour), legume such as soybeans (Glycine max) Cowpea (vigna Unguiculata) and oil seeds such as peanut (Arachis hypogea) (Mosha and Vincent, 2005) It is therefore necessary to evolve combination of locally available foods to

The Food Agricultural Organization and World Health Organization (1970) reported that most of the infant foods formulated and consumed in communities of developing nations are deficient in essential nutrients. Osundahunsi, (2006) also reported that most weaning foods prepared traditionally in African countries are inadequate in energy and protein, which has been a major cause of protein energy malnutrition (PEM) in preschool children in Nigeria. The first few years of life is usually the vulnerable period for developing undernutrition, which usually coincides with the introduction of weaning foods. Protein-energy malnutrition(PEM) and micronutrients deficiency therefore become serious problems during the weaning period, as most weaning foods given to the infant do not supply adequate amount of nutrients needed to support optimal growth (Mosha and Vincent, 2005) Effort have been made to improve the nutritional quality of the weaning foods, including fortifying the locally produced food with specific nutrients or blending then with other nutrient rich foods to form nutritious composite mixtures (Ngoddy *et al.,* 1994 ;Anuonye, *etal*  2001;Obatolu 2003.) There are however several fruit-like staples including plantain, banana etc that their nutrient composition and functionality recommends them as foods for fighting hunger and infant malnutrition in the coming years. Innovative processing and development of complementary foods high in protein will go along way in mitigating infant

According to Manihot and Lancaster (1983) when plantain is cooked, the fruit is extremely low in fat(0.20-0.30%), high in fiber(6-7%) and carbohydrate(35%) while protein is about, (1.2%)and ash ( 0.8%). It is also a good source of potassium, magnesium, phosphorous, calcium and iron

complement each other in such a way that new pattern of nutrients can be created.

**4. Developing new weaning foods to meet the challenges of changing** 

**climates and nutrional needs of the most vunerable** 

part because they are growing fast (Aldermal *et al.,* 2004)

infection at the rural and sub urban levels.

peculiar challenges.

malnutrition and hunger.

Unripe plantain is traditionally processed into flour in Nigeria and in other West Africa and Central African countries (Ukhum *etal*; 1991). This traditional technology is equally present in Amazonian, Bolivia. The preparatory method consist of peeling the fruit with hands, cutting the pulp into small round pieces and sun drying them for few days. The dried pulp is then ground in wooden mortar or a corn grinder. The flour produced is mixed with boiling water to prepare an elastic dumpling (amala in Nigeria and fufu in Cameroon) which is eaten with sauces. Some improvement of this traditional method by blanching the plantain pulp at 80oC for some few minutes and cutting them into round pieces (or by soaking for about 3minutes in sodium metabisulfite solution) followed by draining and drying in an oven at 65oC for 48hours or in the sun for some days resulted in the production of a more improved flour that can be reconstituted into staple foods and eaten with soups or break fast meal or a gruel for weaning purposes.

Combining plantain flour (good for diabetics as it contain complex carbohydrate that is slowly released overtime) and soybean flour ( a versatile pulse with the richest, cheapest and best source of vegetable protein available to mankind, containing high protein, high polyunsaturated fat with absence of cholesterol and lactose, an excellent source of the essential amino acids vital for body growth, maintenance and reproduction) will give weaning diets having the recommended nutrient density and functionality.

The proximate composition of the blend(table 9) showed that the moisture content of the blends ranged between 4.30-8.53%. The low moisture content of the products indicated the longer storage potentials of the blend compared to conventional pastery weaning foods.

The proximate values (Table 9) indicated that unripe plantain contained low amounts of protein (6.33%) which significantly (p≤0.05) increased as soybean substitution increased. This was expected and agreed with earlier reports( Osho and Adenekan 1995, Iwe,2003 and Obatolu,2003).

Similarly the carbohydrate content and the bulkiness of the samples reduced indicating a modification in the product structure mainly due to the breakdown of the strong amylase and amylopectin bond by the sulphurdral linkages. The mineral composition of the blends followed similar patterns of increases as the soybean substitution levels increased.

The sensory evaluation (Table11) showed that non of the formulations were rejected. Each had over 50% acceptance. The mean scores of the fortified blends for aroma and overall acceptability were higher than the unripe plantain flour. However the 62.5:37.5% formulation was preferred to other samples. Overall acceptability increased with increased levels of soybean flour substitution showing that the process formulation of the soybean flour was adequate in eliminating the offensive and objectionable after taste. Both the proximate composition and sensory evaluation results indicated that soybean flour could be added beyond the 50% levels without noticeable objectionable flavor.

The amino acids profile (AAP) of unripe plantain/soybean flour(Table12) showed that blending significantly improved the amino acid profile. Compared with FAO (1970) reference pattern for children and adult nutrition, the results showed that the blend was only deficient in its isoluecine content (1.02 compared to 4.00 recommended). However the blend exceeded the recommendations for adult nutrition in all the amino acids showing that it would be a wise nutritional choice for adult nutritional management.

Fig. 3. Flow Process for production of Unripe Plantain and Soybean flour for weaning and Break fast and other diabetic Preparations.


KEY

A=100:0 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour B=87.50:12.50 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour C=75:25 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour D=62.5:27.5 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour E=50:50 Unripe plantain flour to soybean flour

Table 9. Proximate composition of unripe plantain /Soybean flour mixtures.


KEY

218 Soybean Physiology and Biochemistry

flour was adequate in eliminating the offensive and objectionable after taste. Both the proximate composition and sensory evaluation results indicated that soybean flour could be

The amino acids profile (AAP) of unripe plantain/soybean flour(Table12) showed that blending significantly improved the amino acid profile. Compared with FAO (1970) reference pattern for children and adult nutrition, the results showed that the blend was only deficient in its isoluecine content (1.02 compared to 4.00 recommended). However the blend exceeded the recommendations for adult nutrition in all the amino acids showing that

Fig. 3. Flow Process for production of Unripe Plantain and Soybean flour for weaning and

Protein (%)

A 5.50 1.50 6.33 1.36 3.13 82.18 B 6.03 1.70 9.13 1.03 4.03 78.08 C 7.13 1.75 15.26 1.13 4.03 70.7 D 7.53 2.00 17.48 1.36 4.03 67.60 E 8.53 2.00 16.97 1.03 4.03 67.44

Parameters Evaluated

Crude Fiber (%)

Ash(%) Cho

(%)

Break fast and other diabetic Preparations.

Fat (%)

Table 9. Proximate composition of unripe plantain /Soybean flour mixtures.

(%)

A=100:0 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour B=87.50:12.50 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour C=75:25 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour D=62.5:27.5 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour E=50:50 Unripe plantain flour to soybean flour

Samples Moisture

KEY

added beyond the 50% levels without noticeable objectionable flavor.

it would be a wise nutritional choice for adult nutritional management.

A=100:0 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour B=87.50:12.50 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour C=75:25 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour D=62.5:27.5 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour E=50:50 Unripe plantain flour to soybean flour

Table 10. Mineral composition of Unripe plantain dflour/Soybean Flour mixtures


A=100:0 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour B=87.50:12.50 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour C=75:25 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour D=62.5:27.5 Unripe plantain flour to Soybean flour E=50:50 Unripe plantain flour to soybean flour

Table 11. Acceptability of Reconstituted Unripe Plantain/Soybean Flour


Table 12. Amino Acid Profile of Unripe Plantain/Soybean Flour Blends Compared to FAO Reference Pattern(1970)
