**8. References**


The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the Italian Ministero delle Politiche Agricole, Alimentari e Forestali (project SUSBIOFUEL – D.M. 27800/7303/09).

Allen, C.A.W. Watts, K.C., Ackman, R.G. & Pegg M.J. (1999). Predicting the Viscosity of

ASTM International (2002). Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel - Blend Stock (B100) for Distillate Fuels - ASTM D 6751-02*,* in *Annual Book of ASTM Standards*, Vol. 05.04 ASTM International (2002). Determination of Total Sulfur in Light Hydrocarbons, Motor

Bianchi, C.L., Boffito, D.C., Pirola, C., Ragaini, V. (2010). Low temperature de-acidification

Bianchi, C.L., Ragaini, V., Pirola, C., Carvoli, G. (2003). A new method to clean industrial

Bournay, L., Casanave, D., Delfort, B., Hillion, G., Chodorge, J.A., (2005). New

Canakci, M., Van Gerpen, J. (1999). Biodiesel production via acid catalysis. *Trans ASAE,* Vol.

Colucci, J.A., Borrero, E., Alape, F. (2005). Biodiesel from an alkaline transesterification

Corma, A., Garcia, H. (1997). Organic reactions catalyzed over solid acids. *Catalysis Today,*

Di Serio, M., Tesser, R., Pengmei, L., Santacesaria, E. (2008). Heterogeneous catalysis for biodiesel production. *Energy & Fuel*, Vol. 22. (September 2008), pp. 207-217. Environment Australia (2003). National Standards for Biodiesel – Discussion Paper, In

Erickson, D.R., Alkaline Refining. (1995). *Practical Handbook of Soybean Processing and Utilization,* Erickson, D.R., ed, AOCS Press, Champlain, Illinois, 1995. Ganquli, K.L. ,van Immersel, A.R., Michaelides, G.C., van Putte, K.P., Turksma, H., (1998),

Georgianni, K.G. Kontominas, M.G. Tegou, E. Avlonitis, D. & Gergis V. (2007). Biodiesel

<www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/transport/biodiesel/index.html>

Biodiesel Fuels from their Fatty Aid Ester Composition. *Fuel*, Vol. 78, (September

Fuels and Oils by Ultraviolet Fluorescence Method D5453 – 00 (2002), in *Annual* 

process of animal fat as a pre-step to biodiesel production. *Catalysis Letters*, Vol.

water from acetic acid via esterification, *Applied Catalysis B Environmental,* Vol. 40,

heterogeneous process for biodiesel production: a way to improve the quality and the value of the crude glycerin produced by biodiesel plants. *Catalysis Today*, Vol.

reaction of soybean oil using uyltrasonic mixing. *Journal of the American Oil* 

*Setting National Fuels Quality Standards*, 0 642 54908 7 pp. 1-196, Retrieved from

Production: Reaction and Process Parameters of Alkali-Catalyzed Transesterification of Waste Frying Oils. *Energy Fuels*, Vol 21, No. 5, pp. 3023-3027 Gmehling, J. Wittig, R. Lohmann, J. Joh, R. (2002). A Modified UNIFAC (Dortmund) Model.

4. Revision and Extension. *Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research*, Vol. 41, pp.

**7. Acknowledgements** 

1999), pp. 1319-1326

(June 2003), pp. 93-99.

106, (2005). pp. 190-192.

42, (1999), pp. 1203-1210.

U. S Pat. Nos. 1,371,342

1678-1688.

*Book of ASTM Standards*, Vol. 05.03

134, (November, 2009), pp. 179-183.

*Chemists' Society,*, Vol. 82, (2005), pp. 525-530.

Vol. 38, (April 1997), pp. 257-308. ISNN 0920-5861

**8. References** 


<http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biodiesel/pdf/biodiesel.pdf>


**17** 

*USA* 

Joanna McFarlane

*Oak Ridge National Laboratory*<sup>1</sup>

**Processing of Soybean Oil into Fuels** 

Abundant and easily refined, petroleum has provided high energy density liquid fuels for a century. However, recent price fluctuations, shortages, and concerns over the long term supply and greenhouse gas emissions have encouraged the development of alternatives to petroleum for liquid transportation fuels (Van Gerpen, Shanks et al. 2004). Plant-based fuels include short chain alcohols, now blended with gasoline, and biodiesels, commonly derived from seed oils. Of plant-derived diesel feedstocks, soybeans yield the most of oil by weight, up to 20% (Mushrush, Willauer et al. 2009), and so have become the primary source of biomass-derived diesel in the United States and Brazil (Lin, Cunshan et al. 2011). Worldwide ester biodiesel production reached over 11,000,000 tons per year in 2008 (Emerging Markets 2008). However, soybean oil cannot be burned directly in modern compression ignition vehicle engines as a direct replacement for diesel fuel because of its physical properties that can lead to clogging of the engine fuel line and problems in the fuel injectors, such as: high viscosity, high flash point, high pour point, high cloud point (where the fuel begins to gel),

Industrial production of biodiesel from oil of low fatty-acid content often follows homogeneous base-catalyzed transesterification, a sequential reaction of the parent triglyceride with an alcohol, usually methanol, into methyl ester and glycerol products. The conversion of the triglyceride to esterified fatty acids improves the characteristics of the fuel, allowing its introduction into a standard compression engine without giving rise to serious issues with flow or combustion. Commercially available biodiesel, a product of the transesterification of fats and oils, can also be blended with standard diesel fuel up to a maximum of 20 vol.%. In the laboratory, the fuel characteristics of unreacted soybean oil have also been improved by dilution with petroleum based fuels, or by aerating and formation of microemulsions. However, it is the chemical conversion of the oil to fuel that has been the area of most interest. The topic has been reviewed extensively (Van Gerpen, Shanks et al. 2004), so this aspect will be the focus in this chapter. Important aspects of the chemistry of conversion of oil into diesel fuel remain the same no matter the composition of

1 This manuscript has been authored by UT-Battelle, LLC, under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this

manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes.

**1. Introduction** 

**1.1 Rationale for processing soybean oil into a fuel** 

and high density (Peterson, Cook et al. 2001).

reduction of free acidity in raw materials for biodiesel productio. *Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research*, Vol. 46 (March, 2007), pp. 8355-8362.

