**10. Conclusions**

The literature is rich in selected or component ideas for machine vision, plant species identification. Now is the time to put together a complete robust system that essentially mimics the human taxonomic, plant identification keying method. If one returns to Stubbendick, et al (2003), one can verify that the human classification process requires metrics on leaves, stems, flowers, influorescence, and a picture of the plant. Leaf shape and venation images alone may not close the classification process.

Shape analysis for image processing is very well-understood and computer algorithms are readily available. The leaf angle in the plane of the canopy is of interest (the first elliptic Fourier harmonic), and that is a critical angle for rotationally invariant leaf texture or venation analysis. Additional studies regarding leaf orientation relative to the camera lens might help to reduce classification errors. Modern digital cameras are capable of acquiring large amounts of image-pixel data. Future studies need to determine minimal digital image resolutions needed to maintain the highest species discrimination performance.

Fuzzy logic, cluster algorithms and cluster reassembly routines work well for extracting convex leaf shapes from plant canopy images. However, for more botanically diverse leaf shapes, such as species with complex leaves, lobed margins (indented), trifoliolates, etc., new fitness criteria need to be developed to accommodate these leaf shapes. Undoubtedly, integration of specific shape and textural feature analyses as fitness criteria may be a key to improvement of this process. New leaf extraction/species classification algorithm can

Machine Vision Identification of Plants 415

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Species classification and mapping has been tested using a neural-fuzzy inference model, which can be improved with inclusion of additional training information, including: stage of growth, expected canopy architecture, distance from a designated crop row, crop row spacing and direction.

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**20** 

*Richland, WA* 

*Jackson, TN U.S.A.* 

**Extraction and Analysis of Inositols and Other** 

An outstanding characteristic of soybean plants is their ability to produce large amounts of the carbohydrate pinitol. Pinitol and the closely related inositols are currently undergoing widespread investigation for their biological and nutritional value. These and all the carbohydrates are typically extracted and analyzed together. Therefore, this review includes a general discussion about the extraction and analysis of carbohydrates in plants as well as a more in depth examination of the biosynthesis and use of compounds related to pinitol. The multiple roles of these substances in plants and animals, and their synergism have not been fully realized. This review discusses not only the extraction and analysis, but also the diverse roles of the inositols with an emphasis on inositols from the

Carbohydrates are produced in plants by photosynthesis. Zhu et al. (2010) reviewed photosynthesis in relation to improving crop yield. Agronomically, there has been little benefit in breeding for increased photosynthesis indicating that the relationship of photosynthesis to yield is still not well understood (Farquhar & Sharkey, 1982; Pessarakli, 2005). The relative growth rate of shoots was shown to be correlated to the soluble carbohydrate level in the plant, but shoot growth was also impacted by plant stress (Masle *et al*, 1990). One commonly studied plant stress in relation to carbohydrate production is drought stress. There is confusion regarding the regulation of carbohydrate synthesis when plants are under drought stress. Drought stress in addition to reducing shoot growth,

Approximately 70 million tons of fixed nitrogen or about 50 % of the total nitrogen that enters the terrestrial ecosystem comes from biological nitrogen fixation (Brockwell *et al.*, 1995; Tate, 1995). The relationship of carbohydrate availability to photosynthesis, phloem sap supply and N2 fixation in legumes is complex and knowledge is incomplete (Udvardi &

**1. Introduction** 

soybean plant.

Day, 1997).

**2. Carbohydrate production and nitrogen fixation** 

increases root growth (Sharp & Davies, 1979).

**Carbohydrates from Soybean Plant Tissues** 

J.A. Campbell1, S.C. Goheen1 and P. Donald2 *1Battelle, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Chemical and Biological Signature Sciences* 

*2USDA/ARS, Crop Genetics Research Unit* 

