**3. Primary soybean products for animal feeding**

Figure 1 shows a schematic processing of soybeans into various high quality protein products. The processes involved either reduce or eliminate the ANFs in the beans and

Soybean (*Glycine max,* L) is an annual crop that belongs to the Fabaceae or Leguminosae family. It originated from East Asia, but now grown over a wide geographical area worldwide with United States of America, Brazil and Argentina being the leading producers (Table 1). It is used primarily for production of vegetable oil and oilseed meal for animal feeding. The surge in the use of soybean meal in feeding animal as replacement protein source for animal protein feeds has been the main driving force in soybean production. Table 1 shows the major soybean producing countries and their relative supplies. Generally, there has been an increase of supply with a slight depression in most producing countries between 2006 and 2008 cropping seasons. The US and China tend to consume virtually what they produce, while Argentina and Brazil are major exporters with exports largely to the EU

countries 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10

United States 83,507 87,001 72,859 80,749 88,454 Brazil 57,000 59,000 61,000 57,000 62,000 Argentina 40,500 48,800 46,200 32,000 52,500 China 16,350 15,967 14,000 15,500 14,500 India 7,000 7,690 9,470 9,100 9,000 Paraguay 3,640 5,856 6,900 3,900 6,700 Canada 3,161 3,460 2,700 3,300 3,500 Other 9,512 9,337 8,004 9,090 9,413 World Total 220,670 237,111 221,133 210,639 246,067

Countries 2009/10 2010/11

China 37.42 35.82 41.71 40.36 US 37.31 27.22 35.41 27.58 Argentina 27.13 0.70 29.95 0.60 Brazil 24.41 12.80 25.42 13.38 EU 9.85 31.49 9.77 32.30 India 4.85 2.85 6.08 3.08 Others 20.58 49.60 21.30 51.20 World Total 161.63 159.77 169.64 167.89

Table 2. World soybean meal production and consumption outlooks for 2010/11 in million

Figure 1 shows a schematic processing of soybeans into various high quality protein products. The processes involved either reduce or eliminate the ANFs in the beans and

Production Consumption Production Consumption

Table 1. World soybean supply (million tonnes) and distribution.

**3. Primary soybean products for animal feeding** 

October

**2. Soybean production and consumption** 

(Table 2).

Major producing

Source: FAS/USDA (2009)

Source: FAS/USDA (2009)

tonnes.

improve the nutritional value substantially for all classes of animals. Several steps involved in processing these products can have either positive or negative effect on the quality of the protein depending on the conditions used in processing. The heat applied in processing is identified as the single most important factor that affects soybean meal protein quality. Proper processing conditions such as moisture content, heating time and temperature inactivate ANFs such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins, which results in improved performance when fed to monogastric animals (Araba, 1990). High processing temperatures of oilseeds has deleterious effects on proteins and amino acids due to formation of Maillard reaction products (Hurell, 1990) or denaturation (Parsons *et al*., 1992).

Fig. 1. Processing of soybeans into soybean products (USSEC, 2008).

Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 219

kernel Peanut Sunflower

Maize (85.0 g/kg CP)

> 44.7 27.1 34.1 117.6 30.6 21.2 21.2 44.7 34.1 7.1 47.0

Soybean Canola Cottonseed Palm

Amino acid

poultry.

Arginine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Cystine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine

*et al*., 1998).

Crude protein 43.0 36.2 39.6 13.2 45.2 32.8

Lysine 90.7 78.6 62.8 58.9 78.1 80.4 Methionine 90.6 88.6 71.9 83.7 85.6 91.2 Cystine 82.1 73.1 70.9 66.6 78.5 79.2 Threonine 84.1 77.6 67.2 69.2 83.8 83.7 Tryptophan 87.9 80.0 80.3 - 75.6 - Arginine 91.1 90.6 85.3 88.6 89.6 93.1 Isoleucine 91.2 89.0 72.8 81.0 89.3 88.9 Leucine 90.7 94.1 74.8 85.0 89.7 88.7 Valine 88.9 87.8 76.3 80.1 88.9 85.8 Histidine 88.5 88.5 64.1 80.3 85.4 86.1 Phenylalanine 91.6 91.6 84.0 85.3 92.3 90.8

Table 3a. True digestibility (%) of essential amino acids in common oilseed meal proteins for

Table 3b. Comparative amino acid composition (g/kg protein basis) of soybean meal with

poultry, because of its high digestibility and metabolisable energy content compared with other vegetable fats/oils (Table 4a). It is used widely in rations for broiler chickens and growing turkeys as a feed-grade fat to increase energy density of feeds and improve efficiency of feed utilisation (Sell *et al*., 1978). The high energy value of soybean oil is attributed to its high percentage of (poly) unsaturated fatty acids (Table 4b), which are well absorbed and utilised as a source of energy by the animal (Huyghebaert *et al*., 1988). Also, the high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in soybean oil appears to have an energy independent effect on improving reproduction in dairy cattle (Lucy *et al*., 1990; Kerley and Allee, 2003), and this has been attributed to the role of linoleic acid in reproduction (Staples

Palm kernel meal (200.0 g/kg CP)

> 135.0 23.0 32.0 60.0 36.0 20.0 15.0 39.0 35.0 10.0 57.0

Source: Ajinomoto Heartland Lysine LLC Revision 7 (2006)

(475.0 g/kg CP)

73.3 26.9 44.6 78.7 62.3 14.1 15.2 49.3 39.4 15.6 46.7

Amino Acid1 Soybean meal

1Data are adapted from Elkin (2002).

palm kernel meal and maize.

## **3.1 Full-fat soybeans**

These are whole soybeans in which the oil is not extracted. These products are produced by a variety of processes such as extruding (dry or wet), cooking/autoclaving, roasting/toasting, micronizing and jet-sploding to inactivate the ANFs. All of these processes have a different impact on the nutritive value of the products depending on heat damage or degree of inactivation of ANFs. Normally, soybeans are processed into defatted meals for feed formulation, particularly for poultry and pigs. However, the amount of fullfat soybeans used has been increasing in the livestock industry due to development of new varieties with limited number or levels of ANFs (Gu *et al*., 2010). Also, properly processed full-fat soybeans are a valuable feed ingredient for animal feeding because of their high energy content.

### **3.2 Soybean meal**

Soybeans yield 18.6% of oil and 78.7% of soybean meal with the rest being waste (FEFAC, 2007). The oil can be extracted either mechanically or by solvent means. There are two main types of soybean meal. The dehulled soybean meal and soybean meal, depending on whether the testa (seed coat) is removed or not. Both products vary in their nutrient composition, but are quite high in protein content with a good amino acid balance except methionine, low in fibre, high in energy, and have little or no anti-nutritive factors when properly processed.

The amino acid profile of soybean meal is close to that of fishmeal, except methionine (INRA, 2004). This deficiency can easily be corrected in monogastric diets using synthetic source of methionine. Also, soybean meal is superior to other vegetable protein sources in terms of crude protein content and matches or exceeds them in both total and digestible amino acid content (Table 3a). Soybean meal protein digestibility in poultry is approximately 85% (Woodworth *et al*., 2001), ranging between 82% and 94% for individual amino acid digestibility. Among the vegetable protein sources, soybean meal is used to meet the animal's requirement for limiting amino acids in cereal-based (e.g. maize) diets (Table 3b), because it is usually the most cost-effective source of amino acids (Kerley and Allee, 2003).

The carbohydrates in soybean meal are incompletely digested by colonic microbiota in monogastrics (Kerley and Allee, 2003). Thus removal of raffinose and stachyose improved metabolisable energy content by 12% (Graham *et al*., 2002).

#### **3.3 Soybean protein concentrate (SPC)**

SPC is produced from the defatted flakes by the removal of the soluble carbohydrates. This can be achieved by two methods, either by ethanol extraction or enzymatic degradation (Figure 1). SPC is valuable as milk replacer feed for calves and as piglet pre-starter feed. This is because it contains only traces of the heat-stable oligosaccharides and the antigenic substances (Table 5). In milk replacer feed, it has been largely substituted for dried skim milk; whilst in pig starter feeds it can replace dried skim milk, whey powder and fishmeal.

#### **3.4 Soybean oil**

Soybean oil is produced primarily for human consumption. However, it has become a useful source of feed-grade fat for animals due to a need to formulate high-energy diets for modern breeds. Feed-grade soybean oil is popularly used in high energy diets, particularly for

These are whole soybeans in which the oil is not extracted. These products are produced by a variety of processes such as extruding (dry or wet), cooking/autoclaving, roasting/toasting, micronizing and jet-sploding to inactivate the ANFs. All of these processes have a different impact on the nutritive value of the products depending on heat damage or degree of inactivation of ANFs. Normally, soybeans are processed into defatted meals for feed formulation, particularly for poultry and pigs. However, the amount of fullfat soybeans used has been increasing in the livestock industry due to development of new varieties with limited number or levels of ANFs (Gu *et al*., 2010). Also, properly processed full-fat soybeans are a valuable feed ingredient for animal feeding because of their high

Soybeans yield 18.6% of oil and 78.7% of soybean meal with the rest being waste (FEFAC, 2007). The oil can be extracted either mechanically or by solvent means. There are two main types of soybean meal. The dehulled soybean meal and soybean meal, depending on whether the testa (seed coat) is removed or not. Both products vary in their nutrient composition, but are quite high in protein content with a good amino acid balance except methionine, low in fibre, high in energy, and have little or no anti-nutritive factors when

The amino acid profile of soybean meal is close to that of fishmeal, except methionine (INRA, 2004). This deficiency can easily be corrected in monogastric diets using synthetic source of methionine. Also, soybean meal is superior to other vegetable protein sources in terms of crude protein content and matches or exceeds them in both total and digestible amino acid content (Table 3a). Soybean meal protein digestibility in poultry is approximately 85% (Woodworth *et al*., 2001), ranging between 82% and 94% for individual amino acid digestibility. Among the vegetable protein sources, soybean meal is used to meet the animal's requirement for limiting amino acids in cereal-based (e.g. maize) diets (Table 3b), because it is usually the most cost-effective source of amino acids (Kerley and Allee,

The carbohydrates in soybean meal are incompletely digested by colonic microbiota in monogastrics (Kerley and Allee, 2003). Thus removal of raffinose and stachyose improved

SPC is produced from the defatted flakes by the removal of the soluble carbohydrates. This can be achieved by two methods, either by ethanol extraction or enzymatic degradation (Figure 1). SPC is valuable as milk replacer feed for calves and as piglet pre-starter feed. This is because it contains only traces of the heat-stable oligosaccharides and the antigenic substances (Table 5). In milk replacer feed, it has been largely substituted for dried skim milk; whilst in pig starter feeds it can replace dried skim milk, whey powder and fishmeal.

Soybean oil is produced primarily for human consumption. However, it has become a useful source of feed-grade fat for animals due to a need to formulate high-energy diets for modern breeds. Feed-grade soybean oil is popularly used in high energy diets, particularly for

metabolisable energy content by 12% (Graham *et al*., 2002).

**3.3 Soybean protein concentrate (SPC)** 

**3.1 Full-fat soybeans** 

energy content.

**3.2 Soybean meal** 

properly processed.

2003).

**3.4 Soybean oil** 


Source: Ajinomoto Heartland Lysine LLC Revision 7 (2006)

Table 3a. True digestibility (%) of essential amino acids in common oilseed meal proteins for poultry.


1Data are adapted from Elkin (2002).

Table 3b. Comparative amino acid composition (g/kg protein basis) of soybean meal with palm kernel meal and maize.

poultry, because of its high digestibility and metabolisable energy content compared with other vegetable fats/oils (Table 4a). It is used widely in rations for broiler chickens and growing turkeys as a feed-grade fat to increase energy density of feeds and improve efficiency of feed utilisation (Sell *et al*., 1978). The high energy value of soybean oil is attributed to its high percentage of (poly) unsaturated fatty acids (Table 4b), which are well absorbed and utilised as a source of energy by the animal (Huyghebaert *et al*., 1988). Also, the high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in soybean oil appears to have an energy independent effect on improving reproduction in dairy cattle (Lucy *et al*., 1990; Kerley and Allee, 2003), and this has been attributed to the role of linoleic acid in reproduction (Staples *et al*., 1998).

Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 221

shown by increases in concentrations of limiting essential amino acids such as lysine and methionine for monogastric animals (Table 5). However, the cost of such improved products

Dry matter 89.4 87.6 - 89.8 91.8 93.4 Crude protein 37.1 43.9 - 48.8 68.6 85.9 Crude fibre 5.1 3.4 - 6.3 1.7 1.3 Ether extract 18.4 1.3 - 5.7 2.0 0.6 Ash 4.9 5.7 - 6.3 5.2 3.4 NDF 13.0 10.0 - 21.4 13.5 - ADF 7.2 5.0 - 10.2 5.4 - ADL 4.3 0.4 - 1.2 0.4 - Starch 4.7 3.3 - 7.0 - - Total sugars - 9.1 - 9.3 - - Gross energy (MJ/kg) 20.95 17.22 – 17.41 17.89 22.45 Lysine 2.34 2.85 - 3.50 4.59 5.26 Methionine 0.52 0.62 - 0.80 0.87 1.01 Cystine 0.55 0.68 - 0.77 0.89 1.19 Tryptophan 0.49 0.56 - 0.74 0.81 1.08 Calcium 0.26 0.27 - 0.31 0.24 0.15 Phosphorus 0.57 0.64 - 0.66 0.76 0.65 Linoleic acid 9.7 0.6 - 2.9 - - Urease activity (pH-rise) 2.0 0.05 - 0.5 <0.05 <0.05 Trypsin inhibitor (mg/g) 45-50 1 – 8 2 <1 Glycinin (ppm) 180.000 66.000 <100 β-conglycinin (ppm) >60.000 16.000 <10 - Lectins (ppm) 3.5000 10 – 200 <1 0 Oligosaccharides (%) 14 15 3 0 Saponins (%) 0.5 0.6 0 0

Soybean Meal

Soy protein concentrate

Soy protein isolate

Full-fat soybean

Data are adapted from NRC (1994), INRA (2004), Peisker (2001)

**4.1 Anti-nutritive factors** 

nutritional value.

Table 5. Per cent composition of some soybean products used in animal feed.

Anti-nutritive factors are natural compounds in feedstuffs that impair utilisation of nutrients with consequent undesirable effects on animal performance. The ANFs in soybeans exert a negative impact on the nutritional quality for animals (Table 6). Fortunately, those ANFs with significant impact such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins are easily destroyed by heat. Of lesser significance are the anti-nutritional effects produced by relatively heat stable factors, such as goitrogens, tannins, phytoestrogens, oligosaccharides, phytate, and saponins (Liener, 994). Heat stable ANFs with the exception of oligosaccharides and the antigenic factors are low in soybeans and not quite likely to cause problems under practical feeding conditions. The removal of the oligosaccharides and antigens in the manufacture of soybean protein concentrates further improves the

may limit their use in animal feeds.


+Leeson and Summers (2001), \*Wiseman and Salvador (1991), \*\* Zumbado *et al.* (1999), \*\*\*Huyghebaert *et al*. (1988), \*\*\*\*Ortiz *et al*. (1998), #NRC (1994)

Table 4a. Comparison of digestibility and metabolisable energy values of triglycerides in broiler chickens fed soybean oil and selected dietary fats/oils.


1Values may not total 1000 g due to trace amounts of other fatty acids not reported or rounding of figures

2Wiseman and Salvador (1991), 3Ortiz et al. (1998), 4Waldroup et al. (1995), 5Huyghebaert et al. (1988)

Table 4b. Comparison of fatty acid composition of soybean oil with selected dietary fats/oils (g/kg total fatty acids)1.

#### **4. Chemical composition of commonly used soybean products in animal diets**

There are variations in the reported chemical composition of soybean products that can be attributed to differences in processing methods (Table 5). Also, genetic variations have been observed in the soybean biotypes of *Glycine* (Yen *et al*., 1971; Gu *et al*., 2010), which may vary in their chemical compositions. The use of soybean products in non-ruminant diets can give reasonable performance only if diets are formulated correctly or their anti-nutritive factors removed. In this regard, nutrient levels, bioavailability, and anti-nutritive factors and their effects on animal performance must all be considered in determining the usefulness of any of the soybean products as a feed ingredient. Table 5 shows composition of some soybean products commonly used in animal feed. It is clear that soybean is a source of high protein content and quality as well as energy with little or no ANFs. It appears the quality of soybean proteins improves when subjected to multiple processing procedures. This is

Source Digestibility (%) Metabolisable energy (MJ/kg)

96+ 95+ 93+ 76+ 97+ - 88\*\*\*\*

+Leeson and Summers (2001), \*Wiseman and Salvador (1991), \*\* Zumbado *et al.* (1999), \*\*\*Huyghebaert

Sunflower Oil3

Corn

Oil4 Tallow2 Lard5 Poultry

Table 4a. Comparison of digestibility and metabolisable energy values of triglycerides in

1Values may not total 1000 g due to trace amounts of other fatty acids not reported or rounding of

**4. Chemical composition of commonly used soybean products in animal** 

There are variations in the reported chemical composition of soybean products that can be attributed to differences in processing methods (Table 5). Also, genetic variations have been observed in the soybean biotypes of *Glycine* (Yen *et al*., 1971; Gu *et al*., 2010), which may vary in their chemical compositions. The use of soybean products in non-ruminant diets can give reasonable performance only if diets are formulated correctly or their anti-nutritive factors removed. In this regard, nutrient levels, bioavailability, and anti-nutritive factors and their effects on animal performance must all be considered in determining the usefulness of any of the soybean products as a feed ingredient. Table 5 shows composition of some soybean products commonly used in animal feed. It is clear that soybean is a source of high protein content and quality as well as energy with little or no ANFs. It appears the quality of soybean proteins improves when subjected to multiple processing procedures. This is

2Wiseman and Salvador (1991), 3Ortiz et al. (1998), 4Waldroup et al. (1995), 5Huyghebaert et al. (1988) Table 4b. Comparison of fatty acid composition of soybean oil with selected dietary fats/oils

Palm oil2

96+ 84+ 92+ 70+ 88+ 74\*\* 85\*\*\*\*

broiler chickens fed soybean oil and selected dietary fats/oils.

oil2

*et al*. (1988), \*\*\*\*Ortiz *et al*. (1998), #NRC (1994)

Fatty acid Soybean

Lauric acid (C12:0) Myristic acid (C14:0) Palmitic acid (C16:0) Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) Stearic acid (C18:0) Oleic acid (C18:1) Linoleic acid (C18:2) Linolenic acid (C18:3) Arachidic acid (C20:0)

(g/kg total fatty acids)1.

figures

**diets** 

Soybean oil Corn (maize) oil

Lard Beef tallow Menhaden oil Palm oil Sunflower oil

3-4 weeks >4 weeks 1-3 weeks 7.5 weeks

38.5\* - 30.8\*\*\* 30.9\* 35.9# 27.7\* -

38.5\* 41.3# - 32.9\* 37.6# 32.3\* 40.4#

oil4


shown by increases in concentrations of limiting essential amino acids such as lysine and methionine for monogastric animals (Table 5). However, the cost of such improved products may limit their use in animal feeds.

Data are adapted from NRC (1994), INRA (2004), Peisker (2001)

Table 5. Per cent composition of some soybean products used in animal feed.

#### **4.1 Anti-nutritive factors**

Anti-nutritive factors are natural compounds in feedstuffs that impair utilisation of nutrients with consequent undesirable effects on animal performance. The ANFs in soybeans exert a negative impact on the nutritional quality for animals (Table 6). Fortunately, those ANFs with significant impact such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins are easily destroyed by heat. Of lesser significance are the anti-nutritional effects produced by relatively heat stable factors, such as goitrogens, tannins, phytoestrogens, oligosaccharides, phytate, and saponins (Liener, 994). Heat stable ANFs with the exception of oligosaccharides and the antigenic factors are low in soybeans and not quite likely to cause problems under practical feeding conditions. The removal of the oligosaccharides and antigens in the manufacture of soybean protein concentrates further improves the nutritional value.

Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 223

compound feed in the United States (Table 7a) and European Union (Table 7b). The annual EU livestock consumption alone demands soybean acreage of 5.0 million hectares in Brazil

Species Million metric tons Percent of total Poultry – broilers 12.36 44 Poultry – layers 1.88 7 Swine 6.69 24 Cattle – beef 3.45 13 Cattle – dairy 1.61 6 Pet animals 0.74 3 Aquaculture 0.18 1 Other 0.65 2 Total 27.56 100

Table 7a. Utilisation of soybean meal by livestock in the United States

Production volume (1,000 tonnes)

Cattle – meat 12,148 13.9 1,683 Cattle – dairy 27,852 10.4 2,893 Pigs 51,440 28.8 14,815 Poultry – broilers 30,929 36.8 11,389 Poultry – layers 15,532 22.4 3,477

goats, ducks, etc) 9,522 16.6 1,577 Total 147,423 24.3 35,834

> Acreage (ha)

Table 7b. Soybean meal used in types of animal compound feed in the European Union-27.

Beef and veal 1,557 595,519 United States 2,102 781,256 Milk 621 237,642 Canada 463 182,290 Pork 10,341 3,956,061 Argentina 11,450 4,240,559 Poultry meat 7,934 3,035,314 Brazil 12,789 4,995,608 Eggs 3,247 1,242,109 Paraguay 585 263,553 Cheese 1,156 442,402 Uruguay 53 26,319

Total 27,620 10,566,377 Total 27,621 10,566,377

Table 7c. Soybean acreage needed for livestock consumption in the European Union-27 and

Source: PROFUNDO (2008) 1,000 tonnes of soybean meal = 771 tonnes of soybeans.

Country of origin

Soybean Equivalent (1,000 tonnes)1

countries <sup>180</sup> 76,791

Estimated soy bean meal content (%)

Volume of soybean meal in compound feed (1,000 tonnes)

> Acreage (ha)

and 4.2 million hectares in Argentina (Table 7c).

Source: United Soybean Board (1999/2000)

Type of animal compound feed

Other animals (e.g. sheep,

Soybean Equivalent1 (1,000 tonnes)

Other products 2,764 1,057,330 Other

Source: PROFUNDO (2008)

by country of origin.

Livestock product


Sources: Liener (1977), Ensminger and Olentine Jr (1978), Peisker (2001)

Table 6. Anti-nutritive factors in soybeans.

Soybean meal contains high levels of phosphorus, but much of it is present in a complex form due to the presence of phytic acid. However, the use of phytase can increase phosphorus retention by 50% and reduction in excretion by 42% (Lei *et al*., 1993).

#### **5. Utilisation of soybean in animal production**

The major farmed animal species diets containing soybean include poultry, pigs, cattle and aquatic. The global animal feed production by species a decade ago included pigs (31%), broiler (27%), dairy cattle (17%), beef cattle (9%), layer (8%), aquatic (5%) and 3% of others (Hoffman, 1999). Thus soybean meal is used relatively more in some types of animal feed than in others. The major aim is to provide high quality protein to poultry and pigs.

Of all plant protein sources, soybean cultivation alone occupies most land needed for production of animal products. For example, soybean meal is used extensively in animal

**Anti-nutritional factor Mode of action Method of detoxification** 

Causes hypertrophy of the pancreas Counteracts feedback inhibition of pancreatic enzyme secretion by

These factors render certain vitamins (e.g. vitamins A, B12, D, and E) physiologically inactive

These factors decrease availability of certain minerals (e.g. P, Cu, Fe, Mn,

Cause the formation of antibodies in the serum of calves and piglets. Prevent proliferation of beneficial

Soybean meal contains high levels of phosphorus, but much of it is present in a complex form due to the presence of phytic acid. However, the use of phytase can increase

The major farmed animal species diets containing soybean include poultry, pigs, cattle and aquatic. The global animal feed production by species a decade ago included pigs (31%), broiler (27%), dairy cattle (17%), beef cattle (9%), layer (8%), aquatic (5%) and 3% of others (Hoffman, 1999). Thus soybean meal is used relatively more in some types of animal feed

Of all plant protein sources, soybean cultivation alone occupies most land needed for production of animal products. For example, soybean meal is used extensively in animal

hydrogen cyanide Cooking

cramps, diarrhoea, and flatulence) Ethanol/water extraction

Heat treatment Germination Fermentation

Cooking

vitamins

cases

agents

Supplementation of

Heat treatment Addition of chelating

Use of enzymes

Heat treatment in some

Administration of iodide

Ethanol/water extraction

Combines with trypsin or chymotrypsin to form an inactive complex and lower protein

(Phytohaemagglutinins) Agglutinates red blood cells Heat treatments

Saponins Bitter taste, hemolyze red blood cells Fermentation

reproductive tract

bacteria in the GIT

phosphorus retention by 50% and reduction in excretion by 42% (Lei *et al*., 1993).

than in others. The major aim is to provide high quality protein to poultry and pigs.

Cyanogens Cause toxicity through the poisonous

digestibility

trypsin

Goitrogens Enlargement of the thyroid

Zn)

Estrogens Cause an enlargement of the

Oligosaccharides Impair digestion (e.g. intestinal

Sources: Liener (1977), Ensminger and Olentine Jr (1978), Peisker (2001)

**5. Utilisation of soybean in animal production** 

Table 6. Anti-nutritive factors in soybeans.

Protease inhibitors

Anti-vitamin factors (rachitogenic factor and anti-vitamin B12 factor)

Metal-binding factors

Lectins

(phytate)

Antigens (glycinin and βconglycinin)



Source: United Soybean Board (1999/2000)

Table 7a. Utilisation of soybean meal by livestock in the United States


Source: PROFUNDO (2008)

Table 7b. Soybean meal used in types of animal compound feed in the European Union-27.


Source: PROFUNDO (2008) 1,000 tonnes of soybean meal = 771 tonnes of soybeans.

Table 7c. Soybean acreage needed for livestock consumption in the European Union-27 and by country of origin.

Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 225

Ajinomoto Heartland Lysine LLC Revision 7. True digestibility of essential amino acids in

http://www.lysine.com/new/Technical%20Reports/Poultry/PoultryDigTableV7.

Araba, M. and N.M. Dale. 1990. Evaluation of protein solubility as an indicator of under

Elkin, R.G. 2002. Nutritional components of feedstuffs: a qualitative chemical appraisal of

Ensminger, M.E. and C. G. Olentine Jr. 1978. *Feeds and Nutrition Complete*, *1st ed.* Ensminger

FAS/USDA (Foreign Agricultural Service/United States Department of Agriculture). 2009. World soybean supply and distribution. FAS/USDA, Washington, D.C. FEFAC (European Feed Manufacturers Federation). 2007. Industrial compound feed

Graham, K.K., Kerley, M.S., Firman, J.D., and G.L. Allee. 2002. The effect of enzyme

Gu, C., Pan, H., Sun, Z. and G. Qin. 2010. Effect of soybean variety on antinutritional factors

Hoffman, P. 1999. Prospects for feed demand recovery. International Feed Markets '99,

Hurrell, R.F. 1990. Influence of the Maillard Reaction on nutritional value of foods. In: *The* 

Huyghebaert, G., G.D. Munter and G.D. Groote. 1988. The metabolisable energy (AMEn) of

INRA (Institut Scientifique de Recherche Agronomique). 2004. *Tables of composition and* 

Kerley, M.S. and G.L. Allee. 2003. Modifications in soybean seed composition to enhance

Lei, X.G., Ku, P.K., Miller, E.R. and M.T. Yokoyama. 1993. Supplementing corn-soybean

Leeson, S. and J.D. Summers. 2001. *Nutrition of the chicken, 4th ed*. University Books, Ontario,

Liener, I.E. 1977. Removal of naturally occurring toxicants through enzymatic processing. In:

p.186. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Netherlands.

by weanling pigs. *Journal of Animal Science, 71:3359-3367*.

treatment of soybean meal on oligosaccharide disappearance and chick growth

content, and growth performance and nutrients metabolism in rat. *International* 

*Maillard Reaction in foods processing, human nutrition and physiology, pp 245-358*.

fats for broilers in relation to their chemical composition. *Animal Feed Science and* 

*nutritional value of feed materials, 2 ed*. (Sauvant, D., Perez, J.M. and Tran, G., eds.),

Animal feed use and value: Moving from dietary ingredient to a functional dietary

meal diets with microbial phytase linearly improves phytate phosphorus utilisation

R.E. Feeney and J.R. Whitaker (Eds.), *Food proteins: Improvements through chemical and enzymatic modifications (p.7-57)*. Advances in Chemistry Series 160. Washington,

*Composition and Nutritive Value*, *pp. 57-86*. CAB International, UK

production, FEFAC Secretariat General, Brussels, May 2007.

protein. In: J.M. McNab and K.N. Boorman, eds. *Poultry Feedstuffs: Supply,* 

processing soybean meal. *Poultry Science,* 69:1749-1752

Publishing Co., California, USA.

performance. *Poultry Science, 81: 1014-1019.* 

*Journal and Molecular Science, 11: 1048-1056.* 

Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland.

component. *AgBioForum, 6 (1&2)14-17*.

October 1999, Agra Europe.

*Technology, 20: 45-58.* 

Canada.

D.C.

**8. References** 

poultry.

pdf.
