**2. Students with disabilities**

E-Learning has increased access to higher education for students with disabilities and allows many of these students to pursue their education in a place more suited to their needs than the college classroom. Some of the earliest work in distance education designed to meet the needs of these students occurred after World War II and the Korean War [28]. Texts were made available on tape; lectures were recorded; and students were taught using tutors, tape recorders, and the telephone. Herbert Rusalem was a pioneer who advocated for students with disabilities.

As Madeus [28] pointed out, in 1962 Rusalem wrote:

Physically handicapped college students requiring one or more special educational services are no longer a rarity on the American campus. Having the same goals as other students, they are enrolling in increasing numbers, encouraged by better public and private school prepara‐ tion, improved rehabilitation services, the availability of scholarship funds, and a changing attitude toward disabled persons in our society. Since these sources of encouragement will probably become more influential in the future, in seems likely that the problems of educating the physically handicapped student will be receiving increasing attention. (p. 161)

Rusalem's [29] belief was that students with disabilities could achieve the high standards expected in higher education when certain modifications were made available.

In addition to students with visual or hearing impairments, students with disabilities who might benefit from E-Learning include students with cognitive or neurological disabilities (such as attention deficit disorder, autism, post traumatic stress disorder, traumatic brain injury, or memory impairments); physical disabilities (such as arthritis, repetitive stress injuries, quadriplegia, or paraplegia); and more temporary disabilities resulting from recent injuries or surgery [30].

ROM)...Hybrid/ blended online courses were defined as a combination of online and in-class

E-Learning in higher education has reached many unique populations. Students who have accessed higher education through E-Learning include (a) students with disabilities [2-7], (b) rural students who find it difficult to relocate [8-13], (c) parents with children [6, 14, 15], (d) military personnel [16-18], (e) students working full time [6, 19], and (f) urban students who find it easier to time-shift rather than space-shift [20, 21]. Renes and Strange [22] pointed out, "The National Center for Education Statistics reported in the 2006-07 academic year, 66 percent of the 4,160 2-year and 4-year Title IV degree-granting postsecondary institutions in the nation

(a) adult learners [23], (b) students who are self-directed learners [24], (c) students in rural areas [8, 25], (d) students who value interdependence [26], (e) students who must remain employed and require flexibility [25], and (f) students needed by their communities [8, 27]. [22,

E-Learning has increased access to higher education for students with disabilities and allows many of these students to pursue their education in a place more suited to their needs than the college classroom. Some of the earliest work in distance education designed to meet the needs of these students occurred after World War II and the Korean War [28]. Texts were made available on tape; lectures were recorded; and students were taught using tutors, tape recorders, and the telephone. Herbert Rusalem was a pioneer who advocated for students with

Physically handicapped college students requiring one or more special educational services are no longer a rarity on the American campus. Having the same goals as other students, they are enrolling in increasing numbers, encouraged by better public and private school prepara‐ tion, improved rehabilitation services, the availability of scholarship funds, and a changing attitude toward disabled persons in our society. Since these sources of encouragement will probably become more influential in the future, in seems likely that the problems of educating

Rusalem's [29] belief was that students with disabilities could achieve the high standards

In addition to students with visual or hearing impairments, students with disabilities who might benefit from E-Learning include students with cognitive or neurological disabilities (such as attention deficit disorder, autism, post traumatic stress disorder, traumatic brain injury, or memory impairments); physical disabilities (such as arthritis, repetitive stress

the physically handicapped student will be receiving increasing attention. (p. 161)

expected in higher education when certain modifications were made available.

instruction with reduced in-class seat time for students. (para. 1)

348 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

offered college-level distance education courses" (p. 204).

As Madeus [28] pointed out, in 1962 Rusalem wrote:

p. 204]

disabilities.

**2. Students with disabilities**

Students who have done well in E-Learning formats include:

There is currently momentum to evaluate and enforce the federal accessibility standards for online courses and this enforcement is significant, as it will allow students with or without disabilities to choose the learning delivery system that is most beneficial, given their particular circumstances [22, 30]. Three federal laws currently direct E-Learning programs with regard to accessibility standards: the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504 and 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 [5, 28, 30-32]. Equal access to education is required by the ADA, and Section 504 provides for equal access to education but also stipulates that any educational institution receiving federal funding must ensure that web based programs, including E-Learning opportunities, are accessible to students with disabilities. Section 508 requires that types of technology are defined and include provisions that establish a minimum level of accessibility. The types of technology referred to in Section 508 include web-based and software applications, telecommunication products, and multimedia products [32].

E-Learning instructors often make their courses inaccessible without realizing it, as few instructors are trained to be aware of barriers for students with disabilities or barriers to accessibility in E-Learning courses [32]. However, it is the instructors' responsibility to make sure all students have access to course materials [33]. Courses designed to meet the needs of students with disabilities might also assist other students [34-36]. R. Mace in 1997 coined the term Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to describe a course design that improves the accessibility of course to students with different learning styles, different backgrounds, different abilities, and disabilities [32, 35, 37]. Far from being a "one size fits all," when done well, UDL offers various assignments and alternative learning tools to assist students. Roberts and colleagues [30] say students often do not want to disclose their disability for a variety of reasons and frontloading courses following UDL principles is especially helpful for these students. Tandy and Meachum [32] suggest that universal design helps "normalize" the experience of being disabled as UDL practices meet a variety of needs for students. For example, when an E-Learning instructor includes an audio and written description of the tools available to enhance watching a YouTube video, no student is singled out and all students might benefit from the enhancements in some way.

When designers follow UDL guidelines, physical environments, communication options, and the products developed are accessed by people with various characteristics including but not limited to:

age, race, ethnicity, gender, native language, and levels of ability to hear, see, move, and speak. When the range of characteristics of potential students is considered, distance learning course designers create learning environments where all students and instructors can fully partici‐ pate, just as architects design buildings that can be used by those who walk independently, walk with crutches, push baby strollers, and use wheelchairs. [37, p. 236]

Some of the more common tools include (a) captions for lived synchronized media, (b) insuring colored images are available in text format, (c) providing spoken versions of the text, and (d) lectures that can be repeatedly paused and restarted.

The technology required for E-Learning might take time for students with disabilities to learn [35]. However, the career commitment held by many persons with disabilities is often a key factor in their completion of a higher education program delivered in a distance format [38]. The number of students with disabilities desiring higher education is on the rise and address‐ ing their needs could increase the number of students participating in E-learning courses [30, 33]. "An accessible course makes it possible for students or instructors with disabilities to interact with others in the class regardless of impaired mobility, speech, or vision" [32, p. 314].
