**3. A Behaviorist perspective: Associative learning**

According to the behaviorist approach [12], learning is seen in terms of connections (associa‐ tions) between stimulus (or stimulus–situation) and response and between response and reinforcement. Learning means that behaviour (objectively observable) can be modified by reinforcements that in turn can produce conditioning [13] or operant conditioning (Fig. 3). In this context, environment is fundamental, because it can produce learning only if it is properly structured.

**Figure 3.** Operant conditioning

**Figure 1.** What is learning?

mental task' [10].

In a more practical view, learning 'programming is not seen simply as a technological development incorporating previously established learning principles, but rather as one particular form of the ordering of stimulus and response events designed to bring about productive learning.... (If) one wants to investigate the effects of an experimental treatment on the behaviour of individuals or groups who start from the same point, he would be well advised to measure and map out for each individual the learning sets relevant to the experi‐

Even if the practical aspect of the teaching/learning process depends on the specific didactic topics, it is possible to underline various common steps that Gagné and Briggs [11] have focused on in order to describe the learning process events. The author has broken down the process into an elementary task sequence or behavioural objectives that were presented to the

How to accomplish these steps and how to promote and stimulate learning are relevant issues that have been variously interpreted in psychological literature. Here we report three ap‐ proaches that provide interpretative frameworks and operational guidelines that are signifi‐ cant in educational psychology and pedagogy too: behaviourist, cognitive and embodied cognition approaches. These three approaches can be seen as points along a continuum, with continuity and discontinuity elements, leading to embodied cognition notions that represent

learner who was given immediate feedback on his/her responses (Fig. 2).

64 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

the starting point of Block Magic project rationale referred to in this chapter.

Pedagogy practice based on associative principles involves identifying the components of learning competences, sequencing these in complexity terms and providing clear tasks with immediate feedback. The sequence is then adjusted according to learner performance. The underlying assumption is that learning consists of building on simpler behaviours, a quanti‐ tative increase where existing knowledge and procedures are merely added to the previous ones.

#### **3.1. A cognitive perspective: Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner and the constructivist approach**

Since the 1950s and 1960s, thanks to Gestalt psychology, Tolman and Piaget contribution, psychologists have focused on the cognitive process underlying learning. In opposition to behaviorism, they explored what was behind behaviour: thought, mind and mental represen‐ tation, trying to describe their mechanisms (Fig. 4).

In cognitive perspective, learning is not a sum of fragmented activities, but the knowledge of relationships, meanings and situations. Furthermore, problem solving does not derive from trial and error, but from the understanding of a certain problematic situation structure. Cognitive learning involves higher mental functions such as attention, perception, memory, intelligence and general cognitive processes belonging to humans: the change is not only in the behaviour but in internal structures and processes too, which in turn acts on individual behaviour. This change can arise from active thoughtful participation, whereas learning arises from the interaction between new experiences and existing internal pattern.

In this context, the central issue is how we represent knowledge and develop our concepts and understandings. According to McKendry [14], we learn as a result of the interaction between new experiences and existing understanding structures, previously created.

It is worth underlining that cognitivist authors have formulated some of the most relevant theories in educational and developmental psychology. We will now briefly describe the ones which have direct implications for our discussion on learning.

According to cognitive perspective, Piaget [3] – who is, as reminded above, one of the most influential developmental psychologist – has explored the process by which children develop their knowledge of the world in cognitive terms. Using a clinical–critical approach and by observing his children for a long time, Piaget came to the conclusion that two cognitive processes are responsible for human cognitive development: assimilation and accommoda‐ tion. These processes are the basis of learning process and define children development in cognitive terms.

The first one (assimilation) refers to the acquisition of an object/event in pre-existing cognitive or behavioural schema; the second one (accommodation) refers to the change of the schema subsequent to new events/objects. These two processes alternate in order to achieve a dynamic equilibrium. In other words, learning is based on the balance between assimilation and accommodation, and it is based on the new information integration in pre-existing cognitive structures. The development of these structures is innate and fixed, and it is organised in universal subsequent steps/stages. Learning, in this perspective, develops with doing. The educational context can only tune itself with the developmental stage the child is in, so as to offer the proper chance of doing to learn.

According to traditional interpretation, the Piaget approach can be seen in opposition to the Vygotsky conception of learning. The key-point of this opposition is the context role. From the Piagetian point of view, social and cultural context does not play an important role in cognitive development, whereas for the Vygotskian framework, context promotes learning and devel‐ opment in cognitive sphere.

Vygotsky [6] holds that child cognitive development derives from the interaction between person and social context. More specifically, an individual interiorises cognitive functions through language that shapes social interaction. The social context (or other significant people in the learner's life) can help, support and facilitate the learning process and, in particular, it may have an impact on the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a cognitive area where the child can go beyond his/her current knowledge level and development through the support of a competent adult, representing a social stimulus. The higher mental processes are created through socially meaningful mediated activity.

**3.1. A cognitive perspective: Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner and the constructivist approach**

Since the 1950s and 1960s, thanks to Gestalt psychology, Tolman and Piaget contribution, psychologists have focused on the cognitive process underlying learning. In opposition to behaviorism, they explored what was behind behaviour: thought, mind and mental represen‐

In cognitive perspective, learning is not a sum of fragmented activities, but the knowledge of relationships, meanings and situations. Furthermore, problem solving does not derive from trial and error, but from the understanding of a certain problematic situation structure. Cognitive learning involves higher mental functions such as attention, perception, memory, intelligence and general cognitive processes belonging to humans: the change is not only in the behaviour but in internal structures and processes too, which in turn acts on individual behaviour. This change can arise from active thoughtful participation, whereas learning arises

In this context, the central issue is how we represent knowledge and develop our concepts and understandings. According to McKendry [14], we learn as a result of the interaction between

It is worth underlining that cognitivist authors have formulated some of the most relevant theories in educational and developmental psychology. We will now briefly describe the ones

According to cognitive perspective, Piaget [3] – who is, as reminded above, one of the most influential developmental psychologist – has explored the process by which children develop their knowledge of the world in cognitive terms. Using a clinical–critical approach and by observing his children for a long time, Piaget came to the conclusion that two cognitive processes are responsible for human cognitive development: assimilation and accommoda‐ tion. These processes are the basis of learning process and define children development in

The first one (assimilation) refers to the acquisition of an object/event in pre-existing cognitive or behavioural schema; the second one (accommodation) refers to the change of the schema subsequent to new events/objects. These two processes alternate in order to achieve a dynamic equilibrium. In other words, learning is based on the balance between assimilation and accommodation, and it is based on the new information integration in pre-existing cognitive structures. The development of these structures is innate and fixed, and it is organised in universal subsequent steps/stages. Learning, in this perspective, develops with doing. The educational context can only tune itself with the developmental stage the child is in, so as to

According to traditional interpretation, the Piaget approach can be seen in opposition to the Vygotsky conception of learning. The key-point of this opposition is the context role. From the Piagetian point of view, social and cultural context does not play an important role in cognitive development, whereas for the Vygotskian framework, context promotes learning and devel‐

from the interaction between new experiences and existing internal pattern.

new experiences and existing understanding structures, previously created.

which have direct implications for our discussion on learning.

cognitive terms.

offer the proper chance of doing to learn.

opment in cognitive sphere.

tation, trying to describe their mechanisms (Fig. 4).

66 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

Translated in pedagogical language, teachers have to encourage learners to build their own mental structures through interaction with the environment. Moreover, Vygotsky has introduced the 'scaffolding' notion to suggest that an important role is played by learners who, with the assistance by someone more experienced, can achieve cognitive results they would be otherwise unable to. The teacher's role as scaffolder involves guiding students towards activities that they are likely to find engaging and from which they will probably learn. However, rather than playing a didactic role, the teacher must encourage students to think by themselves, to raise issues and questions related to didactic activity and to identify problems they can face and solve. In brief, pedagogy based on constructivist approach bases on the following principles: creating an environment where learners can become actively involved, setting up activities that encourage experimentation and discovery and interactive and student-centred activities, locating learning within the ZPD and scaffolding through encour‐ agement and support for raising questions and reflecting on principles.

Building on Piaget and Vygotsky theories, Bruner [5, 15], in his theory, has stressed both the learner active involvement (Piaget) and social context (Vygotsky) roles, and he has proposed a cultural approach to learning process and cognitive development. According to Bruner [16, 17], learning is a complex activity in which three processes interact: 1) information acquisition, 2) information transformation/manipulation in a new form that is suitable for problem solving and 3) checking of this transformation efficacy. Information modification (2) is linked to three representational methods that depend on individual culture and maturation: action system, iconic system and symbolic system [18].

From an ontological point of view, child learning can be divided in four stages: 1) ability of acquisition, 2) reflexivity, 3) sharing and 4) culture. Extending the social context and language importance underlined by Vygotsky, Bruner emphasises the role of culture in human devel‐ opment. Culture is a collective and shared interpretation of reality, and the individual mind has an interpersonal nature. Learning is an interpersonal and relational activity strictly linked to the 'where and how' of the knowledge; in other words, learning is a 'situated cognitive action' [19].

In Bruner's words: "the active participation in the learning process by the child might result in the following hypothesized benefits: an increase in intellectual potency so as to make the acquired information more readily viable in problem solving, the action of the learning activities in terms of the intrinsic reward of discovery itself (as contrasted with the drivereduction model of learning), learning the heuristics of discovery, and making material more readily accessible in memory" [20].

**Figure 4.** The learning process from a cognitive perspective

Bruner intuitions have given important hints to successive cognitive authors; consider, for example, Papert and Jonassen who have emphasised the person's active role in experience comprehension using cultural and contextual resources. Other important concepts of con‐ structivist approach such as 'discovery learning' [21] and 'meaningful learning' [22] are based on Bruner's conceptualisation of culture and manipulation.

#### **3.2. Situated learning: The role of embodiment**

As it is evident from the previous paragraphs, activity has a central role in learning process: it is a core process in Piaget theory, it is fundamental in Bruner approach and it has a trans‐ formative power if supported by external stimuli for Vygotsky. In particular, the concept of action becomes central for the situated learning theories [23, 24]. These theories belong to a theoretical framework in which authors emphasise sociocultural aspects of learning and cognition. The idea is that the knower cannot be separated from the known; knowledge and learning are the results of social activity in context [25, 26]. Therefore, situated learning includes participation as a key concept; participation can be seen as 'being a part' with a critical importance of contextualisation in learning. Teaching strategies based upon participation can encourage collaboration amongst learners [27]. This way, learners can become part of the community. Learning can be described in terms of action and participation in a community of practice. In this framework (as well as in the previous cognitive theories), the concept of activity defines a cognitive process somehow detached from the body. In the traditional vision of learning, the attention on the person complexity was simplified, focusing on mind in terms of cognitive processes.

However, it should not be neglected that the body plays a fundamental role in the interaction between the person and context. In a wider perspective, having a body is essential for agents of different kinds, and it becomes a powerful vehicle to acquire knowledge.

Let us consider, for example, artificial agents provided with bodies with sensors and actuators, such as robots [28] that have to orient in space, a quite complex cognitive task. Being embodied allows these agents to find effective solutions to spatial tasks [29, 30]: embodiment conveys knowledge. In authors' words: embodied cognition view 'emphasizes the role of coupled interactions between organisms and the environment in the development of cognitive processes, capturing the way mind, body and world interact and influence one another to promote the adaptive success of an organism' [31].

Also authors in cognitive psychology framework regarding humans exalt the body role as well.

Piaget describes it as one of the first instruments used to know the world (e.g. see sensorimotor stage in the Piagetian theory). In more recent years, Galperin [32] retrieves the body importance too. According to this author, the mental object-oriented activity is the result of initially materialised object-oriented activity. Or, in other words, the physical manipulation of objects represents the basis of human thought. Rambush and Ziemke [33] identify in Galperin approach a bridge between situated learning and embodied cognition research that affirms that cognition is a continuous process with changing boundaries and much more than what takes place within the individual mind. This idea has been considered by an increasing number of scientists in various areas of research (e.g. see [34] for neurosciences and [35] for philosophy).

**Figure 4.** The learning process from a cognitive perspective

68 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

**3.2. Situated learning: The role of embodiment**

cognitive processes.

on Bruner's conceptualisation of culture and manipulation.

Bruner intuitions have given important hints to successive cognitive authors; consider, for example, Papert and Jonassen who have emphasised the person's active role in experience comprehension using cultural and contextual resources. Other important concepts of con‐ structivist approach such as 'discovery learning' [21] and 'meaningful learning' [22] are based

As it is evident from the previous paragraphs, activity has a central role in learning process: it is a core process in Piaget theory, it is fundamental in Bruner approach and it has a trans‐ formative power if supported by external stimuli for Vygotsky. In particular, the concept of action becomes central for the situated learning theories [23, 24]. These theories belong to a theoretical framework in which authors emphasise sociocultural aspects of learning and cognition. The idea is that the knower cannot be separated from the known; knowledge and learning are the results of social activity in context [25, 26]. Therefore, situated learning includes participation as a key concept; participation can be seen as 'being a part' with a critical importance of contextualisation in learning. Teaching strategies based upon participation can encourage collaboration amongst learners [27]. This way, learners can become part of the community. Learning can be described in terms of action and participation in a community of practice. In this framework (as well as in the previous cognitive theories), the concept of activity defines a cognitive process somehow detached from the body. In the traditional vision of learning, the attention on the person complexity was simplified, focusing on mind in terms of

However, it should not be neglected that the body plays a fundamental role in the interaction between the person and context. In a wider perspective, having a body is essential for agents

Let us consider, for example, artificial agents provided with bodies with sensors and actuators, such as robots [28] that have to orient in space, a quite complex cognitive task. Being embodied allows these agents to find effective solutions to spatial tasks [29, 30]: embodiment conveys knowledge. In authors' words: embodied cognition view 'emphasizes the role of coupled interactions between organisms and the environment in the development of cognitive processes, capturing the way mind, body and world interact and influence one another to

Also authors in cognitive psychology framework regarding humans exalt the body role as well.

of different kinds, and it becomes a powerful vehicle to acquire knowledge.

promote the adaptive success of an organism' [31].

As Rambush and Ziemke argued, 'the embodied cognition is in many aspect a very social process, and that embodied social process such as mimicry and imitation are significant for social relations as they help people connect, making it possible for them to communicate and to understand each other' [33]. In this trace, Roth [36] demonstrated that gestures not only reflect learning but also contribute to it, serving not only to communicate content to a public but also to help the speaker in making things clearer and more understandable.

#### **3.3. CAI, LOGO and smart objects: Making connections between technology and learning**

Learning theories have their counterpart in pedagogical practices and in learning technology. Technology is a mirror of the times, and the development of educational practices is recipro‐ cally linked to technology advancement.

In this respect, although teaching machines may be historical artefacts, theoretical perspectives have stimulated technological applications. Behaviorist principles underlie methods such as computer-assisted instruction (CAI) where rapid feedback is given on the correctness of learner response (e.g. mathematical routines presented as a game with extrinsic rewards).

Cognitive principles underlie methods such as LOGO [37, 38], a programming language created as the first children toys with built-in computation, described as follows: 'children might come to want to learn it because they would use it in building these models. And if they did want to learn it they would, even if teaching were poor or possibly nonexistent. Moreover, since one of the reasons for poor teaching is that teachers do not enjoy teaching reluctant children, it is not implausible that teaching would become better as well as becoming less necessary. So changes in the opportunities for construction could in principle lead to deeper changes in the learning of mathematics than changes in knowledge about instruction or any amount of "teacher-proof" computer-aided instruction' [39]. LOGO and Lego/LOGO consti‐ tute outstanding examples of how technology can provide new ways to learn.

In recent years, the technology progress produced smart objects, everyday objects augmented with computational services [40] that can have a central role in educational psychology based on both situated learning and embodied cognition principles. In addition, mobile devices that are mainly used for communication, entertainment and as electronic assistants may be used as intermediaries between us and the smart objects in our surroundings for their increasing computational, storage, communicational and multimedia capabilities [41].

Starting from the innovation in the individual–environment interaction offered by the smart objects technology, our idea is that we can produce innovative learning/teaching environments (according to constructivist learning theories and extant pedagogical practices) to enhance neurocognitive development especially in training context. This proposal will be discussed in detail in the next paragraphs.
