**2. State of the art on accessibility related to virtual campuses**

A virtual campus is an environment based on a web technology that provides facilities for the development, management, and publication of content that contribute to the process of teaching and learning. In this work, a virtual campus will be also referred as e-learning system and learning management system (LMS). In terms on legislation related to students with disabilities in e-learning, Edmonds [6] explored the different laws available and highlights the legal and technical concerns for education institutions. International legislation in terms of technological evolution related to e-learning is reflected on the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in Article 9 (points 2.g an 2.h) [7]. The CRPD highlights the importance of promoting access to information and communications technology (ICT) for people with disabilities (PWD) and specially producing accessible content in early stages at minimum costs. Related to education, the (CRPD) in Article 24 recognizes the right to educa‐ tion. Countries that signed the CRPD must make sure that students with disabilities are able to get access not only to general education but also to tertiary education, vocational training, adult education, and lifelong learning without discrimination and on an equal basis with others.

In terms of accessibility, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines accessibility as "the usability of a product, service, environment or facility by people with the widest range of capabilities" [8]. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), the organization in charge of developing web standards, created the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) with the aim of studying the problems of accessibility and propose solutions. One of its most known results is the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 that establishes four principles that give the foundation of web accessibility: web content must be perceivable, understanda‐ ble, operable, and robust [8].

commonly known as e-learning. The virtual campus is the fundamental element on which a virtual education project is based. If it is an accessible virtual campus, it must be ensured that

There are several challenges associated with the implementation of effective learning outcomes via e-learning within a virtual campus. In this chapter in particular, the considerations on the use of e-learning to reach students with disabilities and the barriers [1–5] that they may have will be analyzed, providing the basic knowledge to prepare an accessible virtual campus.

This chapter is structured as follows: A state of the art on accessibility related to virtual campuses, highlighting studies related to the application of accessibility standards to improve the e-learning systems is presented in the first section. The first section explores on the main accessibility requirements for an e-learning campus. Then a review on the basic knowledge that the stakeholders involved in e-learning education should have in order to preserve and promote accessibility is presented. In particular, the authors propose an evaluation guideline on accessibility for virtual campus administrators. Finally, the considerations on the accessi‐ bility requirements of learning objects (LOs) are presented using the IMS Access for all v3.0 specification, the main objective of which is to simplify the definition of the accessibility metadata for learning objects and the preferences and needs of the users of these objects tracing

A virtual campus is an environment based on a web technology that provides facilities for the development, management, and publication of content that contribute to the process of teaching and learning. In this work, a virtual campus will be also referred as e-learning system and learning management system (LMS). In terms on legislation related to students with disabilities in e-learning, Edmonds [6] explored the different laws available and highlights the legal and technical concerns for education institutions. International legislation in terms of technological evolution related to e-learning is reflected on the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in Article 9 (points 2.g an 2.h) [7]. The CRPD highlights the importance of promoting access to information and communications technology (ICT) for people with disabilities (PWD) and specially producing accessible content in early stages at minimum costs. Related to education, the (CRPD) in Article 24 recognizes the right to educa‐ tion. Countries that signed the CRPD must make sure that students with disabilities are able to get access not only to general education but also to tertiary education, vocational training, adult education, and lifelong learning without discrimination and on an equal basis with

In terms of accessibility, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines accessibility as "the usability of a product, service, environment or facility by people with the widest range of capabilities" [8]. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), the organization in charge of developing web standards, created the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) with the aim of studying the problems of accessibility and propose solutions. One of its most known

all functionality can be used by any user, including users with disabilities.

416 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

**2. State of the art on accessibility related to virtual campuses**

them to students' related disabilities.

others.

In terms on learning objects accessibility, it is important to take into consideration the standard ISO/IEC 24751 [9–11] to describe the process of using an accessible online educational system, which takes into account the needs and preferences of the student and contains accessibility metadata of the learning objects. This chapter will explore also on the metadata for the learning objects using the IMS Access for All v3.0 specification [12], the main objective of which is to simplify the definition of the accessibility metadata for learning objects and the preferences and needs of the users of these objects.

#### **2.1. General requirements for accessibility of learning management systems (LMS)**

Learning management systems (LMS) are mainly based on web technologies through a client– server model, with an interface prepared to work base on HTML markup and presented in a web browser. For this type of systems, accessibility requirements should be followed, espe‐ cially guidelines provided by the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) [13] part of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). These guidelines are summarized as follows:


#### **2.2. Accessibility requirements for content and user interfaces**

Learning management systems (LMS) work with web technology, so their user interfaces can be evaluated based on the basic principles for creating accessible web content as presented in WCAG 2.0. The universality of these guidelines is evidenced by the fact that it was approved in 2012 as an international standard: ISO/IEC DIS 40500 [8]. WCAG 2.0 identifies twelve guidelines and numerous compliance criteria ("*success criteria*"). WCAG 2.0 is based around four main principles, which provide the necessary basis for anyone to access and use a system. The four principles are described as follows:

**•** Perceivable: This principle is related to how information and user interface components must be presentable to users in ways they can perceive without limitations. This means that users must be able to perceive the content and information available in a web, the informa‐ tion presented in any part of the web must be visible to all of their senses.


Under each of the four principles, there is a list of guidelines that address the principle. There are a total of 12 guidelines. One of the key objectives of the guidelines is to ensure that content is directly accessible to as many people as possible. There are success criteria related to each guideline, which describe specifically what must be achieved in order to conform to the WCAG 2.0 standard [8]. Each success criterion is written as a statement that will be either true or false when specific web content is tested against it. Table 1 presents the 12-guideline part of the standard.


**Table 1.** Accessibility guidelines for web content WCAG 2.0

The group of principles, guidelines, and success criteria based on WCAG 2.0 [8] are applicable to any web pages and digital content. In the case of e-learning systems (e.g., LMS), these systems are a group of web pages and educational digital content so WCAG 2.0 can be applied to each element. As a summary, the following six basic accessibility principles should be included in every e-learning system [17]:


From WCAG 2.0 [8] guidelines and different accessibility related laws, in terms of basic functionality, e-learning systems (learning content management systems) should have the following basic characteristics:

**1.** Structure

**•** Operable: This principle is based on the fact that user interface components and navigation through a web must be operable. This is important so that users must be able to operate the

**•** Understandable: This means that users must be able to understand the information as well

**•** Robust: Content presented in a web must be really robust, in a way that it can be interpreted easily by a wide variety of user agents, especially software and hardware prepared as assistive technologies. This means in other works that users must be able to access the

Under each of the four principles, there is a list of guidelines that address the principle. There are a total of 12 guidelines. One of the key objectives of the guidelines is to ensure that content is directly accessible to as many people as possible. There are success criteria related to each guideline, which describe specifically what must be achieved in order to conform to the WCAG 2.0 standard [8]. Each success criterion is written as a statement that will be either true or false when specific web content is tested against it. Table 1 presents the 12-guideline part of the

Perceivable 1.1 Provide text alternatives for any non-text content so that it can be changed into other forms people need, such as large print, Braille, speech or simpler language.

1.3 Create content that can be presented in different ways (for example, simpler layout) without

1.4 Make it easier for users to see and hear content, including separating foreground from

2.4 Provide ways to help users navigate, find content, and determine where they are.

Robust 4.1 Maximize compatibility with current and future user agents, including assistive technologies.

The group of principles, guidelines, and success criteria based on WCAG 2.0 [8] are applicable to any web pages and digital content. In the case of e-learning systems (e.g., LMS), these systems are a group of web pages and educational digital content so WCAG 2.0 can be applied to each element. As a summary, the following six basic accessibility principles should be

interface, avoiding to ask the user some interaction that she cannot perform.

as the operation of the user interface without more details provided.

content independently as technologies advance and evolve.

418 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

1.2 Provide alternatives for time-based media.

2.2 Provide users enough time to read and use content.

2.3 Do not design content in a way that is known to cause seizures.

3.2 Make web pages appear and operate in predictable ways.

losing information or structure.

Operable 2.1 Make all functionality available from a keyboard.

Understandable 3.1 Make text content readable and understandable.

3.3 Help users avoid and correct mistakes.

background.

**Table 1.** Accessibility guidelines for web content WCAG 2.0

included in every e-learning system [17]:

standard.

**Principles Guidelines**

	- **a.** Definition of a logical order to display tab indicators, provide a visual place mark to identify where the user is in a particular moment
	- **b.** Provide links to jump to main content
	- **c.** Functionality to simplify configuration to minimize secondary content pages and menus
	- **d.** Functionality to select options using a simple combination of keys
	- **e.** Provide complete access to all functionality via keyword, including HTML editors, controls in multimedia viewers, and Web 2.0 functionalities (e.g., Drag and drop")
	- **f.** Enable keyboard shortcuts (hotkeys) and provide a definition page with all combi‐ nations
	- **g.** Provide a complete sitemap structure for navigation in all systems
	- **h.** If a key is pressed by mistake, provide the ability to undo and return to previous state
	- **a.** Provide a standard design of the interface through all systems in order to find similar functionality on all tools

#### **2.3. Accessibility requirements for content authoring tools**

Authoring tools are software and services included in e-learning systems (LMS), used for teachers and students to produce web content as educational material. Authoring tools related to LMS include desktop applications, multimedia authoring tools, and mainly HTML editors (e.g., what-you-see-is-what-you-get WYSIWIG editors). These tools should follow the Au‐ thoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG) 2.0 [14].

The Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG) explain to developers how to make and adapt the authoring tools to be accessible so that people with disabilities can access and create educational content. The guidelines explain how to help authors (teachers and students) to create more accessible web content (learning material) with inline validators, forms with hints and reminders.

Accessibility, from the perspective of authoring tools, is related to content creators and then for final users (especially people with disabilities). Thus, ATAG [14] is divided into two parts, each reflecting a key aspect of accessibility with respect to authoring tools. Part A "Make the authoring tool user interface accessible" relates to the accessibility of authoring tool user interfaces to authors with disabilities. Part B "Support the production of accessible content" relates to support by authoring tools for the creation, by any author (teachers and students, not just those with disabilities), of web content that is more accessible to end users with disabilities.

Besides general authoring tools, which are referred by ATAG, it is important to keep in mind that in the field of e-Learning, educational resources are usually packaged in containers for interoperability and reusability. Following ATAG [14] recommendations, tools used to prepare educational containers should take into account the accessibility requirements.

The format most commonly used is Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM). This is a set of standards and specifications for creating structured teaching objects [18]. With SCORM, it is possible to create content that can be imported into different learning manage‐ ment systems providing SCORM compatibility. Based on the original definition of SCORM (ADL) [18], it is important to mention the six motivations of the standards: accessibility, adaptability, affordability, durability, interoperability, and reusability. In this chapter, Section 4 will elaborate on two aspects: accessibility and adaptability for the learning objects, building blocks for this standard.

### **2.4. Accessibility requirements for multimedia tools**

**b.** Provide integration for assistive technologies

420 E-Learning - Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management

**f.** Maximize compatibility with assistive technologies

the location of the users when filling a form

**2.3. Accessibility requirements for content authoring tools**

thoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG) 2.0 [14].

a specific color and meaning)

alerts

and reminders.

disabilities.

**4.** Multimedia (audio) functionalities

**c.** Provide a selector to change style sheets for user personalization

**d.** Avoid the communication of system information based on colors (e.g., buttons with

**g.** Compliance-oriented design to improve interoperability with assistive technologies **h.** Consistent and unique design of headings, links, buttons and images description **i.** Provide descriptive forms including support for errors correction. Identification of

**j.** Minimal use of frames, appropriate use of title in frames, provide adoption of ARIA standard attributes and navigational marks ("role landmarks"), structural tags, and

Authoring tools are software and services included in e-learning systems (LMS), used for teachers and students to produce web content as educational material. Authoring tools related to LMS include desktop applications, multimedia authoring tools, and mainly HTML editors (e.g., what-you-see-is-what-you-get WYSIWIG editors). These tools should follow the Au‐

The Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG) explain to developers how to make and adapt the authoring tools to be accessible so that people with disabilities can access and create educational content. The guidelines explain how to help authors (teachers and students) to create more accessible web content (learning material) with inline validators, forms with hints

Accessibility, from the perspective of authoring tools, is related to content creators and then for final users (especially people with disabilities). Thus, ATAG [14] is divided into two parts, each reflecting a key aspect of accessibility with respect to authoring tools. Part A "Make the authoring tool user interface accessible" relates to the accessibility of authoring tool user interfaces to authors with disabilities. Part B "Support the production of accessible content" relates to support by authoring tools for the creation, by any author (teachers and students, not just those with disabilities), of web content that is more accessible to end users with

Besides general authoring tools, which are referred by ATAG, it is important to keep in mind that in the field of e-Learning, educational resources are usually packaged in containers for interoperability and reusability. Following ATAG [14] recommendations, tools used to prepare

educational containers should take into account the accessibility requirements.

**e.** Provide the ability to change user preferences to change font size and style

The users of an e-learning campus use different tools as media players, web browsers, and assistive technologies to be part of the educational process. These tools are known as user agents. The User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (UAAG) [15] explain how to make user agents accessible to people with disabilities, particularly to increase accessibility to web content, a basic building block for educational material in a virtual campus. As described in the working draft of UAAG Guidelines, in addition to helping developers of browsers and media players, UAAG 2.0 benefits developers of assistive technologies because it explains what types of information and control an assistive technology may expect from a user agent that follows UAAG 2.0. Assistive technologies not addressed directly by UAAG 2.0 [15] (e.g., Braille rendering) are still essential to ensuring web access for some users with disabilities.

UAAG is organized in guidelines, principles, and success criteria elements. There are five principles: "perceivable, operable, understandable, programmatic access, and specification and conventions." Following the principles, there are 27 guidelines [15].

#### **2.5. Accessibility requirements of dynamic content and rich user interfaces**

Nowadays, web applications, in our work the case of virtual campuses based on learning management systems, are increasingly using more advanced and complex user interface controls such as tree controls for site navigation, drag-and-drop functionality, or technologies developed with Ajax or DHTML. To prevent accessibility issues, the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) [13] proposed a recommendation called "Accessible Rich Internet Applica‐ tions," usually known as WAI-ARIA [16]. This suite of recommendations defines a way to make web content and web applications more accessible to people with disabilities. It espe‐ cially helps with dynamic content and advanced user interface controls developed with Ajax, HTML, JavaScript, and related technologies.

More specifically, WAI-ARIA provides a framework for adding attributes to identify features for user interaction, giving hints on how they relate to each other, and their current state. The WAI-ARIA framework [16] identifies innovative navigation techniques to mark regions and common web structures as menus, primary content, secondary content, banner information, and other types of web structures. As a working example for developers, with WAI-ARIA, it is possible to identify regions of pages and enable keyboard users to easily move among regions rather than having to press the tab key many times.

WAI-ARIA also includes technologies to map controls, Ajax live regions, and events to accessibility application programming interfaces (APIs), including custom controls used for rich Internet applications. WAI-ARIA [16] techniques apply to widgets such as buttons, dropdown lists, calendar functions, tree controls (for example, expandable menus), and others usually available in virtual campuses so it is important that LMS administrators.
