**5. Transactional distance and collaborative control**

Two other theories have relevance to online course design and instructor support and can be integrated with the self-regulated learning framework. The first is the theory of transactional distance [22-24]. This theory has three components: structure, dialogue, and autonomy. Structure is provided by course materials, content, assignments, and deadlines, which are fixed prior to a course being made available to students. Structure is a helpful pedagogical tool as it provides learners with predictability in determining how the course is organized, sequencing of instructional modules and assignments, and deadlines for assignment submission. Gener‐ ally, courses are designed so that each lesson has the same sections and various pages in the course have the same formatting, similar to a textbook. This helps learners know what to expect as they progress through the course. A course syllabus is also part of the structure as it guides students through the course and its requirements and provides needed information about policies, procedures, requirements, and grading. Structure can also be provided through communication for the purpose of guiding and supporting learners. This communication is referred to as dialogue, and includes any type of exchange or interaction in a course. It can be among the learners or between learners and the instructor. It includes course features such as discussion boards, peer review of assignments, instructor announcements, instructor feedback on assignments, student questions, e-mail, and live conferencing. Dialogue provides sociali‐ zation, particularly through peer interaction. Instructor dialogue can motivate learners, help them identify their strengths and weaknesses, and assist them in making needed improve‐ ments.

The amount of structure and dialogue in a course affects autonomy, which is defined as choice characterized by elements of self-direction. Lower levels of structure and dialogue support greater levels of autonomy. Some learners are able to function well with low levels of structure and dialogue while others need greater support. Autonomous learners are able to determine learning goals and steps for reaching those goals. They have both instrumental independence and emotional independence [22-24]. In other words, they can progress through the course with little help and need little encouragement. One could expect that learners might become more autonomous over the weeks they are enrolled in an online course as they understand expectations and gain confidence in their ability to be successful. Instructors can facilitate this confidence building. The goal of structure, dialogue, and autonomy is to support the achieve‐ ment of learning outcomes and prevent student attrition. The theory of transactional distance has similarities to that of self-regulated learning. The self-regulated learning framework in Figure 1 provides a type of structure for learners to help them set goals, practice strategy application, make use of dialogue (i.e., the social environment) to get help when needed, and self-evaluate in order to have greater capacity for autonomous learning.

Finally, the concept of collaborative control [25] provides greater understanding of the social environment aspect of self-regulated learning and the dialogue component of the theory of transactional distance. Rather than conceiving of distance learning as an independent activity, collaborative control acknowledges that learners can learn from and help each other and also that the instructor can facilitate learner interaction and success. Help-seeking is a positive practice as long as learners are not overly dependent on others. They need to recognize when they need help, identify the best sources of help, and evaluate the effectiveness of the help received [34]. As the name of the concept implies, collaborative control occurs when learners and the instructor collaborate to complete tasks, thereby improving learning outcomes. Instructors must be aware that the goal of collaboration is to encourage greater levels of selfregulation or autonomy so that learners can make sound choices and have the confidence to succeed. However, as a common criticism of distance learning is the purported lack of social interaction and exchange among learners; thus, course designers and instructors should always be aware of opportunities to provide for this aspect of learning.
