**4. Fat substitutes**

The crystal growth rate and the polymorphic transformations are important to determine the

Plastic fats consist of a crystal network in the continuous oil matrix. The rheological behavior of these fats is the result of interactions between the crystals that are immersed in this liquid

The liquid portion, in conjunction with the solid fraction, is responsible for the viscoelastic behavior of a plastic fat. Thus, the amount of crystallized fat and the type of fat matrix crystals

The main objectives of fat crystallization are to increase the thermal stability and oxidative stability of the product, to increase plasticity, to promote creaminess and smoothness, to standardize of the physical and chemical characteristics of the product, and to guarantee

The structure of fat crystals depends on the conditions of its formation, such as stirring, cooling

Some important properties of acyl chains are providing flexibility that consequently leads to a molecular conformation that results in lateral packing and their aggregation state due to the solid and liquid crystalline states created. The physical properties of long-chain compounds in the solid state, such as melting point, heat competence, and plasticity, depend on the crystal structure and are very important to the industry. TAGs exhibit various crystalline forms. The solid states are related to the quality of industrial products. Heat treatment is used in the production processing of oil and fat products. Information about crystal structures of fats and

More and more people are trying to lose weight. In general, people continue to understand that restrictive dieting (deprivation, short-term solutions) spells failure. Instead, it takes permanent lifestyle changes to lose weight and prevent weight gain. Fifty-four percent of U.S. adults are currently trying to reduce their weight. (Note: previous surveys asked about "dieting," but in 2010, the survey was modified to refer to weight reduction or "trying to lose

However, the consumption of high amounts of oils and fats has often been associated with obesity and various types of chronic diseases. The reduction of fat and caloric value of foods can reduce or eliminate fat from the formulation increasing the protein, carbohydrate, fiber,

High-fat diets are associated with obesity and cardiovascular disease. There is an epidemic of overweight and obesity in some locations. Individuals with BMI ≥ 25 (BMI = weight (kg)/height

) are considered overweight, and with BMI ≥ 30 they are considered obese. The recom‐

process and conditions of storage of oils and fats.

are of paramount importance in the rheological behavior of the fat.

rate, and fat quenching, leading to a specific consistency (plasticity).

complex lipids can be provided by X-ray diffraction analysis [8].

matrix.

170 Food Production and Industry

performance.

**3. Fats versus health**

weight" [9].)

<sup>2</sup> (m2

and water content.

An ideal fat substitute should be a compound of recognized as safe and which has all the functional and organoleptic properties and significantly less fat and calories. Due to the multiple roles played by fats in determining product properties (thermal stability, emulsifi‐ cation and aeration, lubrication, taste, and mouthfeel), it is usually necessary to use a combi‐ nation of different fat substitutes in order to have products with these expected properties [10].

Fat replacers can be classified into two groups according to their mechanism of action: fat mimetics or derivatives. They can also be classified into three groups based on their chemical nature: carbohydrates, proteins, or fats.

According to the mechanism of action, the fat mimetics are a combination of water and lipids or nonlipids (modified proteins or carbohydrates) and emulsifying properties; they are capable of forming gels and thus normally serve as body agents, for example, cellulose, gum, inulin, maltodextrin, starches and modified starches, proteins, and microparticulate concentrated protein. Derivatives are noncaloric or low-calorie fat compounds with properties similar to those lipids, which ester bonds are modified.

According to the Calorie Control Council [9], fat replacers can be classified and exemplified as follows:


**Table 1.** Protein-based fat replacers



#### **Table 2.** Carbohydrate-based fat replacers

**Type Commercial name Source Calories Application**

Dextrins Amylum, N-Oil® Dextrins, tapioca 4 kcal/g Salad dressings,

Purified form of cellulose ground to microparticles

Guar gum, gum arabic, locust bean gum, xanthan gum, carrageenan, pectin

Fiber and bulking agent extracted from chicory

Carbohydrate sources such as corn, potato, wheat, and tapioca

Nu-Trim From oat and barley Reduced calorie Bakery, milk, cheese,

From dextrose containing minor amounts of sorbitol and citric acid

root

Noncaloric Dairy-type products,

Noncaloric Salad dressings,

1–1.2 kcal/g Yogurt, cheese, frozen

meats

4 kcal/g Bakery, dairy

Hydrolyzed oat flour 1–4 kcal/g Bakery, fillings, frozen

Fiber Low caloric Bakery, meats,

sauces, frozen desserts, salad dressings

puddings, spreads, dairy-type products, frozen desserts

spreads, extruded products

desserts, and processed meats

desserts, bakery, icings, fillings, whipped cream, dairy products, processed

products, salad dressings, spreads, fillings, processed meat, frozen desserts, extruded products, beverages

ice cream

1 kcal/g Baked goods, chewing

desserts, dairy beverages, cheese, salad dressings, processed meats and confectionery

gums, confectionery, salad dressings, frozen dairy desserts, gelatins, puddings

Cellulose Avicel® cellulose gel,

172 Food Production and Industry

Fiber OptaTM, Oat Fiber,

Gums KELCOGEL®,

Inulin Raftiline®, Fruitafit®,

Maltodextrins CrystaLean®, Lorelite,

Oatrim Beta-TrimTM,

Polydextrose Litesse®,

DRI®

TrimChoice

Sta-LiteTM

MethocelTM, Solka-Floc®

Snowite, UltracelTM,

KELTROL®, SlendidTM

Lycadex®, MALTRIN®, Paselli®D-LITE, Paselli®EXCEL, Paselli®SA2, STAR-

Z-Trim

Fibruline®


#### **Table 3.** Lipid (Fat/Oil) analogs


**Table 4.** Fat-based fat replacers

Using small amounts of inulin, it is possible to improve the flavor and texture of products with low fat content. Combinations with polyols or fructose give excellent results in chocolates.

Plum products can be used to replace fat in products with reduced fat content due to the presence of sorbitol and fiber, which can bind the water. These products have been used as fat substitute in bakery products and confectionery [11].

Organogels are mixtures with characteristics of gel, consisting of structuring agents and immobilized phase forming a thermoreversible self-sustaining network, in which the immo‐ bilized phase is an organic compound, which differs from other gels formed primarily of watersoluble compounds. The main structuring agents that have been studied for the formation of organogels are diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols, fatty acids and alcohols and mixtures thereof, waxes and wax esters, phytosterol and oryzanol, lecithin, and sorbitan tristearate, among others. The use of organogels in food products has been the subject of several studies as an alternative to obtain products with appropriate technological properties without the use of *trans* fats and reduced saturated fatty acid content [12].
