**4.4. Nutritional and functional shortenings**

Industries produce fats for many applications, and some nutritional benefits are expected. Saturate All Purpose and Emulsified Shortening are products free of partially hydrogenated oil and have reduced content in saturated fat compared to traditional shortening, polyunsa‐ turated, and monounsaturated fat products; they have zero grams *trans* fat per serving.

Saturated fats can cause cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, cancer, increased blood cholesterol levels, and gallbladder diseases.

Monounsaturated fats are considered good fats because they help protect the heart against cardiovascular diseases. A benefit of polyunsaturated fatty acids is that they reduce the triglyceride levels. It is recommended to substitute saturated fat in the diet for polyunsaturated fats. Polyunsaturated fats attach to and clear out unhealthy fats, such as saturated fat, choles‐ terol, and triglycerides. Higher intake of most dietary saturated fatty acids is associated with higher levels of total blood cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. High total and LDL cholesterol levels and high intake of *trans* fatty acid are risk factors for cardio‐ vascular disease.

It is suggested the selection of features and beneficial properties of lipids and exclusion (or decrease) of fats (or its components) that cause health problems.

## **4.5.** *Trans* **and low** *trans* **fats**

The characteristics of a low *trans* fat are as follows: acceptable level of *trans* fatty acids, acceptable level of saturated fatty acids, palm oil use, application/performance, shelf life required. From a technological point of view, the best type of fat has fast crystallization and beta prime crystal form. Alternative low *trans* fats are palm, corn, and cotton oil (little or nonhydrogenated oils). Other alternatives are palm kernel, coconut, high oleic canola, medium-oleic sunflower, high oleic soybean, and low linolenic soybean oil and also animal fats.

**a.** Substitutes (cocoa butter substitutes [CBS])—similar to cocoa butter in its physical properties, but not fully compatible for mixtures. Can be divided into lauric and nonlauric

**b.** Equivalent (cocoa butter equivalents [CBE])—similar in physical and chemical properties and can be used in mixtures in any proportion since they contain almost the same type of

The stearic acid has a unique position within the saturated fatty acids of long chain. It is shown

Cocoa butter contains lots of saturated fatty acids in the TAG positions, which are less easily

Some details, when cocoa butter is substituted, are its technological and nutritional character‐ istics. For example, the use of special oils in creamy fillings must be compatible with the fat coating and migration of the filling towards the coating may occur, or vice versa. This process

Industries produce fats for many applications, and some nutritional benefits are expected. Saturate All Purpose and Emulsified Shortening are products free of partially hydrogenated oil and have reduced content in saturated fat compared to traditional shortening, polyunsa‐ turated, and monounsaturated fat products; they have zero grams *trans* fat per serving.

Saturated fats can cause cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, cancer, increased blood cholesterol levels, and

Monounsaturated fats are considered good fats because they help protect the heart against cardiovascular diseases. A benefit of polyunsaturated fatty acids is that they reduce the triglyceride levels. It is recommended to substitute saturated fat in the diet for polyunsaturated fats. Polyunsaturated fats attach to and clear out unhealthy fats, such as saturated fat, choles‐ terol, and triglycerides. Higher intake of most dietary saturated fatty acids is associated with higher levels of total blood cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. High total and LDL cholesterol levels and high intake of *trans* fatty acid are risk factors for cardio‐

It is suggested the selection of features and beneficial properties of lipids and exclusion (or

The characteristics of a low *trans* fat are as follows: acceptable level of *trans* fatty acids, acceptable level of saturated fatty acids, palm oil use, application/performance, shelf life required. From a technological point of view, the best type of fat has fast crystallization and beta prime crystal form. Alternative low *trans* fats are palm, corn, and cotton oil (little or

decrease) of fats (or its components) that cause health problems.

that, unlike other saturated fatty acids, it has a neutral cholesterolemic effect.

fats

176 Food Production and Industry

fatty acids and glycerides of cocoa butter

absorbed and thus do not reduce the risk of atherosclerosis.

can affect the integrity and appearance of the product.

**4.4. Nutritional and functional shortenings**

gallbladder diseases.

vascular disease.

**4.5.** *Trans* **and low** *trans* **fats**

There are a number of challenges faced by the food industry during the process of developing alternatives to low *trans* (LT)/low saturated (LS) fats such as the replacement of oils and fats seeking an alternative to LT/LS while keeping the same functionality in the final product. Another challenge is the availability of these oils and fats. The technologies to obtain LT and LS fats may be used alone or combined: mixtures of different sources of oils and fats, interes‐ terification, hydrogenation, fractionation, and genetics. For example, high oleic canola oil + fully hydrogenated soybean oil (70°C) = interesterified fat (melting temperature, 35°C–40°C).

The change to zero *trans* fat can modify the product capability, performance, oxidative stability, flavor, and color.

*Trans* fats that contain *trans* fatty acids may be produced by either natural or industrial hydrogenation. Biohydrogenation occurs when fatty acids ingested by ruminants are partially hydrogenated by enzymatic systems of the intestinal tract of the animals. Industrial hydroge‐ nation is the addition of nitrogen polyunsaturated vegetable oils using a catalyst under appropriate temperature and pressure. This process promotes the formation of fatty acids with high melting point due to the linear guidance molecules in *trans* fats and the increased saturation index and increased stability to lipid oxidation process [26].

The hydrogenated vegetable fat is responsible for most of the consumption of *trans* fatty acids in the diet. In Brazil, the commercial hydrogenation of vegetable oils date from the 1950s, and it aims at producing technical fats (shortenings), margarines, and fats for frying. With the development of selective hydrogenation techniques, processed vegetable oils quickly replaced animal fats in the diet of Brazilians. These fats have been widely used in the production of various foods such as margarine, chocolate icing, cookies, baked goods, ice cream, pasta, and potato chips, among others [27].

In the past, the formation of *trans* isomers was considered as a technological advantage since, due to its higher melting point compared to that of the corresponding *cis*, it facilitated the creation of solid desirable levels of hydrogenated fat [28, 29].

Scientific evidences related to the negative impact of *trans* fatty acids on health (heart disease risk, high LDL cholesterol levels, low HDL levels) have led to minimized consumption of partially hydrogenated fat, fact corroborated by progressive changes in law and regulations in several countries. The challenge of the food industry in terms of *trans* fat replacement in various products is to develop formulations with comparable economic viability and func‐ tionality, and which do not result, however, in a substantial increase in the saturated fatty acid content in foods [30].

The low *trans* fats that are free of *trans* fatty acids, for example, obtained by interesterification, have been used to replace hydrogenated vegetable fat. The interesterification of oils and fats may be chemical or enzymatic. In this process, the fatty acids are redistributed in ester bonds, creating new groups without the formation of *trans*-isomers. The chemical interesterification process has long been used for its ease and low cost, and it is usually carried out with mixtures of highly saturated fats and liquid oils [2]. In general, blends of coconut and palm oils, after modifications, have great potential in the development of healthier fat products. Enzymatic interesterification after a full hydrogenation is useful in the production of low *trans* fats.

The application of most oils and fats in their natural form in food products is very limited due to their physicochemical properties. However, by increasing their functionality and nutritional value, their behavior can be changed. Adaptation of the melting profile increases stability and shelf life.

The most difficult challenge is to replace *trans* fat in shortening. Solid fats are desirable in foods. Saturated fats have been replaced with hydrogenated (*trans*) fats due to health issues associ‐ ated to fat, but now, saturated fat is also desirable again.

*Trans* fatty acids can be replaced, although it is very difficult to remove these fats from foods. However, success has been obtained with significant research efforts.
