**6. Economic impact of oil spills in the Gulf**

laminated mats. These layers completely seal the surface and hence, produce an anaerobic zone which inhibits oil degradation. As long as such a bloom of cyanobacteria exists, microbial oil degradation will be prevented. They will also prevent any resettlement by macrofauna.

**5. Communities at risk of marine oil spills/anticipation and preparation**

The threatening of marine environments with the petroleum oil spills has caught the attention of many communities, encouraging them to develop their own plans and policy issues. These have ranged from permitting or prohibiting increased oil transport volumes, to developing

A comprehensive literature review was conducted by [101], who covered 300 academic, governments and industry papers and reports relating to oil spills and their environmental and societal consequences, with emphasis on economic impacts. Reference [14], in their report of the 'Consequences of Oil Spills from Tanker Accidents', provided a review and structured framework that supports the efforts of such communities to anticipate the spectrum of issues, factors, stakeholders and strategies that may be involved. The review presented an initial and important input into the larger process of addressing the risk of oil spill disasters. The research was based on two premises. The first was that, although previous disasters provide an essential information source for anticipating future events, not all lessons may be transferrable across locales and the key to successful planning and learning from experience is that it be based on systematic assessment activities' [102]. The second premise was that developing realistic expectations of oil spill consequences requires an understanding of the full range of impacts and interactions within and across the affected systems. These include the marine ecosystems

The purpose of the summary literature review and overview framework provided by [14] was to help communities systematically consider the factors and linkages that would influence consequences of a potential oil spill. Studying previous oil spill disasters has assisted com‐ munities to focus on several main domains of interest. These include the nature of the oil spill itself, how to manage the disaster, the physical marine environment, marine biology, human health, economy and policy. Key factors that influence the severity of the impact were identified and significant interactions between variables were recognized. By using this framework, it is suggested that communities can clarify the complexity of oil spill impacts, develop experience for planning from other oil spill disasters and develop the capacity to respond to and recover from potential spill disasters. Furthermore, such a framework encour‐ ages debates about risk analysis and policy to understand and reduce the susceptibility of their localities to potential spill disasters. The investigators concluded that a comprehensive overview can help clarify the complexity of oil spill disasters, make comparisons across events, identify data gaps and develop planning scenarios in preparation for future oil spill disasters. Local communities that depend on the fishing industry, aquaculture and tourism should realize that the impact of an oil spill is governed by complex factors. These include the oil spill's volume and location relative to fishing/cultivation areas, currents, tides and wave action. Other

the capacity to respond to and recover from potential spill disasters.

94 Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications

and socioeconomic systems.

During the 1930s and 1940s, the discovery of oil in the Gulf led to a massive increase in shipping. This discovery is principally responsible for the huge economic wealth and strategic importance associated with the region today. Thus, the socio-economic development of the Gulf region is highly dependent on its marine environmental quality.

In 1991, the second Gulf War led to the largest oil spill in human history. Around 6 million barrels of oil were discharged into the Gulf [22]. Moreover, 770 km of coastline from southern Kuwait to Abu Ali Island (Saudi Arabia) were smothered with oil and tar, erasing most of the local plant and animal communities. Many of these communities were internationally significant. For example, a number of bird species, green and hawksbill turtles and dugongs are endemic to the region. Such species were harmed and disturbed [100].

Considering that approximately 49% of the world's oil production comes from the Gulf States and passes through the Gulf, its liability to pollution is about 48 times that of any other similar area on earth [103]. Hence, the Gulf is possibly the most chronically oil-polluted marine area in the world, even before the war [104].

Due to the different anthropogenic activities relating to oil spills, in addition to the natural environmental stresses of the Gulf, i.e., enclosed and shallow nature, a number of socioeconomic impacts are predicted:

