**3.1. NORM and TE-NORM at the landfill**

Many industries produce wastes that might contain natural radionuclides, and most of these wastes end up at landfills, either hazardous or otherwise. The majority of TE-NORM sources waste arise from industrial processes. Most of the wastes obtained are produced in very large amounts with low activity. Improper disposal, recycling, and reuse of TE-NORM have led to circumstances resulting in contamination and unnecessary public exposures.

Disposal of TE-NORM in piles or stacks can lead to contamination of groundwater and airborne releases of radioactive particulates and radon. Improper use and/or disposal of the TE-NORM used for soil conditioning or fill around homes can lead to accumulation of radon gas in homes, direct exposure to individuals, and contamination of soil and of the crops growing in the soil. Reuse of TE-NORM-contaminated materials, such as in concrete aggregate, ceramic industry, and red stone can lead to increased radiation risks to members of the public in a variety of ways.

The main radionuclides daughter found in the uranium series in industrial TE-NORM are 238U, 234U, 230Th, 226Ra, and 222Rn, while the thorium series are 232Th, 228Ra, and 220Rn. In addition, 40K should be characterized. Radium226 is used as a monitor to show the relative activity and volume among the TE-NORM sectors. It was found that Radium226 is in equilibrium with its progeny, but Radium228 is not and their activity appears to be about three times greater than Radium228.
