**7. Tomato plants in agricultural, industrial, and pharmaceutical applications**

[108]. A theoretical study on the *cis−trans* isomerisation of lycopene revealed that *5-cis*- and *9 cis*-lycopene are more stable than other isomers since their rotational barrier to reisomerise the

lycopene and *9-cis*-lycopene is also induced by their much lower relative energy compared to other isomers. Those effects lead to the accumulation of the *5-cis*- and *9-cis*-isomers during

one of the highest potential energies of all mono*-cis*-isomers results in a dominant degradation of *7-cis*-lycopene during energy-rich irradiation [106, 107]. All-*trans*-lycopene underwent degradation, while the concentration of *cis*-isomers, mainly *13-cis* and *9-cis*, increased. The investigation showed that the *5*-*cis*-isomer changed distinctively during lycopene storage

**Figure 16.** Thermal and photoinduced isomerization leads to degradation and formation of lycopene isomers in lyco‐

After intestinal absorption, carotenoids are carried to the blood stream by chylomicrons via the lymphatics. Concerning transport in the plasma, carotenoids are transported by lipopro‐ teins, and transport depends on the carotenoid structure. Therefore, lycopene is found in the aqueous interface at the lipoprotein surface. For this reason, lycopene is transported in lowdensity lipoproteins, and oxygenated carotenoids are transported in both low-density and

It is important to develop more attractive ready-to-eat products to contribute to the increased consumption of fruit and vegetable products and their health benefits for consumers. Food processing should be adapted to enhance the bioavailability of nutrients [108]. Additional information needs to be collected on the thermal behaviour of lycopene before we can have

= 35.2 kcal/mol and 23.1 kcal/mol, respectively) than that

‡ = 22.1 kcal/mol) and

= 16.8 to 19.9 kcal/mol) [106]. Furthermore, the stability of *5-cis*-

‡

irradiation with halogen lamp. In contrast, low rotational barrier (Δ*E*<sup>r</sup>

all*-trans* configuration is higher (Δ*E*<sup>r</sup>

‡

compared to the other lycopene isomers [106].

of all other isomers (Δ*E*<sup>r</sup>

66 Plants for the Future

pene extract [106].

high-density lipoproteins [104].

As was previously mentioned, tomatoes are one of the most widely produced and consumed 'vegetables' in the world, both for the fresh fruit market and the processed food industries. The tomato industry is one of the most globalised and advanced horticultural industries. Furthermore, tomato production has historically been located in temperate zones that have long summers and winter precipitation, but now, with new modern technologies (greenhouse structures, climate control, and crop protection), tomato production has expanded and is focused on the production of fresh tomatoes. However, cultivation practices, the ratio between production for processing or fresh consumption, and the organisation and structure of the industry and markets differ widely among countries. Further, tomatoes are harvested at different stages of ripeness for different purposes. Processing tomatoes are mechanically harvested red-ripe and immediately transported to a processing plant. Fruit destined for the fresh market is hand harvested at the mature green, partially ripe or fully ripe stages. Mature green fruits are picked because they are firm enough and have a sufficient shelf-life to survive the stress of being shipped considerable distances, and they are ripened to acceptable levels of quality at distant markets. Quality characteristics of fresh-market fruits are similar to those of processing tomatoes, but the characteristics that are readily apparent to the consumer (colour, size, shape, firmness, and aroma) dominate the others [110].

The industrial processing of tomato products produces waste such as tomato skins and seeds. Ripe tomato skins contain approximately five times more lycopene than the pulp. The largest portion of tomato waste is the peals which are the most abundant sources of lycopene. The lycopene content is over 90% in ripe tomato skin [106, 110]. Tomato waste is a potential natural source for lycopene extraction. One of the most important trends in the food industry is the demand for all-natural food ingredients that are free of toxic solvents and chemical additives. A unique process for the nontoxic, safe, and inexpensive extraction, separation, and concen‐ tration of lycopene is supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide (SCF CO2). SFE adds value to agricultural waste by extracting lycopene from tomato skins and using it for the fortification of foods and in pharmaceutical applications [110].

Studies have proposed that lycopene may work synergistically with other carotenoids, vitamins, and minerals present in the diet. Lycopene extracts and concentrates could be used not only in traditional food products but also as functional ingredients in specifically formu‐ lated foods and dietary supplements that enhance human health and wellbeing. Growth in consumer demand for healthier food products provides an opportunity for food industry to develop new functional foods enriched with natural lycopene, as well as for pharmaceutical industry to develop new nutraceutical products comprising pharmaceutical-grade lycopene [111, 112].
