**2. Plant genetic resources and people's livelihood**

#### **2.1. Global distribution of plant genetic resources**

resources. For thousands of years farmers have been domesticating plant species thereby developing a wide range of crop varieties adapted to specific needs and environmental conditions [3]. Over the past 100 years the importance of many crop species has decreased strongly and many adapted crop varieties diminished. The private agricultural sector in‐ creased significantly in both developed and developing countries during the past 20 years; however, the main focus of its interest has been high-value products, such as maize, wheat, rice, oil crops, pulse crops and vegetable crops [4]. Today, 30 crops provide 95% of human food energy needs, 12 crops together with five animal species deliver 75 % of the world's food today, and three of which, i.e. rice, wheat, and maize, are responsible for more than 60% of our energy intake [5]. Almost 90% of global vegetable oil is produced by four crops only; i.e. oil palm, soybean, oil seed rape and sunflower [6]. Nowadays, our food security depends on a tiny number of crops only; it is therefore essential to sustain a high genetic crop diversity for both coping with increasing environmental stresses and facilitating farmers and researchers with options to breed cultivars adapted to less favourable conditions, such as salinity, poor soils and extreme weather events and that can resist biotic stresses, such as pests and diseases [4].

Many studies and reports discuss the importance of plant genetic resources for crop production in view of climate change and their key role in adapting to adverse climatic conditions and, hence, for food security. Important is that underutilized or minor crops often harbour high levels of genetic diversity being maintained on-farm in small-scale farming systems; however they are relatively neglected by formal research and development strategies, including breeding programs. Results from Peru hosting a wealth of native agro-biodiversity including many underutilized crops indicated the potential of a breeding approach for indigenous Andean crops, based on a combination of evolutionary and participatory methods to reach a balance between yield improvement and maintenance of genetic diversity [7]. These authors also highlighted the importance for upscaling such activities but mentioned the need to address methodological, financial and institutional issues for further expansion. Such activities are particularly important for areas threatened by climate change and to safeguard local food production. A global analysis of climate risks for crops in 12 food-insecure regions indicated South Asia and Southern Africa as two regions that, without sufficient adaptation measures, are likely to suffer from negative impacts on several crops important to large food-insecure human populations [8]. Therefore, these areas need special attention in crop development and

Minor crops can be important at a local, regional and national level but are often neglected at an international level. They are staple foods, contributing to food supply in certain periods and to a nutritionally well-balanced diet but also supply raw materials such as oils, fibres and dyes, providing options for income generation. Plant genetic resources are sometimes also well adapted to marginal soil conditions, an important feature in face of climate change and increasing soil degradation in densely populated regions. Minor crops are neglected as their advantages are known only locally and due to lack of markets, infrastructure for processing, and international research activities. Their potential, however, is often only poorly addressed and the loss of plant genetic resources reduces current and future options for mitigation in the

breeding for food security based on local seed systems.

agricultural sector [3].

124 Agroecology

In general, the highest number of species of vascular plants is found in the humid tropics and subtropics [9]. The species number strongly declines from the tropics and subtropics towards the temperate and polar zone north and south of the equator, indicating that hotspots of biodiversity are mainly associated with warm and humid tropical conditions and pointing to the global importance of these zones. Biodiversity hotspots are also abundant in regions rich in orographic structure or high in geo-diversity such as mountains and coastal regions (Fig. 1). Biodiversity hotspots are also important in terms of agriculture as they often coincide with or are, at least, close to Vavilov's centres of origin and areas of agricultural development.

**Figure 1.** Biodiversity hotspots, Vavilov's centres of diversity, and centres of agricultural development. (Source: Image downloaded from Conservation International, 2013, modified)

In Africa, biodiversity hotspots are located in Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands, the Congo basin, the eastern Arc Mountains and coastal forests, Guinean forests of West Africa, the Cape floristic province of South Africa, and the succulent Karoo. In Asia, hotspots are found in the Caucasus, the fertile half-moon region, Sundaland, Wallacea, the Philippines, the Indo-Burma region, the mountains of South-Central China, the Western Ghats of India, and Sri Lanka. Other important areas of biodiversity are located in the Mediterranean basin, South-western Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and New Guinea and the Micronesian islands. Neotropical biodiversity hotspots are located in the tropical Andes, the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, the Atlantic forests, western Ecuador, the Chocó and Darién regions of northern South America, the Brazilian cerrados, central Chile, the upper Amazonia and Guyana shield, and the California floristic province. The estimat‐ ed number of vascular plant species in Neotropical biodiversity hotspots ranges from 2-3000 up to more than 5000 species per 10,000 km² [9].

#### **2.2. Plant genetic resources, minor crops and their potential in food, feed, fibre and fuel production**

Diversity plays an important role as agricultural biodiversity is connected to nutrition and food security. Therefore, the primary justification for the conservation of plant genetic resources was given as their importance for breeding of improved varieties of crops for food, fuels and medicines [10]. In a rapidly changing world as today, conditions enhancing the adaptability and, hence, the resilience of family farms is crucial to their viability. Here, biodiversity can help farmers manage risks from new pests and diseases but can also lessen the effects of sudden natural disasters. Diversity allows natural adaptation to the environment which is vital in the face of climate change. Diversity also diminishes the risk of crop loss and contributes to productive, healthy farms [5].

Human infiltration into the tropical lowland rainforests of the Americas was late and slow as highlands and savannahs were easier to explore. This led to a lesser exploration of its biodi‐ versity by mankind [11]. Nowadays, tropical rainforests of the Americas are esteemed as important biomes with regard to biodiversity, particularly when looking at industrial uses. Plant species originating from the Brazilian cerrado and Atlantic forest biomes provide promising bioactive secondary metabolites. These biologically active compounds are interest‐ ing for the pharmaceutical industry and present another option for a bio-products based income generation [12]. Palms originating from the Amazon lack key conditions for their sustainable management such as adoption of palm-climbing devices, not only for reducing wild palm felling but also for stimulating broader community-level conservation and efforts for their cultivation [13]. 'Improved extractivism' can be an appropriate way of growing wild plants, such as tucumã (*Astrocaryum* ssp.), a neotropical palm species rich in oil which can contribute to an increased farm income while increasing the economic value of disturbed areas in the central Amazon [14].

More than half the world's plant and animal species live in tropical forests. Hence, these biomes were often the cradle of food crops. The share of food crops derived from the tropics is high, estimated to be as much as 80%. They also provide genetic resources we will need if we are to produce new varieties, resistant to disease, insect pests, and climatic constrains, in the fight against world food shortages [15]. These biomes are also rich in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) important for developing new crops which include fruits and nuts, vegetables, fish and game, medicinal plants, resins, oils, essences, and a wide range of barks and fibres. Governments, conservation and development agencies and non-government organizations have encouraged their marketing and sale as a way of boosting income for poor people in the tropics and encouraging forest conservation. NTFPs are also of economic importance as basic raw material for various applications in industry, ranging from the development of new drugs against widespread diseases to bio-based compound composites [16].

hotspots are found in the Caucasus, the fertile half-moon region, Sundaland, Wallacea, the Philippines, the Indo-Burma region, the mountains of South-Central China, the Western Ghats of India, and Sri Lanka. Other important areas of biodiversity are located in the Mediterranean basin, South-western Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and New Guinea and the Micronesian islands. Neotropical biodiversity hotspots are located in the tropical Andes, the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, the Atlantic forests, western Ecuador, the Chocó and Darién regions of northern South America, the Brazilian cerrados, central Chile, the upper Amazonia and Guyana shield, and the California floristic province. The estimat‐ ed number of vascular plant species in Neotropical biodiversity hotspots ranges from 2-3000

**2.2. Plant genetic resources, minor crops and their potential in food, feed, fibre and fuel**

Diversity plays an important role as agricultural biodiversity is connected to nutrition and food security. Therefore, the primary justification for the conservation of plant genetic resources was given as their importance for breeding of improved varieties of crops for food, fuels and medicines [10]. In a rapidly changing world as today, conditions enhancing the adaptability and, hence, the resilience of family farms is crucial to their viability. Here, biodiversity can help farmers manage risks from new pests and diseases but can also lessen the effects of sudden natural disasters. Diversity allows natural adaptation to the environment which is vital in the face of climate change. Diversity also diminishes the risk of crop loss and

Human infiltration into the tropical lowland rainforests of the Americas was late and slow as highlands and savannahs were easier to explore. This led to a lesser exploration of its biodi‐ versity by mankind [11]. Nowadays, tropical rainforests of the Americas are esteemed as important biomes with regard to biodiversity, particularly when looking at industrial uses. Plant species originating from the Brazilian cerrado and Atlantic forest biomes provide promising bioactive secondary metabolites. These biologically active compounds are interest‐ ing for the pharmaceutical industry and present another option for a bio-products based income generation [12]. Palms originating from the Amazon lack key conditions for their sustainable management such as adoption of palm-climbing devices, not only for reducing wild palm felling but also for stimulating broader community-level conservation and efforts for their cultivation [13]. 'Improved extractivism' can be an appropriate way of growing wild plants, such as tucumã (*Astrocaryum* ssp.), a neotropical palm species rich in oil which can contribute to an increased farm income while increasing the economic value of disturbed areas

More than half the world's plant and animal species live in tropical forests. Hence, these biomes were often the cradle of food crops. The share of food crops derived from the tropics is high, estimated to be as much as 80%. They also provide genetic resources we will need if we are to produce new varieties, resistant to disease, insect pests, and climatic constrains, in the fight against world food shortages [15]. These biomes are also rich in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) important for developing new crops which include fruits and nuts, vegetables, fish

up to more than 5000 species per 10,000 km² [9].

contributes to productive, healthy farms [5].

in the central Amazon [14].

**production**

126 Agroecology

The potential of Amazon's biodiversity in view of the automotive industry was underlined during a conference held at Belem, Para, Brazil in 1996 [17]. In particular, oil, fibre and resin producing plants are interesting in car manufacturing. Research results and experiences using natural fibres from the Amazon indicated their potential as reinforcement in composites for vehicles [18]. One of the tested fibres was curauá (*Ananas lucidus* syn. *A. erectifolius*), a hardfibre producing bromeliad. Its fibre is well suited to substitute glass fibre in various parts of cars and trucks. Attempts to improve its productivity, harvest and processing, and to identify best agricultural practice were initiated [19-21]; however bridging the gap between needs of smallholders and industry improving the understanding of each other's bottlenecks was not possible due to a lack of both, use of participatory approaches and long-term commitment of the donor.
