**4.2. Disasters and resilience in IGAD region**

As mentioned before the region is riddled with conflicts of different types and causes and it is considered one of the hotspot areas in Africa and even at global dimension. However, the region is also facing other severe problems of food insecurity and poverty. The populations of the region have endured many inter-state and intra-state armed conflicts during the postindependence era. The region was by no means peaceful before the era of decolonization. During the period between 1800s and the era of decolonization, for example, it experienced many wars, which revolved mostly around state formation and empire building; slave raids, control of resources, and trade routes; resistance to colonization and the liberation struggle [32]. This implies that, the region is historically well prepared to fall in conflicts, particularly when other factors such as the undefined borders which were considered as time bombs

The region's post-independence conflicts can be classified into six categories, including direct and indirect inter-state wars and armed conflicts; cross-border inter-communal conflicts; civil wars and civil conflicts; conflicts among rebel group over differences of political programmes and power struggle; intra-state inter-communal conflicts; and one-sided violence perpetrated upon civilians by the state or other armed political groups [32]. The allocation, use and management of natural resources such as water, fertile land, pasture land, trees but also oil, lead to large internal and international tensions in virtually all countries of the Horn of Africa. Through political tensions and grievances about the loss of livelihoods among farmers,

The major economic driver of this region is crop and animal agriculture. However, a large proportion (60-70%) of the landmass in the IGAD region is covered by arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) and experiences prolonged drought and unpredictable rainfall patterns (less than 400 mm of rainfall annually). The region is also characterized by chronic conflicts at national or cross border levels. These conflicts are often linked to scarceness of natural resources (water,

Agriculture is the core economic sector of the IGAD Member States. It contributes on average about 15% to the national GDPs and employs about 75% of the population in the region. Due to this, the performance of the agricultural sector is the key determinant of annual changes in

The predominant livelihood system in the region is pastoral and agro-pastoral production. On average, livestock contributes 57% of the agricultural GDP in the IGAD region. This makes livestock a key contributor to the economies of the IGAD Member States. The nomadic lifestyle of the pastoralists involves a constant search for pasture and freshwater resources. Pastoralism cuts across national boundaries, frequently causing conflicts and necessitating a regional approaches to and collective action from the affected governments. Pastoralism as practiced in the IGAD region is both an economic and a social system that is highly dependent on the rearing of livestock. Livestock are core to pastoral livelihoods and pastoral identity and livestock and livestock products contribute significantly as the main sources of food and income in pastoral households. Sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys are the predominant livestock holdings. Despite, the abundance of livestock in the pastoral areas, the pastoralist communities across the region remain among the most marginalized and face common

pastoralists and fishermen, regional insecurity is rapidly increasing. [13].

triggering conflicts here and there.

12 Agroecology

rangelands) and competition over their use.

the poverty and food security levels in the region.

A global report on disaster hotspots [44], hundreds of disasters occur worldwide each year in locations without sufficient local capacity or resources to prevent death and destruction and to support rapid recovery. According to this report, disaster is defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environment losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.

Globally, climate change is projected to increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events like droughts and floods. The worst food crisis in 2011 in East Africa has been caused according to Oxfam report [45] by people and policies, as much as by weather patterns. An adequate response to the current crisis must not only meet urgent humanitarian needs, but also address the following problems:


#### **4.3. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD): Background**

The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is the Regional Economic Com‐ munity (REC) of the States of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan and Uganda. IGAD is recognized as one of the Regional Economic Community (REC) that is African Union's building blocks for regional and continental social and economic integration. The IGAD region is a large area occupying about 5.2 million Sq. Km and has a population of about 230 million people growing at a rate of 2.6%. This population constitutes about 20% of the African continent's population. This large economic bloc has great strategic and geopolit‐ ical significance and prospects for the people of the Eastern African region.

IGAD was established in 1986 as the Inter Governmental Authority on Drought and Devel‐ opment (IGADD) to coordinate the efforts of the member states in combating desertification and promoting efforts to mitigate the effects of drought. Then, in 1996 at an extra-ordinary Summit, the Heads of State and Government resolved to re-vitalize the Authority and to expand its mandate to cover political as well as economic issues. Consequently, the Authority was re-named the Inter Governmental Authority on Development with new expanded mandate.

In terms of structure, IGAD consists of four principal bodies, with its head quarter in Djibouti. These principal bodies are Assembly of Heads of State and Government, Council of Ministers, Committee of Ambassadors, and the Secretariat. The Secretariat is the executive arm of the Authority and is headed by an Executive Secretary. The Secretariat in addition to the Office of the Executive Secretary has four divisions, namely Agriculture and Environment, Economic Cooperation and Social Development, Political and Humanitarian Affairs, and Administration and Finance Division. To more effectively implementing its expanded mandate particularly at country and community levels, IGAD has established several institutions and specialized centers of excellence, including the IGAD Climate Prediction and Application Centre (ICPAC), Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN), Sheikh Technical Veterinary School (STVS) and IGAD Centre for Pastoral Areas and Livestock Development (ICPALD). There are also IGAD programs, including IGAD Capacity Building Program Against Terror‐ ism (ICPAT), IGAD Regional HIV and AIDS Partnership Program (IRAPP), and IGAD Political Offices.

#### **4.4. IGAD region: Country profiles**

#### *4.4.1. Djibouti*

Djibouti is a small country strategically located in the Horn of Africa to the southern tip of the Red Sea. It covers an area of 23,300 Km2 and is bordered by Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. This country was created in the 19th century by France after the opening of Suez Canal in 1869. The opening of a rail link with Addis Ababa in 1917 further increased Djibouti's role as a transit station for both passengers and freight. Djibouti gained independence from France in 1977. Today it is still functions as a major port, transit and communication hub for the Horn of Africa [46]. The coastline which plays a major role in Djibouti's economy, is 314 Km long. The majority of the country is defined as desert and consequently the climate is torrid and dry throughout most of the country [47]. From May to September the climate is particularly hot with daily temperatures of approximately 40°C (104° F). Mid October to Mid April is considered to be cooler season with temperatures averaging about 25°C (77°F) in addition to being the time that there is occasional rain. Djibouti has three distinct geographic areas: the coastal plains which are emphasized by white sandy beaches; the volcanic plateau in the southern and central parts of the country; and in the north, the mountain ranges where the elevation can be as high as 2000 metres above the sea level. While most of the terrain is desert, there are some pockets of forest and dense vegetation in the north [48]. The country is divided into five administrative districts: Djibouti, Ali-Sabieh, Dikhil, Tadjoura, and Obock. It represents a country with relative political stability, economic freedom, and modern financial, transport and communi‐ cation infrastructure in an otherwise underdeveloped region which is subject to recurrent civil unrest and economic uncertainty [46].

The population of Djibouti is estimated to be 923,000 persons, comprised of two main ethnic groups; the Afars (related to tribes in Eastern Ethiopia) and the Issas (related to tribes in northern Somalia). As well as small portion of other mixed ethnical groups. Two thirds of its population lives in the urban sites mainly in the capital town of Djibouti. Djibouti's economy is characterized by extreme duality, as it is divided between a modern outward-looking urban commercial sector and a rural, subsistence-based pastoralist economy which has little access to infrastructure, services and markets. The economy mainly depends on external sources and service sectoris. With its few natural resources and low rainfall, Djibouti has limited possibil‐ ities for agricultural production. Activities in the primary sector therefore make a negligible contribution to the national economy although are extremely important at the rural level, where livestock forms the basis of household livelihoods. The secondary sector, industry and manufacturing are poorly developed because of small domestic market, lack of locally available raw materials and a largely untrained labour force. As compared to other Sub-Saharan countries, where economic planning is central with non-liberal economies, Djibouti has no system of central economic planning and the economic structure is highly liberalized. Major industries include water bottling company, animal feed factory, slaughterhouse and dairy products plant. This is in addition to urban development, transport and communications. The private sector has given some official incentives to encourage investment [46]. The nature of dualism in the economy is explained by having a modern economic rent generating economy coexist alongside an informal economy. The informal economy constitutes a major proportion of the economic activities and provides livelihoods for much of the Djibouti population.

Djibouti adopted its first poverty reduction strategic paper in May 2004, with an incidence of extreme monetary poverty rising from 34.5% in 1996 to 42.2% in 2002. Then many efforts were adopted after the implementation of the strategy and there is significant progress reported. Some improvements in the growth rates of the GDP and social indicators were reported over the period 2004 – 2006. Despite this encouraging progress, the evaluation report mentioned that the priority actions included in the poverty reduction strategic paper have not been satisfactorily implemented [50].

According to table 4, Djibouti's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.467, with a rank of 170 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.


**Table 4.** Djibouti's HDI trends 1980-2013

Summit, the Heads of State and Government resolved to re-vitalize the Authority and to expand its mandate to cover political as well as economic issues. Consequently, the Authority was re-named the Inter Governmental Authority on Development with new expanded

In terms of structure, IGAD consists of four principal bodies, with its head quarter in Djibouti. These principal bodies are Assembly of Heads of State and Government, Council of Ministers, Committee of Ambassadors, and the Secretariat. The Secretariat is the executive arm of the Authority and is headed by an Executive Secretary. The Secretariat in addition to the Office of the Executive Secretary has four divisions, namely Agriculture and Environment, Economic Cooperation and Social Development, Political and Humanitarian Affairs, and Administration and Finance Division. To more effectively implementing its expanded mandate particularly at country and community levels, IGAD has established several institutions and specialized centers of excellence, including the IGAD Climate Prediction and Application Centre (ICPAC), Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN), Sheikh Technical Veterinary School (STVS) and IGAD Centre for Pastoral Areas and Livestock Development (ICPALD). There are also IGAD programs, including IGAD Capacity Building Program Against Terror‐ ism (ICPAT), IGAD Regional HIV and AIDS Partnership Program (IRAPP), and IGAD Political

Djibouti is a small country strategically located in the Horn of Africa to the southern tip of the

country was created in the 19th century by France after the opening of Suez Canal in 1869. The opening of a rail link with Addis Ababa in 1917 further increased Djibouti's role as a transit station for both passengers and freight. Djibouti gained independence from France in 1977. Today it is still functions as a major port, transit and communication hub for the Horn of Africa [46]. The coastline which plays a major role in Djibouti's economy, is 314 Km long. The majority of the country is defined as desert and consequently the climate is torrid and dry throughout most of the country [47]. From May to September the climate is particularly hot with daily temperatures of approximately 40°C (104° F). Mid October to Mid April is considered to be cooler season with temperatures averaging about 25°C (77°F) in addition to being the time that there is occasional rain. Djibouti has three distinct geographic areas: the coastal plains which are emphasized by white sandy beaches; the volcanic plateau in the southern and central parts of the country; and in the north, the mountain ranges where the elevation can be as high as 2000 metres above the sea level. While most of the terrain is desert, there are some pockets of forest and dense vegetation in the north [48]. The country is divided into five administrative districts: Djibouti, Ali-Sabieh, Dikhil, Tadjoura, and Obock. It represents a country with relative political stability, economic freedom, and modern financial, transport and communi‐ cation infrastructure in an otherwise underdeveloped region which is subject to recurrent civil

and is bordered by Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. This

mandate.

14 Agroecology

Offices.

*4.4.1. Djibouti*

**4.4. IGAD region: Country profiles**

Red Sea. It covers an area of 23,300 Km2

unrest and economic uncertainty [46].

Djibouti's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development group and of 0.682 for countries in the Arab States [43].

As well, Djibouti earns rents from several foreign military bases especially French and American ones, alongside considerable bilateral assistance aimed at fighting endemic poverty [50]. The country is faced by several environmental and biodiversity threats such as poverty, decreasing vegetation, overgrazing, deforestation, increased development around the coastal zones, depletion of mangrove forests, and continuous loss of wildlife habitat [46].

#### *4.4.2. Eritrea*

Eritrea is situated along the western coast of the Red Sea and has a total land area of about 124,000 km2 . The climate ranges from hot arid in the lowlands to temperate sub-humid in the highlands [51]. Eritrea is the Italian form of the Greek name *Erythraia,* meaning "red land". With its capital at Asmara, it is bordered by Sudan to the West, Ethiopia in the south and Djibouti in the east. It is a multi-ethnic country, with nine recognized ethnic groups [52].

According to IFAD [51], Eritrea is a country emerging from a dual crisis of war (1998 -2000) and an unprecedented series of drought (2000-2003). It has unable to build its institutions, suffer from financial constraints and has large number of internally displaced persons, returnees and demobilized soldiers due to those crises [51]. Eritrea population is estimated as 6,130,922 persons, and according to the World Bank ranking, it is classified as low income country. Eritrea has faced considerable challenges over the years, including variable climate conditions. This has been compounded by restrictive economic policies, political isolation, a significant decline in remittances and scarcity of foreign exchange.

The real GDP growth for 2013 fell sharply to 1.1% from 7%, the previous year and is projected to increase marginally to 1.9% in 2014. This growth will largely be driven by copper production at the Bisha mine; the start of gold production at the Zara mine project in 2014; and continued exploration activity and investment in the mining sector. In the medium term, Eritrea sees further prospects in oil production, fisheries and tourism [53]. The economy remains largely managed with the government active in most sectors. Despite on-going efforts to promote more private sector participation in the economy, performance remains sub-optimal. The economy continues to suffer from the effects of the border conflicts, the country's vulnerability to external shocks and the persistent foreign exchange shortages, which are fueling macro‐ economic imbalances and hampering growth [54].

As far as regional integration is important for Eritrea as for other countries as well, it is currently a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the Community for Sahel - Saharan States, New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and the IGAD. This is in addition to some bilateral investment agreements. It is also gradually renewing its engagement with the wider international community [53].

According to table 5, Eritrea's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.381, with a rank of 182 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.


#### **Table 5.** Eritrea's HDI trends 1980-2013

Eritrea's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

#### *4.4.3. Ethiopia*

Djibouti's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development

As well, Djibouti earns rents from several foreign military bases especially French and American ones, alongside considerable bilateral assistance aimed at fighting endemic poverty [50]. The country is faced by several environmental and biodiversity threats such as poverty, decreasing vegetation, overgrazing, deforestation, increased development around the coastal

Eritrea is situated along the western coast of the Red Sea and has a total land area of about

highlands [51]. Eritrea is the Italian form of the Greek name *Erythraia,* meaning "red land". With its capital at Asmara, it is bordered by Sudan to the West, Ethiopia in the south and Djibouti in the east. It is a multi-ethnic country, with nine recognized ethnic groups [52].

According to IFAD [51], Eritrea is a country emerging from a dual crisis of war (1998 -2000) and an unprecedented series of drought (2000-2003). It has unable to build its institutions, suffer from financial constraints and has large number of internally displaced persons, returnees and demobilized soldiers due to those crises [51]. Eritrea population is estimated as 6,130,922 persons, and according to the World Bank ranking, it is classified as low income country. Eritrea has faced considerable challenges over the years, including variable climate conditions. This has been compounded by restrictive economic policies, political isolation, a

The real GDP growth for 2013 fell sharply to 1.1% from 7%, the previous year and is projected to increase marginally to 1.9% in 2014. This growth will largely be driven by copper production at the Bisha mine; the start of gold production at the Zara mine project in 2014; and continued exploration activity and investment in the mining sector. In the medium term, Eritrea sees further prospects in oil production, fisheries and tourism [53]. The economy remains largely managed with the government active in most sectors. Despite on-going efforts to promote more private sector participation in the economy, performance remains sub-optimal. The economy continues to suffer from the effects of the border conflicts, the country's vulnerability to external shocks and the persistent foreign exchange shortages, which are fueling macro‐

As far as regional integration is important for Eritrea as for other countries as well, it is currently a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the Community for Sahel - Saharan States, New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and the IGAD. This is in addition to some bilateral investment agreements. It is also gradually renewing its

According to table 5, Eritrea's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.381, with a rank of 182 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.

significant decline in remittances and scarcity of foreign exchange.

economic imbalances and hampering growth [54].

engagement with the wider international community [53].

. The climate ranges from hot arid in the lowlands to temperate sub-humid in the

zones, depletion of mangrove forests, and continuous loss of wildlife habitat [46].

group and of 0.682 for countries in the Arab States [43].

*4.4.2. Eritrea*

16 Agroecology

124,000 km2

In an area of 104300 km2 , Ethiopia is bordered by five countries, namely Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya and Eritrea. Its population which represent second largest one in Sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria, is estimated at 85900 million persons in 2013, of which about 81.8% live in rural areas. Of the total population, about 73.5% are 14 years old or young‐ er, 79.1% portion represent the economically active population in agriculture, and about 81.8% live in rural areas [40].

Ethiopia is culturally and biologically diverse, with a diverse mix of ethnic and linguistic background; and more than 80 ethnic groups, each with its own language, and about 200 dialects, culture and tradition. It has extremely varied topography, characterized by highland complex of mountains and bisected plateau. Then surrounding the highlands is the lowland grazing areas that form a wide apron surrounding the highland massif and part of the Great Rift Valley [55].

Poverty in Ethiopia is wide spread and multifaceted. The proportion of the population below the poverty line is 77.6% in 2005 and the Gini's index is 29.8%. However, now the government has formulated a five year growth and transformation plan (201 -2105) to eradicate poverty. This plan envisages that besides maintaining a fast growing economy, better results will be realized in all sectors. During this plan period special emphasis will be given to agricultural and rural development, industry, rural infrastructure, social and human development, good governance and democratization [56].

According to table 6, Ethiopia's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.435, with a rank of 173 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.


**Table 6.** Ethiopia's HDI trends 1980-2013

Ethiopia's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

### *4.4.4. Kenya*

The republic of Kenya is a country in the African Great Lakes region of East Africa. It lies on the equator with the Indian Ocean to the south-east, Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia to the north-east. It covers about 581,509 km2 and has a population of 44,354,000 persons in 2013 according to the African statistical Yearbook [40]. Kenya has a warm, humid, climate along its Indian Ocean coastline, with wildlife rich savannah grasslands inlands towards the capital. Nairobi, the capital has a cool climate which becomes colder towards Mount Kenya. Further inland there is a warm and humid climate around Lake Victoria, and temperate forested and hilly areas in the western region. The long northeastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas. Lake Victoria, the world's second largest fresh water lake, is situated to the southwest and is shared with Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya, along with Uganda and Tanzania is famous for its safaris and diverse wildlife reserves and national parks [57].

Topographically,Kenya rises froma low coastalplainonthe IndianOceanina series ofplateaus to more than 3000 metres in the centre of the country. All inland regions of semi-arid, bush covered plains constitute most of the country's land area (nearly 70%-80%). In the northwest there isLakeTurkana andKulalMountains.Inthe southwestlie the fertile grasslands andforest of the Kenya Highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions on Africa. North of Nairobi, the Kenya Highlands is bisected by the Great Rift Valley, an irregular depression that cuts through western Kenya from north to south in two branches [58].

Population in Kenya, is 41800, about 39.6% aged 14 years and less, 49.5% aged in a range of 15-64 years, while the rest represents 65+ years group. Of the total population, about 67.7% live in rural areas [40]. People of African descent make up about 97% of the population in Kenya and they are divided into 40 ethnic groups. The Kikuyu who make up to 22% of the population constitute Kenya's largest ethnic group. The next largest groups are Luhya (14%), Luo (13%), Kalengin (12%) and Kamba (11%). Small numbers of people of Indian, Pakistani, and European descent live in the interior and there are some Arabs along the coast [58].

Kenya's Growth Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate is estimated at 4.9% in 2013 and it is estimated at current market prices at US\$ 44850 million and with a rate of US\$1011 per capita [40]. The economy of Kenya is market-based, with some state-owned infrastructure enterpris‐ es, and maintains a liberalized external trade system. The economy's heavy dependence on rain-fed agriculture and the tourism sector leaves it vulnerable to cycles of boom and bust [58]. The proportion of the population below the poverty line is 19.7% in 2005 and the Gini's index is 0.4% in 2009 [43]. However, according to IFAD [59], while Kenya is on the path to economic growth, poverty reduction remains a challenge. More than three quarters of the population lives in rural areas, and rural households rely on agriculture for most of their income. About 70% of the poor are in the central and western regions, living in areas that have medium to high potential to agriculture. Poverty and food insecurity are acute in arid and semi-arid lands which have been severely affected by recurrent droughts. Rural poverty in Kenya is also strongly linked to environmental concerns, especially poor water management, soil erosion, declining soil fertility, and land degradation [59].

According to table 7, Kenya's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.535, with a rank of 147 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.


Source: Human development Report, UNDP, 2014 [43]

#### **Table 7.** Kenya's HDI trends 1980-2013

Kenya's HDI is above the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

#### *4.4.5. Somalia*

**Year Life expectancy at birth Expected years of schooling HDI value** 43.8 3.2 NA 46.9 3.1 NA 52.2 4.3 0.284 61.5 8.2 0.409 63.6 (+19.8) 8.5 (+5.3) 0.435 (+53.2%)

Ethiopia's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development

The republic of Kenya is a country in the African Great Lakes region of East Africa. It lies on the equator with the Indian Ocean to the south-east, Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia to the north-east. It covers

statistical Yearbook [40]. Kenya has a warm, humid, climate along its Indian Ocean coastline, with wildlife rich savannah grasslands inlands towards the capital. Nairobi, the capital has a cool climate which becomes colder towards Mount Kenya. Further inland there is a warm and humid climate around Lake Victoria, and temperate forested and hilly areas in the western region. The long northeastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas. Lake Victoria, the world's second largest fresh water lake, is situated to the southwest and is shared with Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya, along with Uganda and Tanzania

Topographically,Kenya rises froma lowcoastalplainonthe IndianOceanina series ofplateaus to more than 3000 metres in the centre of the country. All inland regions of semi-arid, bush covered plains constitute most of the country's land area (nearly 70%-80%). In the northwest there isLakeTurkana andKulalMountains.Inthe southwestlie the fertile grasslands andforest of the Kenya Highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions on Africa. North of Nairobi, the Kenya Highlands is bisected by the Great Rift Valley, an irregular

Population in Kenya, is 41800, about 39.6% aged 14 years and less, 49.5% aged in a range of 15-64 years, while the rest represents 65+ years group. Of the total population, about 67.7% live in rural areas [40]. People of African descent make up about 97% of the population in Kenya and they are divided into 40 ethnic groups. The Kikuyu who make up to 22% of the population constitute Kenya's largest ethnic group. The next largest groups are Luhya (14%), Luo (13%), Kalengin (12%) and Kamba (11%). Small numbers of people of Indian, Pakistani, and European descent live in the interior and there are some Arabs along the coast [58].

depression that cuts through western Kenya from north to south in two branches [58].

is famous for its safaris and diverse wildlife reserves and national parks [57].

and has a population of 44,354,000 persons in 2013 according to the African

Source: Human development Report, UNDP, 2014 [43]

group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

**Table 6.** Ethiopia's HDI trends 1980-2013

*4.4.4. Kenya*

18 Agroecology

about 581,509 km2

Somalia is a country located in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Kenya to the southwest. It has the longest coastline on the continent's main lands, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically hot conditions prevail year-round, with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall [60].

The population of Somalia is estimated at 10496 persons, out of which about 47.2% aged 14 years and below, 49.9% aged 15-64 years, while the rest comprise the elderly group (65+) [43]. The majority of the population is ethnic Somalis who have historically inhabited the northern part of the country. Other minorities inhabited the southern part of it [60]. The Somalis are a culturally, linguistically and religiously homogenous people who are divided along clan lines and sparsely scattered over a harsh dry land. The majority of Somalis trace their genealogical origin to the mythical founding father, Samaale or Samaal. However, genealogy constitutes the heart of the Somali social system [61].

A report by UNDP [62] illustrated that Somalia is at a crossroads due to this complex and protracted conflict. The south central region has experienced years of fighting and lawlessness, while the north-east and north-west have achieved a fragile semblance of peace and stability [62]. According to the African Development Bank country brief on Somalia (2013), the country, after more than two decades of civil conflict, is at a turning point in terms of positive political and security developments as well as the commitment of the international community for a sustainable resolution of the protracted crisis in the country. The outlook is more positive than it has been in a generation. However, the situation remains extremely fragile, joint and concerted domestic and international efforts need to be sustained and enhanced to ensure national reconciliation, durable peace, stability and state building [63]. A powerful new vision for Somalia is required, one oriented around building an inclusive peace society, where all people feel empowered, and have the capabilities and opportunities to improve their lives [62].

Somalia is still characterized by a severe lack of basic economic and social statistics. The situation has been worsened by two decades of conflict and the resulting collapse of the country's institutions. The common feature in the structure of the economy of the three subentities of Somalia is the predominance of agriculture and livestock as means of livelihood. As well the economy is dominated by the informal sector, in that the economy is based on international trade networks controlled by small groups of wealthy businessmen [63]. Somalia has suffered severe consequences from conflict, as reflected in the indices developed by the Global Human Development Report [62]. In 2011, two consecutive years of failed rainy seasons in the Horn of Africa and the absence of drought mitigation mechanisms resulted in the worst famine and vast humanitarian crisis in the last sixty years in Somalia and the Horn of Africa [63]. This famine signifies an increasingly dismal future, if approaches to both conflict and development do not significantly change. Somalia's Human Development Index (HDI) value is strikingly low at 0.285, which will be further worse, if one accounts for the level of inequality in the distribution of income, education and health. Gender inequality is alarmingly high at 0.776 out of a value of one (complete inequality). In terms of measuring deprivation related to poverty, Somalia's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) of 0.47 out of one would place it at 94 out of 104 countries in 2010. An estimated 82% of Somalis are considered poor across multiple dimensions. The divide between rural and urban population is significant – 61% and 94% respectively. In south central Somalia, 89% of people are poor, across several dimensions, compared to 75% in Puntland, and 72% in Somaliland [62].

#### *4.4.6. South Sudan*

South Sudan is a country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. It is bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya to the southeast, Uganda to the south, the Democratic Republic of Congo to the southwest, and the Central African Republic to the west. South Sudan lies between latitudes 3 and 13 degrees north and longitudes 24 and 36 degrees east. It is covered in tropical forests, swamps, and grasslands [64].

Population in South Sudan, is 11,300,000 persons, and has area of 640,000 km2 [40]. Of the total population, 15.9% represent those aged 14 and below, 3.5% those who aged 65 and above and the rest comprise the age group of 15 – 64 years. Also about 82.6% of the total population lives in rural areas [43]. South Sudan is historically divided into three provin‐ ces: Great Upper Nile, Bahr el Ghazal and Equatoria. For administrative purposes the country is separated into ten states which are then further broken down into 86 counties. The majority of the population continues to live in rural areas, although the urban population of the state capital is steadily increasing. The country's history is the history of competition for natural resources and for influence among different tribes, religions, political factions and colonial powers [65]. South Sudan is potentially rich in natural resources; however, its development was neglected during the colonial period. On the eve of the independence of the whole former Sudan in 1956, the first war broke out. It ended with Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972. Failure of socio-economic development in the postfirst war period contributed to the outbreak of the second war in 1983 [66].

### *4.4.7. Sudan*

part of the country. Other minorities inhabited the southern part of it [60]. The Somalis are a culturally, linguistically and religiously homogenous people who are divided along clan lines and sparsely scattered over a harsh dry land. The majority of Somalis trace their genealogical origin to the mythical founding father, Samaale or Samaal. However, genealogy constitutes

A report by UNDP [62] illustrated that Somalia is at a crossroads due to this complex and protracted conflict. The south central region has experienced years of fighting and lawlessness, while the north-east and north-west have achieved a fragile semblance of peace and stability [62]. According to the African Development Bank country brief on Somalia (2013), the country, after more than two decades of civil conflict, is at a turning point in terms of positive political and security developments as well as the commitment of the international community for a sustainable resolution of the protracted crisis in the country. The outlook is more positive than it has been in a generation. However, the situation remains extremely fragile, joint and concerted domestic and international efforts need to be sustained and enhanced to ensure national reconciliation, durable peace, stability and state building [63]. A powerful new vision for Somalia is required, one oriented around building an inclusive peace society, where all people feel empowered, and have the capabilities and opportunities to improve their lives [62].

Somalia is still characterized by a severe lack of basic economic and social statistics. The situation has been worsened by two decades of conflict and the resulting collapse of the country's institutions. The common feature in the structure of the economy of the three subentities of Somalia is the predominance of agriculture and livestock as means of livelihood. As well the economy is dominated by the informal sector, in that the economy is based on international trade networks controlled by small groups of wealthy businessmen [63]. Somalia has suffered severe consequences from conflict, as reflected in the indices developed by the Global Human Development Report [62]. In 2011, two consecutive years of failed rainy seasons in the Horn of Africa and the absence of drought mitigation mechanisms resulted in the worst famine and vast humanitarian crisis in the last sixty years in Somalia and the Horn of Africa [63]. This famine signifies an increasingly dismal future, if approaches to both conflict and development do not significantly change. Somalia's Human Development Index (HDI) value is strikingly low at 0.285, which will be further worse, if one accounts for the level of inequality in the distribution of income, education and health. Gender inequality is alarmingly high at 0.776 out of a value of one (complete inequality). In terms of measuring deprivation related to poverty, Somalia's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) of 0.47 out of one would place it at 94 out of 104 countries in 2010. An estimated 82% of Somalis are considered poor across multiple dimensions. The divide between rural and urban population is significant – 61% and 94% respectively. In south central Somalia, 89% of people are poor, across several dimensions,

South Sudan is a country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. It is bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya to the southeast, Uganda to the south, the Democratic Republic of Congo to the southwest, and the Central African

compared to 75% in Puntland, and 72% in Somaliland [62].

*4.4.6. South Sudan*

the heart of the Somali social system [61].

20 Agroecology

Sudan, the third largest country in Africa, has an area of 1,886,068 km2 (181 million hectare). It is bordered by Egypt to north, the Red Sea, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest. The Nile River divides the country into eastern and western halves. Along this Nile numerous ancient civilizations were evolved [67].

Sudan geography, like its history, appears to be dominated by the Nile. Most of the population lives along the river, the major cities, industry, wealth and power are all concentrated there. Greater Khartoum, at the junction of Blue and White Niles – comprising the three cities of Khartoum, Khartoum North and Omdurman is overwhelming the larger urban centre in the country. Sudan geography is the product of political and historical factors, as well as, condi‐ tions imposed by nature [68]. Population in Sudan, is 36164, about 54.6% aged 14 years and less, 42.0% aged in a range of 15-64 years, while the rest represents 65+ years group. Of the total population, about 65.2% live in rural areas [40].

According to the World Bank report on Sudan [69] Sudan holds the potential to be a regional economic powerhouse. The largest economy in the greater eastern Africa region, it has abundant fertile land and livestock, a reasonable manufacturing base, and strategic market location at the crossroads of sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. Oil discovery and export in the last decade fueled unprecedented growth (GDP grew more than six-fold from 1999 to 2010). However, much of this potential has not been realized due to long-running conflict and governance challenges; and the gains of the last growth decade have not advanced productive public investment that contributes to poverty reduction, or been widely shared [70]. During 1970-90 the real GDP growth rate fell below -5% in six years (1972, 1978, 1979, 1984, 1985, and 1990) and exceeded 10% in four years (1974, 1975, 1976, and 1987). In contrast, the growth rate has hovered within 5-11% range during 1999-2008 periods [74]. Currently, Sudan's Growth Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate is estimated at 3.6% in 2013 and it is estimated at current market prices at US\$ 70,463,000 and with a rate of US\$1,856 per capita [40].

According to table 8, Sudan's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.473, with a rank of 166 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.


#### Source: Human development Report, UNDP, 2014 [43]

#### **Table 8.** Sudan's HDI trends 1980-2013

Sudan's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

According to the World Bank report (2013) gender disparities remain persistent in Sudan. Women comprise only23% of the formal economy, but 70% of the informal economy, with a majority of them engaged in agricultural production. On the other hand, despite those ten years of oil boom, Sudan continues to suffer wide and deep swaths of poverty and stark inequality between regions [69].

#### *4.4.8. Uganda*

Uganda is a landlocked country in east Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Republic Democratic of the Congo, to the southwest by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, shared with Kenya and Tanzania, situating the country in the African Great Lakes region. Uganda also lies within the Nile basin, and has a varied but generally equatorial climate. Uganda takes its name from Buganda Kingdom, and beginning in the late 1800s, the area was ruled by the British, who established administrative law across the territory. Uganda gained independence in 1962. The period since then, has been marked by intermittent conflicts, most recently a lengthy civil war against the Lord' Resistance Army, which has caused tens of thousands of causalities and displaced more than million people [71].

Population in Uganda, is 35357, about 50.9% aged 14 years and less, 47.7% aged in a range of 15-64 years, while the rest (1.4%), represents 65+ years group. Of the total population, about 81.9% live in rural areas. Uganda, in 2013 had a GDP of US\$ 23,459,000 and a per capita income of US\$ 624,000 and the GDP growth was at 5.2% rate [40].

According to table 9, Uganda's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.484, with a rank of 164 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.


Source: Human development Report, UNDP, 2014 [43]

**Table 9.** Uganda's HDI trends 1980-2013

Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate is estimated at 3.6% in 2013 and it is estimated at current

According to table 8, Sudan's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.473, with a rank of 166 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.

**Year Life expectancy at birth Expected years of schooling HDI value** 54.2 3.7 0.331 55.5 3.9 0.342 58.0 4.5 0.385 61.5 7.3 0.463 62.1 (+7.9) 7.3 (+3.6) 0.473 (+42.8%)

Sudan's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development

According to the World Bank report (2013) gender disparities remain persistent in Sudan. Women comprise only23% of the formal economy, but 70% of the informal economy, with a majority of them engaged in agricultural production. On the other hand, despite those ten years of oil boom, Sudan continues to suffer wide and deep swaths of poverty and stark

Uganda is a landlocked country in east Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Republic Democratic of the Congo, to the southwest by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, shared with Kenya and Tanzania, situating the country in the African Great Lakes region. Uganda also lies within the Nile basin, and has a varied but generally equatorial climate. Uganda takes its name from Buganda Kingdom, and beginning in the late 1800s, the area was ruled by the British, who established administrative law across the territory. Uganda gained independence in 1962. The period since then, has been marked by intermittent conflicts, most recently a lengthy civil war against the Lord' Resistance Army, which has

caused tens of thousands of causalities and displaced more than million people [71].

Population in Uganda, is 35357, about 50.9% aged 14 years and less, 47.7% aged in a range of 15-64 years, while the rest (1.4%), represents 65+ years group. Of the total population, about 81.9% live in rural areas. Uganda, in 2013 had a GDP of US\$ 23,459,000 and a per capita income

According to table 9, Uganda's Human Development Index (HDI) value for 2013 is 0.484, with a rank of 164 out of 187 countries and territories. The table shows also HDI trends since 1980.

market prices at US\$ 70,463,000 and with a rate of US\$1,856 per capita [40].

Source: Human development Report, UNDP, 2014 [43]

group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

of US\$ 624,000 and the GDP growth was at 5.2% rate [40].

**Table 8.** Sudan's HDI trends 1980-2013

inequality between regions [69].

*4.4.8. Uganda*

22 Agroecology

Uganda's HDI is below the average of 0.493 of the countries in the low human development group and of 0.502 for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [43].

Uganda's sustained growth over the past two decades has continued to be rewarded with strong poverty reduction. However, poverty remains mainly a rural phenomenon, with 34% of the rural population living the national poverty line. The poorest areas of the country are in the north, where poverty incidence is consistently above 40% and in many districts exceeds 60% [72].
