**4. IGAD region: A general background**

The easternmost part of the African continent is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. Some geographers considered the Horn of Africa is comprised of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti. Others include to it Sudan, Kenya and Uganda. Then due to the complexities in defining the region, some organizations apply the term Great Horn of Africa. Major Interna‐ tional Organizations including European Commission and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) use the term Horn of Africa to refer to the states of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda [13].

**Figure 1.** A map showing IGAD region

IGAD region or the so called horn of Africa according to Mengisteab [32] has an estimated total population of about 226.9 million in 2012 and a total area of 5,209,975 sq km the countries of the region are all members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), although Eritrea's membership in the regional body has been suspended since 2007, but now the country has applied for reinstatement. Two of the youngest countries of the region, Eritrea and South Sudan, were formed through secessions from Ethiopia in 1993 and from Sudan in 2011, respectively.

Tekle [33] has emphasized the issue of diversity and the fact that the countries of the region share certain characteristics. Among these characteristics he mentioned that their societies are divided along ethnic and religious lines, with political loyalities cut across state boundaries [33]. When recalling the pre-colonial history of the region, it had complex and diversified political structures or systems, and the societies were dynamic or there were changes or continuities [34]. One of the notable characteristics, according to Mengisteab, [32] the region is a mosaic of cultures with considerable ethnic diversity both regionally and within countries. If language can serve as a proxy for ethnic identity, the region is said to be home to some 340 languages. Lewis [35] reported that, Sudan (both north and south) is said to have 134 lan‐

guages, followed by Ethiopia with 89 languages, Kenya with 62, Uganda with 43, Eritrea with 9 and Djibouti with two local languages [35]. The countries of the region are also characterized by religious diversity with various denominations of Christianity and Islam coexisting, along with various forms of traditional religion. Many of the region's ethnic groups are also split across several countries by national boundaries established by colonialism. The Somali people, for example, live in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya. The Beja, Tigre and Rashiada live in Sudan and Eritrea. The Tigrigna, the Kunama and Shaho live in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia; the Oromo live in Ethiopia and Kenya, the Afar live in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti. The Luo are spread over Kenya, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and Eastern Congo, while the Luhya live in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania [32]. Michalopoulas and Elias [36] examined the impact of ethnic portioning on civil conflict and economic development in Africa. They found that, out of a total of 834 ethnicities, for 231 ethnic groups at least 10% of their historical homeland falls into more than one contemporary states. Then with a threshold of 20%, about 164 ethnicities have been portioned across the borders. Using regional data on civil wars in Africa (1970-2005), they found that, civil conflict is concentrated in the historical homelands of partitioned ethnicities. Also border areas populated by ethnic groups only modestly affected by the artificial border design also experience more conflict. Examining the effect of ethnic portioning on economic development, showed that development in the historical homeland of portioned ethnic groups is lower by almost a half, compared to nonportioned ethnic areas. However, this ethnic portioning was resulted from the pre-colonial artificial drawing of African political boundaries among European powers in the end of the 19th which led to the portioning of several ethnicities across African states [36]. The partition of ethnic groups into different countries often involves the disruption of social and cultural ties [32]. In the case of pastoral communities partition also implies disruption of economic process as it hinders the movements of groups who rely on regional ecosystems for survival [37]. However, despite these ethnical portioning and conflicts along the borders and border‐ lands, there is always hope that these borders and borderlands could be used as potential resources rather than triggering points of conflicts. Borders in Africa have generally been conceived as barriers [38]. But they have also been conceived as 'conduits of opportunities' [39]. Frequently, Horn of Africa is associated with natural and man-made catastrophes, which often have a cross-border dimension, and with violent border conflicts. Many local people as well as external observers perceive the arbitrary colonial borders as one of the causes for these conflicts. Four different types of resources could be extracted from state borders and border‐ lands. These are: first economic resources (cross border trade and smuggling), second, political resources (access to alternative centers of political power, trans-border political mobilization), third, identity resources (as security device in an inter-ethnic competition) and fourth, status and rights resources (citizenship and refugee status) [38].

**4. IGAD region: A general background**

8 Agroecology

**Figure 1.** A map showing IGAD region

2011, respectively.

Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda [13].

The easternmost part of the African continent is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. Some geographers considered the Horn of Africa is comprised of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti. Others include to it Sudan, Kenya and Uganda. Then due to the complexities in defining the region, some organizations apply the term Great Horn of Africa. Major Interna‐ tional Organizations including European Commission and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) use the term Horn of Africa to refer to the states of Djibouti, Eritrea,

IGAD region or the so called horn of Africa according to Mengisteab [32] has an estimated total population of about 226.9 million in 2012 and a total area of 5,209,975 sq km the countries of the region are all members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), although Eritrea's membership in the regional body has been suspended since 2007, but now the country has applied for reinstatement. Two of the youngest countries of the region, Eritrea and South Sudan, were formed through secessions from Ethiopia in 1993 and from Sudan in

Tekle [33] has emphasized the issue of diversity and the fact that the countries of the region share certain characteristics. Among these characteristics he mentioned that their societies are divided along ethnic and religious lines, with political loyalities cut across state boundaries [33]. When recalling the pre-colonial history of the region, it had complex and diversified political structures or systems, and the societies were dynamic or there were changes or continuities [34]. One of the notable characteristics, according to Mengisteab, [32] the region is a mosaic of cultures with considerable ethnic diversity both regionally and within countries. If language can serve as a proxy for ethnic identity, the region is said to be home to some 340 languages. Lewis [35] reported that, Sudan (both north and south) is said to have 134 lan‐

Addressing this challenge, IGAD Centre for Pastoral Areas and Livestock Development (ICPALD) is now implementing an intervention that will solve this problem. This intervention will include adopting a regional protocol for transhumance mobility which will enable such groups to maintain their economic, social and cultural ties across national boundaries. Such arrangements, according to Mengisteab [32], if absent will become a source of instability and major conflicts.

Another characteristic of the Horn of Africa countries is the dichotomy of modes of production that govern their economies. The modes of production operating in the region range from a capitalist sector symbolized by emerging stock markets and relatively advanced financial systems to subsistence farming and pastoral economic systems, which are essentially noncapitalistic [32].

Many people perceive the Horn of Africa as a doomed desert area, with clashes between tribes over food, cattle and water. Less people perceive it as a region endowed with great natural resources, an extraordinary variety of flora and fauna, and powerful people with very rich cultures, who have also proved to be well capable of realizing firm economic development [13]. Table 2 presents some characteristics of the region.


Source: Adapted from Mengisteab [32] and African Statistical Yearbook [40]

**Table 2.** Area and size of population of the countries of IGAD region

#### **4.1. Socio-economic conditions of IGAD region**

In the Horn of Africa, three out of four people reside in rural areas, and rely on subsistence production. Economic growth in the region averaged about 3% between 1965 and 1995, with a 3% population growth that led to a stagnation of per capita income at US\$ 223 at the end of the period compared to US\$ 491 in the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the second half of 1990's, most countries in the region experienced strong growth. The region grew by 4.4% between 1996 and 2000, and at 5.3% and 7.9% in the first and second half of 2000's respectively. The overall disappointing growth performance in the Horn of Africa has led to poor socioeconomic indicators [41].

Another characteristic of the Horn of Africa countries is the dichotomy of modes of production that govern their economies. The modes of production operating in the region range from a capitalist sector symbolized by emerging stock markets and relatively advanced financial systems to subsistence farming and pastoral economic systems, which are essentially non-

Many people perceive the Horn of Africa as a doomed desert area, with clashes between tribes over food, cattle and water. Less people perceive it as a region endowed with great natural resources, an extraordinary variety of flora and fauna, and powerful people with very rich cultures, who have also proved to be well capable of realizing firm economic development [13].

Area (sq. km) 23,200 117,600 1,105,300 580,367 637,657 640,000 1,886,068 241,038

873 6333 94101 44354 10496 11296 37964 37579

6.2 2.7 2.6 3.7 3.0 2.9 3.1

2.3 2.5 2.7 2.7 1.7 2.5 3.2

1.8 2.3 1.8 2.4 2.8 2.5 2.1 2.9

85.0 1,424.0 23977.0 8105.0 2,819.0 11,562.0 6,788.0

1,263 8,394 118,515 65,928 16,360 15,082 51,775 55,846.0

In the Horn of Africa, three out of four people reside in rural areas, and rely on subsistence production. Economic growth in the region averaged about 3% between 1965 and 1995, with a 3% population growth that led to a stagnation of per capita income at US\$ 223 at the end of

**South Sudan**

**Sudan Uganda**

capitalistic [32].

10 Agroecology

Population in 2013('000)

Population growth (1970-1990)

population growth (1990-2010)

Projected population growth (2010-2030)

Population in 1960

Population projections for

2030

Table 2 presents some characteristics of the region.

**Item Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Somalia**

Source: Adapted from Mengisteab [32] and African Statistical Yearbook [40]

**Table 2.** Area and size of population of the countries of IGAD region

**4.1. Socio-economic conditions of IGAD region**

The region is considered one of the most politically unstable regions in the world. This vast area is linked by a shared history of conflict and a complex web of economic ties. Economic exchange is also a feature of the region with growing trading links with the global economy. As one of the Africa's eight Regional Economic Communities, the Intergovernmental Author‐ ity on Development has institutional responsibility for advancing economic integration in the Horn. However, the economies of the IGAD region possess significant structural obstacles to the attainment of regional economic integration. Poverty and lack of diversification in the economy are root problems. The population is mostly rural with the largest percentage of the workforce engaged in agricultural labour. The livestock sector form a very important part of the economy, with the Horn of Africa supporting one of the largest concentrations of pastor‐ alists people anywhere in the world. In common with most developing economies, the manufacturing sector remains small. The countries depend for their exports on relatively small number of primary commodities in which they compete each other. Historically, this pattern of trade has produced very low levels of formal intra-regional trade. Another disincentive is the relatively low tax base in some countries. There is also the problem of heavy dependence on imports from outside the region. There are also several important non-economic obstacles to the regional integration, including uneven capacities and different types of state, weak institutions, competing institutional frameworks (IGAD, EAC, COMESA, CEN-SAD) and regional conflicts [42]. Table 3. Presents some socio-economic characteristics of the region.


Source: African Statistical Yearbook [40], and Human Development Report, 2014 [43]

**Table 3.** Selected indicators of socio-economic conditions of IGAD region

As mentioned before the region is riddled with conflicts of different types and causes and it is considered one of the hotspot areas in Africa and even at global dimension. However, the region is also facing other severe problems of food insecurity and poverty. The populations of the region have endured many inter-state and intra-state armed conflicts during the postindependence era. The region was by no means peaceful before the era of decolonization. During the period between 1800s and the era of decolonization, for example, it experienced many wars, which revolved mostly around state formation and empire building; slave raids, control of resources, and trade routes; resistance to colonization and the liberation struggle [32]. This implies that, the region is historically well prepared to fall in conflicts, particularly when other factors such as the undefined borders which were considered as time bombs triggering conflicts here and there.

The region's post-independence conflicts can be classified into six categories, including direct and indirect inter-state wars and armed conflicts; cross-border inter-communal conflicts; civil wars and civil conflicts; conflicts among rebel group over differences of political programmes and power struggle; intra-state inter-communal conflicts; and one-sided violence perpetrated upon civilians by the state or other armed political groups [32]. The allocation, use and management of natural resources such as water, fertile land, pasture land, trees but also oil, lead to large internal and international tensions in virtually all countries of the Horn of Africa. Through political tensions and grievances about the loss of livelihoods among farmers, pastoralists and fishermen, regional insecurity is rapidly increasing. [13].

The major economic driver of this region is crop and animal agriculture. However, a large proportion (60-70%) of the landmass in the IGAD region is covered by arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) and experiences prolonged drought and unpredictable rainfall patterns (less than 400 mm of rainfall annually). The region is also characterized by chronic conflicts at national or cross border levels. These conflicts are often linked to scarceness of natural resources (water, rangelands) and competition over their use.

Agriculture is the core economic sector of the IGAD Member States. It contributes on average about 15% to the national GDPs and employs about 75% of the population in the region. Due to this, the performance of the agricultural sector is the key determinant of annual changes in the poverty and food security levels in the region.

The predominant livelihood system in the region is pastoral and agro-pastoral production. On average, livestock contributes 57% of the agricultural GDP in the IGAD region. This makes livestock a key contributor to the economies of the IGAD Member States. The nomadic lifestyle of the pastoralists involves a constant search for pasture and freshwater resources. Pastoralism cuts across national boundaries, frequently causing conflicts and necessitating a regional approaches to and collective action from the affected governments. Pastoralism as practiced in the IGAD region is both an economic and a social system that is highly dependent on the rearing of livestock. Livestock are core to pastoral livelihoods and pastoral identity and livestock and livestock products contribute significantly as the main sources of food and income in pastoral households. Sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys are the predominant livestock holdings. Despite, the abundance of livestock in the pastoral areas, the pastoralist communities across the region remain among the most marginalized and face common problems of low productivity of (endemic) indigenous livestock breeds, poor physical infrastructure, limited access to markets, lack of appropriate information, poor communica‐ tion, lack of access to financial capital and limited access to crucial input services to enhance livestock production within their environments and the threat of dwindling pastures for their flocks. The pastoral areas are characterized by recurrent droughts and other natural disasters. The effects of climate change are reflected in the increasing frequency and severity of episodes of drought. During 2011, the most severe drought conditions to have occurred over the last 60 years were recorded in the Horn of Africa with severe consequences and impacts on the human and livestock populations.
