**5. Farming systems in IGAD region**

#### **5.1. Introduction**

According to Giessen [13] the hydrological assets in the Horn of Africa includes precipitation, the Nile River and its tributaries, the Ethiopian Highlands which make the water tower of the region, and a number of some important lakes such as Lake Tana, Lake Turkana and Lake Victoria. The Horn of Africa is not a total desert or dry wetland, as it is often considered. Vegetation is quite varied and spatially correlated with precipitation levels and the systems of rivers and lakes. Very generally, the drier eastern parts of the Horn of Africa consist of desert, semi-desert and steppe vegetation, while in areas close to the major hydrological assets savannah grasslands and deciduous forest vegetation occur. In terms of biodiversity, Ethiopian highlands can be regarded as historical gene centre or a centre for origin for many crops. As well high value protected areas are also found in Kenya, South Sudan and Uganda [13].

In IGAD countries, agriculture dominates their economies in terms of contribution to GDP, employment and income. This indicates clearly that, for sound socio-economic development, the real growth and developing of this sector will be the leading engine. Any developments in this sector are vital for poverty reduction, wealth creation and improved food security status.

Most of the landscapes in the IGAD region consist mainly of lowlands with arid, semi-arid or dry sub-humid zones. Based on agro-ecological zoning considerations, the region can be classified as arid (55%), semi-arid (15%), sub-humid (16%) and humid (2%) and high lands zones (12%). About 3.4 million km2 , or 80% of the IGAD region's total area, consists of lowland, with arid, semi-arid or dry sub-humid climates, where precipitation is low and uncertain (100 – 600 mm per annum) [73]. These arid and semi-arid lands, according to Mortimmore, (2009) provide numerous goods and services that have great economic, social, cultural and biological value in all geographical aspects: locally, nationally and globally [74]. More than 40% of the total area is unproductive because of severe environmental degradation, resulting from both natural conditions and human actions. The agricultural sector is one of the three priority development areas of IGAD and sector oriented activities are focused on food security, natural resources management and environmental protection. The majority of the people in the region depend on natural resources for their livelihood. The different key components of drylands (land, water, nutrients, and energy) are deeply interconnected: changes in one component will affect the other [75].

According to Knips, [76] IGAD region could be divided into seven ecological Zones, namely: desert, arid, semi-arid, sub-humid, humid, highland and urban/peri-urban ecological zones (Figure 2).

Figure 2. A map showing the agro-ecological zones in IGAD region **Figure 2.** A map showing the agro-ecological zones in IGAD region

#### **5.2.Major farming systems in the region: 5.2. Major farming systems in the region**

As well documented in the literature, and based on Schiere, [14] farming system typologies are dictated by climate, production goals and culture with a farming system being described as a unit consisting of a human group (usually a household) and the resources it manages in its environment, involving the direct production of As well documented in the literature, and based on Schiere, [14] farming system typologies are dictated by climate, production goals and culture with a farming system being described as a unit consisting of a human group (usually a household) and the resources it manages in its environment, involving the direct production of plant and/or animal products [14].

plant and/or animal products [14]. Generally, it has been reported by Robinson *et al.* (2011) that, the existing global system classifications were facing the following limitations: (i) they tend to focus either on crops or on livestock farming; (ii) some classification systems tend to group the majority of production systems into a single mixed farming category, which may include many different combinations of crop and livestock species; (iii) many existing classification systems can be useful at very broad scales but they are Generally, it has been reported by Robinson *et al.* (2011) that, the existing global system classifications were facing the following limitations: (i) they tend to focus either on crops or on livestock farming; (ii) some classification systems tend to group the majority of production systems into a single mixed farming category, which may include many different combinations of crop and livestock species; (iii) many existing classification systems can be useful at very broad scales but they are often of little practical use for priority setting and planning at national level [28].

often of little practical use for priority setting and planning at national level [28]. The countries of the Horn are characterized by four broad-based systems of land utilization. These systems are pastoralism, agro-pastoralism, rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. However, it has to be emphasized that these four systems are closely inter-linked through symbiotic relationships. High potential areas which are put under agriculture have a better chance of supporting the system that utilizes them. Yet the increasing demand for food production has put marginal lands in the region under severe strain and has led to long lasting land degradation [77]. Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists represent a high proportion of the population in the region and are utilizing the arid and semi-arid areas. This is largely due to the fact that much of the land in the Horn is dry land which offers little or no opportunity for means of subsistence other than livestock raising [78]. According to Sandford, [79] in the late 1970s the most important single countries of the world in terms of the numbers of pastoralists were Sudan, the USA, Somalia, Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, India and China [79]. The order may be different at present, but one important thing to note is that four out of the ten countries above are found in the

25

The countries of the Horn are characterized by four broad-based systems of land utilization. These systems are pastoralism, agro-pastoralism, rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. However, it has to be emphasized that these four systems are closely inter-linked through symbiotic relationships. High potential areas which are put under agriculture have a better chance of supporting the system that utilizes them. Yet the increasing demand for food production has put marginal lands in the region under severe strain and has led to long lasting land degra‐ dation [77]. Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists represent a high proportion of the population in the region and are utilizing the arid and semi-arid areas. This is largely due to the fact that much of the land in the Horn is dry land which offers little or no opportunity for means of subsistence other than livestock raising [78]. According to Sandford, [79] in the late 1970s the most important single countries of the world in terms of the numbers of pastoralists were Sudan, the USA, Somalia, Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, India and China [79]. The order may be different at present, but one important thing to note is that four out of the ten countries above are found in the Horn of Africa, which indicates the importance of pastoralism as a livelihood system and as a method of land utilization in the region [78].

In African context, Dixon *et al.* [16] defined a farming system as a population of farm house‐ holds, often a mix of small and large farms, that as a group have broadly similar patterns of livelihood and consumption patterns and constraints and opportunities, and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate. Often such systems share similar agro-ecological and market access conditions. Based on this definition and on two factors, namely the available natural resource base and the dominant patterns of consumption and household livelihoods, they mentioned about 13 farming systems in Africa in general; these systems are:


zones (12%). About 3.4 million km2

affect the other [75].

(Figure 2).

24 Agroecology

level [28].

, or 80% of the IGAD region's total area, consists of lowland,

with arid, semi-arid or dry sub-humid climates, where precipitation is low and uncertain (100 – 600 mm per annum) [73]. These arid and semi-arid lands, according to Mortimmore, (2009) provide numerous goods and services that have great economic, social, cultural and biological value in all geographical aspects: locally, nationally and globally [74]. More than 40% of the total area is unproductive because of severe environmental degradation, resulting from both natural conditions and human actions. The agricultural sector is one of the three priority development areas of IGAD and sector oriented activities are focused on food security, natural resources management and environmental protection. The majority of the people in the region depend on natural resources for their livelihood. The different key components of drylands (land, water, nutrients, and energy) are deeply interconnected: changes in one component will

According to Knips, [76] IGAD region could be divided into seven ecological Zones, namely: desert, arid, semi-arid, sub-humid, humid, highland and urban/peri-urban ecological zones

Figure 2. A map showing the agro-ecological zones in IGAD region

As well documented in the literature, and based on Schiere, [14] farming system typologies are dictated by climate, production goals and culture with a farming system being described as a unit consisting of a human group (usually a household) and the resources it manages in its environment, involving the direct production of

As well documented in the literature, and based on Schiere, [14] farming system typologies are dictated by climate, production goals and culture with a farming system being described as a unit consisting of a human group (usually a household) and the resources it manages in its environment, involving the direct production of plant and/or animal products [14].

Generally, it has been reported by Robinson *et al.* (2011) that, the existing global system classifications were facing the following limitations: (i) they tend to focus either on crops or on livestock farming; (ii) some classification systems tend to group the majority of production systems into a single mixed farming category, which may include many different combinations of crop and livestock species; (iii) many existing classification systems can be useful at very broad scales but they are often of little practical use for priority setting and planning at national level [28]. The countries of the Horn are characterized by four broad-based systems of land utilization. These systems are pastoralism, agro-pastoralism, rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. However, it has to be emphasized that these four systems are closely inter-linked through symbiotic relationships. High potential areas which are put under agriculture have a better chance of supporting the system that utilizes them. Yet the increasing demand for food production has put marginal lands in the region under severe strain and has led to long lasting land degradation [77]. Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists represent a high proportion of the population in the region and are utilizing the arid and semi-arid areas. This is largely due to the fact that much of the land in the Horn is dry land which offers little or no opportunity for means of subsistence other than livestock raising [78]. According to Sandford, [79] in the late 1970s the most important single countries of the world in terms of the numbers of pastoralists were Sudan, the USA, Somalia, Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, India and China [79]. The order may be different at present, but one important thing to note is that four out of the ten countries above are found in the

Generally, it has been reported by Robinson *et al.* (2011) that, the existing global system classifications were facing the following limitations: (i) they tend to focus either on crops or on livestock farming; (ii) some classification systems tend to group the majority of production systems into a single mixed farming category, which may include many different combinations of crop and livestock species; (iii) many existing classification systems can be useful at very broad scales but they are often of little practical use for priority setting and planning at national

**5.2.Major farming systems in the region:** 

**Figure 2.** A map showing the agro-ecological zones in IGAD region

plant and/or animal products [14].

**5.2. Major farming systems in the region**

25


Based on this classification, the following farming systems are currently practiced in IGAD region:


According to a regional study on the livestock sector in the horn of Africa [80] commissioned by the African Development Bank, there are two main production systems practiced in the Horn of Africa accounting for over 80% of the total livestock numbers. These are the pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems; however, there is also the mixed crop-livestock production system [80]. On the other hand, following an approach tackled by FAO, the Africa Development Bank study categorized the production systems in the Horn of Africa region into seven different production systems. These systems, according to AfDB study [80] could be summarized as follow:

	- **a.** Livestock only, arid/semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics production system: it has a growing period of less than 180 days per year; the main livestock type is grazing ruminants. It is mainly pastoral due to scarcity of rainfall, water and pasture. One of the most severe problems of this system is the feed variability, in addition to some environmental concerns and problems of land degradation.
	- **b.** Humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics production system: this enjoys more than 180 days of pasture growing period. It is found in South Sudan, Ethiopia and Uganda. Among the main constraints are the prevalence of trypanosomiasis, poor feed quality, poor road infrastructure and some environmental concerns.
	- **c.** Temperate zones and tropical highlands production system: it is practiced in Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda and Kenya. It has seen the introduction of temperate livestock breeds with some efforts of local breeds improvement through artificial insemination. Range is the primary feed source making the livestock vulnerable to changing weather patterns. There is potential for greater forage production similar

to the intensive systems in other regions, however, the balance between intensive production and ecosystem protection remains the bigger challenge for increased productivity.

**2.** Mixed irrigated husbandry production system: this system is only reported in Somalia under the type mixed irrigated arid and semi-arid in which irrigation makes year round intensive crop production feasible. In other countries it is thinly spread with efforts going on in Ethiopia and Sudan, while Kenya has put in place policies that are geared at promoting this system in the drylands. Private investments in parts of northern Somalia has made some production possible under this system.

Based on this classification, the following farming systems are currently practiced in IGAD

**5.** Pastoral farming systems: in the arid and semi-arid zones of Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia,

**7.** Irrigated farming systems: this comprises large scale irrigation schemes such as the Gezira

**9.** Urban and peri-urban farming systems: around the major cities in all IGAD countries.

According to a regional study on the livestock sector in the horn of Africa [80] commissioned by the African Development Bank, there are two main production systems practiced in the Horn of Africa accounting for over 80% of the total livestock numbers. These are the pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems; however, there is also the mixed crop-livestock production system [80]. On the other hand, following an approach tackled by FAO, the Africa Development Bank study categorized the production systems in the Horn of Africa region into seven different production systems. These systems, according to AfDB study [80] could be

**1.** Grassland based systems: these systems in the Horn of Africa could be sub-divided into

environmental concerns and problems of land degradation.

**a.** Livestock only, arid/semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics production system: it has a growing period of less than 180 days per year; the main livestock type is grazing ruminants. It is mainly pastoral due to scarcity of rainfall, water and pasture. One of the most severe problems of this system is the feed variability, in addition to some

**b.** Humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics production system: this enjoys more than 180 days of pasture growing period. It is found in South Sudan, Ethiopia and Uganda. Among the main constraints are the prevalence of trypanosomiasis, poor

**c.** Temperate zones and tropical highlands production system: it is practiced in Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda and Kenya. It has seen the introduction of temperate livestock breeds with some efforts of local breeds improvement through artificial insemination. Range is the primary feed source making the livestock vulnerable to changing weather patterns. There is potential for greater forage production similar

feed quality, poor road infrastructure and some environmental concerns.

**2.** Agro-pastoral farming systems: such as in Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia

**8.** Sparse arid pastoralism and oases farming systems: this is found in Sudan

**3.** Highland perennial farming systems: this one found in Ethiopia and Uganda

**1.** Maize mixed farming systems: this is found in Kenya

**4.** Highland mixed farming systems

summarized as follow:

three sub-types:

Somalia and Kenya and Uganda.

**6.** Fish-based farming systems: such as in Kenya.

scheme in Sudan and Wabi Shebelle in Somalia

region:

26 Agroecology

	- **a.** Temperate zones and tropical highlands production system: it is practiced in the tropical highlands of Ethiopia where the large numbers of livestock provide a variety of services in support of crop production, Kenya where dairy development and dairy cattle improvement has taken root and a little bit in Sudan and Uganda. It has been the most versatile in response to technological innovation, adaptation to climate change and changing land use practices. The future challenge of this system is the adoption of cleaner production practices that conserve the environment while at the same time coping with the increasing demand for livestock products.
	- **b.** Humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics: it is based on a mixed farming method under varying socio-economic and climatic conditions. It is found in Uganda, Ethiopia and Kenya. The challenge for this system is to device ways of increasing productivity under reduced land resource availability.
	- **c.** Arid and semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics production system: is a mixed production system with a vegetation growth period of less than 180 days. The soils are normally less productive and rainfall is usually too low to sustain cropping. Livestock is normally the primary income generating activity. Crop production is very low and normally for subsistence only. Rangeland degradation and high methane production per animal are among the challenges of this system.

Within the agricultural sector in IGAD region, the major contribution to the GDP comes from livestock. The importance of the livestock sector in the region can partly be explained by the fact that the major proportion of the land area in the region is classified as arid, with highly variable rainfall making it unsuitable for crop production. This leaves livestock production as the only viable form of land use. In agro-ecological zones where crop production is possible it is mostly practiced in mixed systems with livestock providing important inputs into the farming system. Livestock production systems in the region are pastoral, agro-pastoral, settled mixed crop-livestock production systems and small-scale dairy production [73]. The pastoral production systems according to Otte and Chilonda, [81], are characterized by a contribution of livestock and livestock-related activities to household gross revenue of over 50% and it involves seasonal or annual mobility of livestock in search of pasture over a large area of rangeland [81]. Both pastoral and agro-pastoral livestock systems are practiced in all IGAD countries. The dominant species of livestock kept under both systems are cattle, sheep, goats and camels. The degree of mobility of herds and households varies depending on environ‐ mental factors and normally increases with the increase of aridity [73]. In the agro-pastoral systems, the livestock are kept for subsistence (milk and milk products), transportation (camels, donkeys), land preparation (oxen, camels), sale or exchange, saving, bride wealth and insurance against crop failure. The population generally lives in permanent villages, although part of the herds may continue to migrate seasonally in the care of herd boys. The main crops planted in this system are millet, sorghum, maize, and cowpea. Irrigation is rarely practiced, except for few locations in Somalia and Sudan, where cotton, sugarcane and rice are grown [16].

Settled mixed systems are found in the highlands, sub-humid and humid zones within the IGAD countries. They are predominantly subsistence oriented and crop dominated with the type of crops planted depend on agro-climatic conditions, while the numbers and species of livestock kept depend on human population pressure and prevalence of trypanosomosis. It is found in all IGAD countries except in Djibouti and Somalia [73]. The major characteristic of the small-scale dairy production systems is the production of milk for sale. Milk production is integrated with the growing of subsistence crops such as maize, beans and potatoes and of cash crops such as coffee, tea and pyrethrum. This system is found in Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda [81].

Globally and at regional levels, in the drylands context, the agro-ecosystems comprise a diverse and complex mix of pastoral, agro-pastoral, rain-fed and irrigated farming practices. Farmers and pastoralists employ a diverse mix of food, fodder and fiber crops, vegetables, rangeland and pasture species, fruit and fuel wood trees, medicinal plants, livestock and fish to meet their food and livelihood needs. They have developed these practices over centuries, adapting them to the limited resources and variable climate that characterize dry areas. Agricultural produc‐ tion systems in the drylands face not only persistence water scarcity and frequent drought, but also high climatic variability, land degradation, desertification and widespread poverty. These constraints are expected to intensify as a result of climate change [82]. These areas are usually perceived as having low production potential, but according to Fowler and Hodgkin, [83] they are home to several important centers of origin and diversity of crops, vegetables, livestock, trees and fish, and most traditional farming systems maintain this agro-biodiversity. These genetic resources can provide breeders with the traits needed to adapt plants and animals to heterogeneous and changing environments [83]. These genetic resources, as reported by Maestre *et al.* [84] are an important buffer against the effects of climate change and desertification [84]. However, as mentioned earlier, and according to Harvey et al., (2011) land degradation and pressure on natural habitats threaten biodiversity in dry areas and farmer behavior, if not directed otherwise, will generally result in decline in species diversity to meet immediate production objectives[85]. Therefore, the multifaceted constraints facing dryland agricultural systems call for broad-based, integrated approaches addressing the full range of socio-economic and biophysical constraints that farmers and pastoralists in drylands typically face. This requires innovative approaches that bring together all participants in the impact pathway, from primary producers to policy makers, to develop technologies, resource management strategies, and institutional arrangements that: reduce demand for water per unit crop area, and livestock unit; improve water capture and storage; increase productivity per unit of water and land at farm and landscape scales; enhance the capacity of communities and the most marginalized actors within them; and strengthen institutional arrangements to build resilience of livelihoods and increase system productivity through diversification and sus‐ tainable intensification [82]. These approaches aim to identify, quantify and address the driving forces and interactions that shape and constrain farming systems and the management of natural resources [86].

To give full overview about the major farming systems currently practiced at country level in the region, a detailed description and analysis will be presented on the following part of this chapter.

### **5.3. Farming systems in Djibouti**

countries. The dominant species of livestock kept under both systems are cattle, sheep, goats and camels. The degree of mobility of herds and households varies depending on environ‐ mental factors and normally increases with the increase of aridity [73]. In the agro-pastoral systems, the livestock are kept for subsistence (milk and milk products), transportation (camels, donkeys), land preparation (oxen, camels), sale or exchange, saving, bride wealth and insurance against crop failure. The population generally lives in permanent villages, although part of the herds may continue to migrate seasonally in the care of herd boys. The main crops planted in this system are millet, sorghum, maize, and cowpea. Irrigation is rarely practiced, except for few locations in Somalia and Sudan, where cotton, sugarcane and rice are grown [16].

Settled mixed systems are found in the highlands, sub-humid and humid zones within the IGAD countries. They are predominantly subsistence oriented and crop dominated with the type of crops planted depend on agro-climatic conditions, while the numbers and species of livestock kept depend on human population pressure and prevalence of trypanosomosis. It is found in all IGAD countries except in Djibouti and Somalia [73]. The major characteristic of the small-scale dairy production systems is the production of milk for sale. Milk production is integrated with the growing of subsistence crops such as maize, beans and potatoes and of cash crops such as coffee, tea and pyrethrum. This system is found in Kenya, Ethiopia and

Globally and at regional levels, in the drylands context, the agro-ecosystems comprise a diverse and complex mix of pastoral, agro-pastoral, rain-fed and irrigated farming practices. Farmers and pastoralists employ a diverse mix of food, fodder and fiber crops, vegetables, rangeland and pasture species, fruit and fuel wood trees, medicinal plants, livestock and fish to meet their food and livelihood needs. They have developed these practices over centuries, adapting them to the limited resources and variable climate that characterize dry areas. Agricultural produc‐ tion systems in the drylands face not only persistence water scarcity and frequent drought, but also high climatic variability, land degradation, desertification and widespread poverty. These constraints are expected to intensify as a result of climate change [82]. These areas are usually perceived as having low production potential, but according to Fowler and Hodgkin, [83] they are home to several important centers of origin and diversity of crops, vegetables, livestock, trees and fish, and most traditional farming systems maintain this agro-biodiversity. These genetic resources can provide breeders with the traits needed to adapt plants and animals to heterogeneous and changing environments [83]. These genetic resources, as reported by Maestre *et al.* [84] are an important buffer against the effects of climate change and desertification [84]. However, as mentioned earlier, and according to Harvey et al., (2011) land degradation and pressure on natural habitats threaten biodiversity in dry areas and farmer behavior, if not directed otherwise, will generally result in decline in species diversity to meet immediate production objectives[85]. Therefore, the multifaceted constraints facing dryland agricultural systems call for broad-based, integrated approaches addressing the full range of socio-economic and biophysical constraints that farmers and pastoralists in drylands typically face. This requires innovative approaches that bring together all participants in the impact pathway, from primary producers to policy makers, to develop technologies, resource management strategies, and institutional arrangements that: reduce demand for water per unit

Uganda [81].

28 Agroecology

Geographically, Djibouti has one of the most inhospitable, barren environments on the planet. It has virtually no arable land, no permanent fresh water source, no significant mineral resources, very little vegetation, high daily temperature and severe persistent drought for the past six years [50].

According to the Convention of Biological Diversity [87], Djibouti is made up of rich and varied terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems. The majority of the country is defined as desert with a climate that is torrid and dry throughout the country. It has three distinct geographic areas: the coastal plains, the volcanic plateaus in the southern and central parts and in the north, the mountain ranges where the elevation can be as high as 2000 metres above sea level. Djibouti contains several different types of eco-systems however over 90% of the land is desert. The terrestrial eco-system is separated into the mountains region and the semi-arid lowlands which are dominated by shrubs and trees [87]. Almost 78% of the people in Djibouti base their livelihoods on agriculture. Therefore, most parts of Djibouti are allocated for agricultural activities, all the land is used for pasture, with smaller areas for the production of crops, mainly vegetables and fruits [13]. The National Strategy for Food and Nutrition Security (2008) estimated that less than 10% of the calories consumed nationally come from domestic pro‐ duction, the remaining 90% being imported from neighboring countries or from the interna‐ tional market. This heavy reliance on food import makes the country highly vulnerable to external market risks that are often beyond its control [88].

According to FAO [89] livestock rearing is the main livelihoods activity for 80% of rural households. In recent years, herds have been decimated due to impact of recurrent drought particularly that of 2010/2011 [89]. In rural areas, two traditional production systems are present: pastoralism and small scale farming. Pastoralism is an age-old and deeply entrenched tradition that dominates Djibouti's rural economy. Pastoral activities consist primarily of extensive nomadic herding which often represents the sole source of subsistence for pastoral communities. Some 90.5% of the country's territory can be classified as pastoral lands that are used for herding. Transhumance is still practiced extensively along grazing routes determined by the presence of water and pasture. Mobility is a highly efficient way of managing the sparse vegetation and relatively low fertility of fragile soils of Djibouti [88].

From the previous discussion and evidences from the literature pertaining to the currently practiced farming systems in Djibouti are crop farming, pastoral and agro-pastoral farming systems. According to Brass, [89] crop farming has been introduced to Djibouti in the past 30 years, and comprises only a tiny percentage of Djibouti's economy, population and land. The remainderofDjibouti'snon-urbanlandsisusedsolelyforlivestockproduction,thevastmajority of which is subsistence nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism of small ruminants (primarily goats) and camels. The Djiboutian livestock production system is unifies with its neighbours; pastoralists move between Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia following the rains. These pastoral‐ ists maintains a traditional approach to animals, seeing them as store of value and a source of protein via milk – animals are only slaughter or sold in case of liquidity crisis or for important celebrations. Thus, while it is the prominent rural activity, livestock production is not well integrated into the national monetary economy, nor t is a government priority [90].

#### **5.4. Farming systems in Eritrea**

Eritrea's topography can be divided into three broad categories: the arid, narrow, lowland along the Red Sea; the north central region, which is an extension of the Ethiopian plateau and is dissected by river valleys; and the western plain along the Sudanese border. The highest point is Emba Soira, southeast of Asmara at 3,010 metres; the lowest is in the Dinakil Depression along the Red Sea, which at places is at 130 metres below sea level. It is one of the hottest places on earth. The Setit River is Eritrea's only perennial waterway. It flows from Ethiopia, where it is called Tekeze, along the western border and into Sudan, where it is called the Atbara. There are other seasonal rivers during the rainy season, namely the Anseba, the Baraka, and the Mareb (the Gash) [91]. Eritrea is geographically situated on the south-eastern border of the Sahel-Zone. Rainfall ranges from 1200 to less than 200 mm per year. The interregional differences and the variability in amount are high, and the risk to have an insufficient rainy season with erratic rainfalls is high. Some parts have hot tropical semiarid climate, with rainfall regimes that range from 400 to less than 700 mm per year [92]. As one of the arid or semi-arid Sahelian countries of Africa, Eritrea faced serious droughts in 1975, 1984,1989, and 1991 Less than 5% of the land in Eritrea is arable, and permanent crops occupy a mere 0.03% of total land area. Most land is suitable for pasturage, but some areas, such as the Red Sea coast and the far north, are too arid even for this purpose [91]. However, land in Eritrea falls into four categories, namely cultivated, grazing, forests and barren land [93]. More than 70% of the population depends on traditional subsistence agriculture for their livelihood. The main sources of income for rural households are the sale of crops, livestock, and livestock products; wages for daily labour and remittances. In urban areas, people generate income from wage labour, small businesses, petty trade, and poultry farming. Eritrea has a number of agricultural systems: rain-fed cereal and pulses, semi-commercial and peri-urban agriculture, small-scale irrigated horticulture, commercial farming, agro-pastoral rain-fed farming, and agro-pastoral spate irrigation systems [93]. The agricultural sector is hampered by the absence of modern farming equipments and techniques, erratic rainfall, exhausted soils and lack of financial services and investment. Major agricultural products are barley, beans, lintels, dairy products, meat, milk, skins, sorghum, teff and wheat [91]. Eritrea's location in arid and semi-arid zones makes it vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, such as drought, pest infestation and degradation of natural resources which can affect food security, and if it does, can eventually lead to malnutrition or under-nutrition in adult and children [93]. Despite the fact the economy is agriculture based; its contribution to the GDP has been moderate, due to recurrent drought, rudimental farming methods, and effects of war. Now, this sector could be transformed into a promising sector through increased reliance on irrigation and improved farming methods and promotion of the livestock sector exports activities especially to the Middle East Markets. There are also opportunities in the production of high valued crops and vegetables for exports to Europe and Middle East [94].

## **5.5. Farming systems in Ethiopia**

From the previous discussion and evidences from the literature pertaining to the currently practiced farming systems in Djibouti are crop farming, pastoral and agro-pastoral farming systems. According to Brass, [89] crop farming has been introduced to Djibouti in the past 30 years, and comprises only a tiny percentage of Djibouti's economy, population and land. The remainderofDjibouti'snon-urbanlandsisusedsolelyforlivestockproduction,thevastmajority of which is subsistence nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism of small ruminants (primarily goats) and camels. The Djiboutian livestock production system is unifies with its neighbours; pastoralists move between Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia following the rains. These pastoral‐ ists maintains a traditional approach to animals, seeing them as store of value and a source of protein via milk – animals are only slaughter or sold in case of liquidity crisis or for important celebrations. Thus, while it is the prominent rural activity, livestock production is not well

integrated into the national monetary economy, nor t is a government priority [90].

Eritrea's topography can be divided into three broad categories: the arid, narrow, lowland along the Red Sea; the north central region, which is an extension of the Ethiopian plateau and is dissected by river valleys; and the western plain along the Sudanese border. The highest point is Emba Soira, southeast of Asmara at 3,010 metres; the lowest is in the Dinakil Depression along the Red Sea, which at places is at 130 metres below sea level. It is one of the hottest places on earth. The Setit River is Eritrea's only perennial waterway. It flows from Ethiopia, where it is called Tekeze, along the western border and into Sudan, where it is called the Atbara. There are other seasonal rivers during the rainy season, namely the Anseba, the Baraka, and the Mareb (the Gash) [91]. Eritrea is geographically situated on the south-eastern border of the Sahel-Zone. Rainfall ranges from 1200 to less than 200 mm per year. The interregional differences and the variability in amount are high, and the risk to have an insufficient rainy season with erratic rainfalls is high. Some parts have hot tropical semiarid climate, with rainfall regimes that range from 400 to less than 700 mm per year [92]. As one of the arid or semi-arid Sahelian countries of Africa, Eritrea faced serious droughts in 1975, 1984,1989, and 1991 Less than 5% of the land in Eritrea is arable, and permanent crops occupy a mere 0.03% of total land area. Most land is suitable for pasturage, but some areas, such as the Red Sea coast and the far north, are too arid even for this purpose [91]. However, land in Eritrea falls into four categories, namely cultivated, grazing, forests and barren land [93]. More than 70% of the population depends on traditional subsistence agriculture for their livelihood. The main sources of income for rural households are the sale of crops, livestock, and livestock products; wages for daily labour and remittances. In urban areas, people generate income from wage labour, small businesses, petty trade, and poultry farming. Eritrea has a number of agricultural systems: rain-fed cereal and pulses, semi-commercial and peri-urban agriculture, small-scale irrigated horticulture, commercial farming, agro-pastoral rain-fed farming, and agro-pastoral spate irrigation systems [93]. The agricultural sector is hampered by the absence of modern farming equipments and techniques, erratic rainfall, exhausted soils and lack of financial services and investment. Major agricultural products are barley, beans, lintels, dairy products, meat, milk, skins, sorghum, teff and wheat [91]. Eritrea's location in arid and semi-arid zones makes it vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, such as drought, pest infestation and

**5.4. Farming systems in Eritrea**

30 Agroecology

With its dramatic geological history and broad latitudinal and altitudinal ranges, Ethiopia encompasses an extraordinary number of the world's broad ecological zones. With a high plateau and a central mountain range divided by the Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia contains a huge altitudinal range from the depressions in the Afar (115 metres below sea level) to the mountain tops of Ras Dashen in the north (4,533 metres above sea level) and the Bale Mountains in the southeast. The headwaters of the Blue Nile are located in northwest Ethiopia at Tana Lake. This range of habitats also supports a rich variety of species, which contributes to the overall biological diversity of the country [95].

The agricultural sector greatly influences the rate of economic growth in Ethiopia: about 11.7 million smallholder farmers account for approximately 95% of agricultural GDP and 85% of the population. With a total area of about 1.13 million km2 and about 51.3 million hectares of arable land, Ethiopia has tremendous potential for agricultural development. However, only about 10.6 million hectares of land are currently being cultivated, just over 20% of the total arable area. Ethiopian agriculture is dominated by a subsistence, low input, low output, and rain-fed farming system. Low productivity levels could be attributed to limited access by smallholder farmers to financial services, improved production technologies, irrigation and agricultural markets; and more importantly to poor land management practices that have led to severe land degradation [96].

According to Rahmato, [97] Ethiopia has varied agro-climatic zones. The Government extension programmes list these as: areas of adequate rainfall; areas of moisture stress; and pastoral areas. Farmers traditionally classify them as dega (cool), woina dega (temperate) and qolla (low land, warm climate). This diversity makes it a region for growing a variety of crops [97]. The country is endowed with one of the most bio-diverse systems in the world. It has earned the name 'the Water Tower of Eastern Africa' for having more than ten rivers, each of which has irrigation potential [98].

Based on John Dixon et al, [16] and FAO report [99], the following farming systems are found in Ethiopia:

**1.** Irrigated, small scale, traditional farming system: these have been established under selfhelp programs and initiatives by farmers' groups with sizes varying from a few to 100 ha. Modern small scale irrigation is also practiced. Traditional irrigation is practiced in the different agro-ecological zones making use of rivers, creeks, or gully waters that can last up to three months in the dry season. These systems are less capital-intensive than large scale ones and are managed by traditional community rules and water rights, which make them an integral part of indigenous farming systems. Irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia is not well developed, but includes both traditional and modern small scale systems. The typical cropping pattern is organized into dry and wet seasons. In the dry one (September-April) vegetables like potato, onion and peppers. In the wet season (May-November) all cereals including teff, barley and rice are grown. Commercial agriculture is a relatively recent introduction and its contribution to total agricultural production is therefore still small.


being able to graze their animals along the perennial Nile tributaries, which help them cope in drought periods. The major challenges to this system include ecological disturb‐ ance and land degradation associated with slash and burn shifting cultivation, moisture stress and lack of adequate water supply, human and livestock diseases, livestock feed shortages during the dry season and poor infrastructure. Major constraints include sociological factors, transport and communication, marketing, livestock diseases, land tenure, livestock diseases, marketing, inter-clan disputes, low rainfall, lack of security in border areas and disputes between agro-pastoralists and settled farmers.

up to three months in the dry season. These systems are less capital-intensive than large scale ones and are managed by traditional community rules and water rights, which make them an integral part of indigenous farming systems. Irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia is not well developed, but includes both traditional and modern small scale systems. The typical cropping pattern is organized into dry and wet seasons. In the dry one (September-April) vegetables like potato, onion and peppers. In the wet season (May-November) all cereals including teff, barley and rice are grown. Commercial agriculture is a relatively recent introduction and its contribution to total agricultural production is therefore still

**2.** Pastoral farming systems: this lies where climatic conditions lead to sparse vegetation cover over often fragile soils, with a scarcity of surface water. It can support only sparse human population and is not suitable for rain-fed crop production, only well adapted livestock. It is governed by social and community laws concerning the management and utilization of natural resources. Although there are profound similarities, the different ethnic groups practicing the system exhibit considerable differences in their overall enterprise patterns, seasonal movements, and the other natural resource-based activities. There are also wide variations in the level of integration of pastoralists into the market economy. Typical pastoral family size is relatively large and has a high dependency ratio, mainly due to cultural factors. It is common for men to have more than one wife, which is believed to make mobility of livestock from place to place easier. The nature of animal husbandry and the mobility of herds demand extended families in order to distribute the workload and defend economic and/or social/cultural interests. Better off pastoral families create employment for poor and marginalized families. Livestock production is depend‐ ent upon climate, vegetation, and animal type. The main sources of feed in pastoral areas are grasses, shrubs and browse. Their distinctive management systems, includes under‐ taking seasonal migrations in response to availability of grazing; and keeping different species of livestock, including small and large ruminants. Cattle and sheep are kept in areas with reasonably abundant water and where grazing species are predominant; goats and camels are reared in drier areas, where browse species predominates. This farming system links up with the rest of the agricultural economy in that male cattle are sold to highland farmers for draft power. There is also linkage in the opposite direction as pastoralists import breeding bulls from the highlands to bring new blood into their herds.

**3.** Agro-pastoral farming system: this is found under conditions fairly similar to those of the pastoral system, the key difference being the slightly greater availability of water. It is a semi-nomadic livelihood in which livestock production is dominant. Crops are grown but play a less significant role than in most other farming systems as moisture stress is a critical limiting factor on crop production. It extends from the north-western to south-western parts of the Nile Basin. It is practiced along river banks in particular and in areas neigh‐ boring the pasture zones which receive slightly higher rainfall. The average family owns between 1.0 to 1.5 ha of cultivated land, a minimum of 6 cattle and more than 6 goats. Main crops are sesame, cotton, sorghum and vegetables. Additional cash is obtained from sale of fruit, vegetables, honey, gum, firewood and grasses. Agro-pastoralists benefit from

small.

32 Agroecology


fruit trees, spices and coffee trees are also cultivated. The constraints include: destruction and over-exploitation of natural resources, ecological disturbances and emergence of pests and weeds, accelerated loss of soil nutrients, land degradation, animal diseases and poor services to livestock sector.


#### **5.6. Farming systems in Kenya**

Kenya is ecologically diverse, and most of its land is classified as arid or semi-arid, yet also higher elevations lush montane forests are found. It is the home to the second-highest peak in Africa, glacier-capped Mount Kenya [100]. It has a great variety of agro-ecological conditions broadly correlated with altitude and aspect, ranging from arid pastoral rangelands to tropical alpine conditions [101]. By area, about 28% of Kenya's ecosystems are marine and 72% are terrestrial. Kenya's average annual rainfall is approximately 630 mm per year, but it varies across the country. It ranges from 200-400 mm per year in northern and eastern Kenya to up to 2000 mm per year in the highlands and mountains of the southwest. More than 80% of Kenya is arid and semi-arid. Croplands and the associated agro-ecosystems cover about 19% of Kenya [102]. According to Sambroek et al. [103] Kenya's land is divided into seven agro-ecological zones based on moisture index. These are humid, sub-humid, semi-humid, semi-humid to semi-arid, semi-arid, arid and very arid [103].

The major ecosystems in Kenya are the terrestrial, aquatic, marine and endangered ecosystems. Regarding the terrestrial ecosystems, according to WRI, et al. [104] a mosaic of grassland savanna, wood-land savanna, and bush land plant communities are found in Kenya's ASALs, depending upon soil type, rain-shadow effects, and other factors. In areas with rainfall above 800 mm per year, the potential natural vegetation is forests which cover about 20% of Kenya and along the Indian Ocean; there is a belt of forest comprising about 1.7% of the country [104]. These ASALs lie in agro-climatic zones IV, V and VI and they represent 80% of the country's area and support 25% of the human population and 50% of the total livestock population. According to Barret *et al*. [105] these ASALs are ill-suited for intensive crop production but fairly suited for extensive livestock production [105].The aquatic ecosystems according to NEMA and UNDP, [106] cover about 8% of Kenya's surface area and include freshwater and saline lakes, rivers and wetlands [106]. Kenya's territorial sea area is approximately 13800 km2 covered by mangroves at about 600 km2 . This in addition to coral reefs, sea grasses and sandy beaches [102]. In general, the largest proportion of the country falls into two categories of land cover: (i) herbaceous cover, closed open, and (ii) sparse herbaceous or shrub cover. The two types of land cover are ideal for pastoralism (sheep, goats and camels) which characterizes the livelihoods of the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) that cover 83% of the country's land area. Cultivated and managed areas are to be found in agriculturally high- to mediumpotential areas of the country. Areas with tree cover are found in the major water catchments and along the coastal strip. The country's grain basket, the Rift Valley and Western Provinces, is characterized by mosaic cover: cropland, trees or other natural vegetation. Natural resources from wildlife and forestry in the protected areas play two basic roles in development: support to subsistence livelihoods, and source of earnings from tourism [100].

fruit trees, spices and coffee trees are also cultivated. The constraints include: destruction and over-exploitation of natural resources, ecological disturbances and emergence of pests and weeds, accelerated loss of soil nutrients, land degradation, animal diseases and poor

**8.** Riverside and lakeside farming system: livelihoods in this system are based on crop cultivation supplemented by fishing and livestock rearing. The system is practiced along the riverbanks and in the swamps around Lake Tana. Crops cultivated include maize, sorghum, sesame, groundnut, cowpea, rice, onions, other vegetables, tobacco and beans.

**9.** Market oriented agriculture (including urban, peri-urban and commercial farming): it encompasses a wide range of specialized forms of agriculture which developed to cater for urban and export sector. Most of the large scale production farms are concentrated in the western lowlands and the north Gondar and west Gojam areas. Most farming operations are carried out with machinery and make wide use of fertilizers and other yield enhancing inputs. This farming system is very heterogeneous, ranging from small scale, capital intensive, market-oriented, vegetable-growing, dairy farming, and livestock fattening, to part-time farming by the urban poor to cover part of their subsistence requirements. The level of crop-livestock integration is often low. The main shortcoming include: low yields, high cost of production, shortage of credit, poor infrastructure, poor

Kenya is ecologically diverse, and most of its land is classified as arid or semi-arid, yet also higher elevations lush montane forests are found. It is the home to the second-highest peak in Africa, glacier-capped Mount Kenya [100]. It has a great variety of agro-ecological conditions broadly correlated with altitude and aspect, ranging from arid pastoral rangelands to tropical alpine conditions [101]. By area, about 28% of Kenya's ecosystems are marine and 72% are terrestrial. Kenya's average annual rainfall is approximately 630 mm per year, but it varies across the country. It ranges from 200-400 mm per year in northern and eastern Kenya to up to 2000 mm per year in the highlands and mountains of the southwest. More than 80% of Kenya is arid and semi-arid. Croplands and the associated agro-ecosystems cover about 19% of Kenya [102]. According to Sambroek et al. [103] Kenya's land is divided into seven agro-ecological zones based on moisture index. These are humid, sub-humid, semi-humid, semi-humid to

The major ecosystems in Kenya are the terrestrial, aquatic, marine and endangered ecosystems. Regarding the terrestrial ecosystems, according to WRI, et al. [104] a mosaic of grassland savanna, wood-land savanna, and bush land plant communities are found in Kenya's ASALs, depending upon soil type, rain-shadow effects, and other factors. In areas with rainfall above 800 mm per year, the potential natural vegetation is forests which cover about 20% of Kenya and along the Indian Ocean; there is a belt of forest comprising about 1.7% of the country [104]. These ASALs lie in agro-climatic zones IV, V and VI and they represent 80% of the country's area and support 25% of the human population and 50% of the total livestock population. According to Barret *et al*. [105] these ASALs are ill-suited for intensive crop production but

access to marketing, land degradation and uncertain land tenure.

services to livestock sector.

34 Agroecology

**5.6. Farming systems in Kenya**

semi-arid, semi-arid, arid and very arid [103].

Based on John Dixon et al, [16] and FAO report [99], the following farming systems are found in Kenya:


ogies in combination with drip or sprinkler irrigation. Their main concern is the maintenance of their international competitiveness. The overall major challenge for the three types is the secure access to water [107]. However, Blank, et al., [108] highlighted that the boundaries between these three types have become blurred due to some rapid changes. Among these changes: the collapse of the government capacity to manage the large scale systems, the commercialization of smallholder irrigation has enabled some individuals to move away from irrigation of traditional crops and enter the high value vegetable and fruit market, and the third change is that new technologies are rapidly being introduced and adopted widely by irrigators [108].


#### **5.7. Farming systems in Somalia**

Somalia is an arid region in the north and semi-arid in the south. The climate of seasonal rains, almost continuous winds and even worse, irregularity of rainfall over the years, made it very difficult for the population to work effectively. In areas where rainfall is sufficient for cultiva‐ tion, there was the problem of shortage of agricultural workers. Animal husbandry was always limited by the scarcity of water. About four-fifths of the population of Somalia was engaged in agriculture and subsistence pastoral farming. The country was divided into four regions: northern Somalia or Migiurtinia with an arid climate and little vegetation, central Somalia or Mudug, equally arid and with a nomadic population, central-southern Somalia, which had the most, developed agricultural and animal husbandry sectors and southern Somalia or lower Juba with thick vegetation and very rich fauna. One of the greatest problems was the shortage of water. Water reserves were limited to the area between the Jubba and Shabelle Rivers and outside of this area there were only wells [111]. Agriculture is by far the dominant sector in the economy: it contributes to more than 65% of GDP. The nomadic livestock sub-sector accounts for more than 44% of agricultural GDP and 50% of total agricultural employment. Nomadic livestock is the main source of Somali livelihoods. In addition to subsistence of nomad and agro-pastoralists, it also contributes about 80% of the exports and is thus the main source of the country's foreign currency earnings [112]. The Somali economy is the only one in the world where over half of the population is dependent on nomadic pastoralism [113]. The livestock sector is central to the economic and cultural life of the Somali people. Burao and Galkayo are the largest livestock markets in the Horn of Africa especially for export sheep and goats from the Somali region of Ethiopia and parts of southern Somalia [114]. The inter-riverine region which is the fertile valley that lies between the Shebelle river in the north, the Ethiopian border in the west, and the Indian ocean in the east has over fourteen ecological regions providing four modes of livelihood: agriculture, pastoralism, agro-pastoralism and trade [115].

The pastoral system is characterized by herds or flocks that are constantly moved in search of water and pasture, as the season progress. Moreover, in contrast to most pastoral systems, which are normally devoted to household subsistence, the Somali system is traditionally oriented towards trade and export [116]. After the collapse of the government in 1991, the Somali economy became entirely unofficial; however it has proven to function effectively and the livestock trade shows considerable resilience, in spite of total absence of formal institutions [117]. Livestock export in Somalia revolves around three supply chains, two of which supply the Arabian Peninsula with mostly small ruminants and cattle by sea, and the third which supplies the Kenyan market with cattle overland. [118]. [Strangio, [111] has mentioned two justifications why most of Somali population is nomadic pastoralists: first, their origins with strong cultural nomadic-pastoralist bases. Second, the climatic and environmental conditions that favour a nomadic-pastoralist economy rather than a settled agricultural economy.

#### **5.8. Farming systems in South Sudan**

ogies in combination with drip or sprinkler irrigation. Their main concern is the maintenance of their international competitiveness. The overall major challenge for the three types is the secure access to water [107]. However, Blank, et al., [108] highlighted that the boundaries between these three types have become blurred due to some rapid changes. Among these changes: the collapse of the government capacity to manage the large scale systems, the commercialization of smallholder irrigation has enabled some individuals to move away from irrigation of traditional crops and enter the high value vegetable and fruit market, and the third change is that new technologies are rapidly being

**3. Pastoral farming system:** according to Cecchi et al, [109] this system in Kenya cover

**4. Agro-pastoral farming system:** is a form of livelihood that combines crop production with pastoralism. In Kenya, the area covered by this system estimated at about 112,081,000

**5. Urban/pre-urban farming system:** as in other countries of Sub-Saharan Countries, farming in Kenya is very common among urban households, particularly poor femaleheaded ones. In Nairobi for example, four sub-types of this farming system are found, namely; small scale subsistence crop production, small-scale market oriented crop production, small-scale livestock production and large-scale commercial farming.

Somalia is an arid region in the north and semi-arid in the south. The climate of seasonal rains, almost continuous winds and even worse, irregularity of rainfall over the years, made it very difficult for the population to work effectively. In areas where rainfall is sufficient for cultiva‐ tion, there was the problem of shortage of agricultural workers. Animal husbandry was always limited by the scarcity of water. About four-fifths of the population of Somalia was engaged in agriculture and subsistence pastoral farming. The country was divided into four regions: northern Somalia or Migiurtinia with an arid climate and little vegetation, central Somalia or Mudug, equally arid and with a nomadic population, central-southern Somalia, which had the most, developed agricultural and animal husbandry sectors and southern Somalia or lower Juba with thick vegetation and very rich fauna. One of the greatest problems was the shortage of water. Water reserves were limited to the area between the Jubba and Shabelle Rivers and outside of this area there were only wells [111]. Agriculture is by far the dominant sector in the economy: it contributes to more than 65% of GDP. The nomadic livestock sub-sector accounts for more than 44% of agricultural GDP and 50% of total agricultural employment. Nomadic livestock is the main source of Somali livelihoods. In addition to subsistence of nomad and agro-pastoralists, it also contributes about 80% of the exports and is thus the main

system, cattle, goats, sheep, camels, donkeys, poultry and pigs [109].

, with rural population of around 6,392,000. The main livestock species raised in this

livestock species raised in this system are camels, cattle, sheep and goats [109]. Among the main constraints of this system are the recurrent drought, insecurity, water accessi‐ bility, rising poverty, declining asset level, environmental degradation and desertification

, with estimation of rural population of about 2,048,000. The main

introduced and adopted widely by irrigators [108].

around 336,367 km2

**5.7. Farming systems in Somalia**

[110].

36 Agroecology

km2

Most of South Sudan country has a semi-humid climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 200-2200 mm. Rainfall is seasonal, from April to December and causes seasonal flooding of floodplains. The seasonal climate patterns cause cyclic relations in the ecosystem and hence determine land use patterns of cultivation, livestock grazing and fisheries [119].

Altitudes in Southern Sudan range from 600 to 3000 meters above sea level. Temperatures are typically above 25° C and can rise above 35° C, particularly during the dry season, which lasts during January to April [120].

South Sudan's diverse ecology provides a growing season ranging from 280-300 days in the south-western parts to 130-150 days per annum in the northern states due to bimodal and unimodal rainfall regimes. The bimodal areas cover much of Greater Equatoria, while the rest of the country has a unimodal regime [121]. There are five ecological zones in South Sudan, namely; the savannah region, the flood region, the Montane forest zone, the semi-desert zone and the lowland forest zone. The savannah region is divided into low rainfall woodland savannah zone and high rainfall woodland savannah zone. The woodland savannah region is the largest ecological region in South Sudan. The flood region includes the Suds and toic. The Suds covers about 57,000 km2 and it is one of the largest floodplains in Africa. It is an important breeding area for Nile ecosystem fish species. Toic are areas subject to seasonal flooding by spill-water from rivers and watercourses where the soil retains sufficient moisture throughout the dry season to support grasses. It is of special importance for dry season grazing by both livestock and wildlife and is critical for the country's pastoralists. The semi-desert is the extreme southeast in and around the Ilemi Triangle; it is an extension of the northeastern Kenya semi-arid zone and shares much of the fauna and flora from that region. The lowland forest is the northernmost extension of the Congo Basin forests [122], [120]. However, the Livelihood Profile Project divided the country into seven livelihood zones that are defined based on climate conditions and farming systems: Eastern Flood Plains, Greenbelt, Hills and Mountains, Ironstone Plateau, Nile-Sobat Rivers, Pastoral and Western Flood Plains [121]. The country is naturally endowed with agricultural potential given its favourable soil, water and climatic conditions. It is estimated that about 70% of total land area is suitable for producing a wide range of agricultural products, including annual crops such as grains, vegetables, tree crops such as coffee, tea and fruits, livestock, fishery and various forest products [122].

The dominant land use in terms of land occupation is livestock keeping, which is practiced throughout almost all the country, but practically in dryer areas with better grass quality and lower livestock parasite occurrence. The vast forested areas provide, apart from food for livestock, timber, fuel wood, charcoal and non-timber forest products including food plants, medicines and bush meat. Most of the rural population practice cultivation. In the northern part of the country, sorghum, sesame and groundnut are the principal crops. Many farmers have little access to inputs and credits [119]. Crop production is mostly conducted on small, hand cultivated plots farmed by women-headed households. Sorghum is the main cultivated crop, in addition to maize, millet and rice. Other crops such as groundnut, cassava, sweat potato, vegetables and sesame are also grown. Rainfed mechanized cereal production is practiced on large scale in the Upper Nile state [123]. Crop production systems remain primarily subsistence in nature and crop yield is low. Less than 4% of the total land (about 2.7 million ha) is currently cultivated while more than 80% is still under natural vegetation [122]. According to UNEP [124] livestock rearing may be categorized into three systems: (a) nomadic, based on herding of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats (b) semi-nomadic agro-pastoralist, combining the herding of cattle and some sheep with cultivation (c) sedentary system, where cattle and small livestock are reared in close proximity to villages [124]. Livestock is mainly perceived as a store of value by many livestock keepers, and production of livestock products (butter, milk, meat and hide) is low [119]. Livestock are very important assets throughout the country, the main species being cattle, goats and sheep. The sale of livestock especially small ruminants, offer significant income generation opportunities for both transhumant pastoralists and sedentary livestock rearers [123].

#### **5.9. Farming systems in Sudan**

Geographically, four major regions are characterizing Sudan: the Northern, Western, Eastern regions and the Central Clay Plains. The northern region lies between the Egyptian borders and Khartoum. It consists of two distinct areas: the desert and the Nile Valley. The Nile River provides an alluvial strip of habitable land some 2 km wide, whose productivity depends on the annual floods. Western Sudan is a generic term describing Darfur and Kordofan, amount‐ ing to about 850,000 km2 . Its dominant feature is the absence of perennial streams, and people and animals must remain within reach of permanent wells. Consequently, the population is sparse and unevenly distributed. Eastern Sudan is located northeast of the Central Clay Plains. It is divided between desert and semi-desert and includes Al Butanah grazing area (stretches between Khartoum and Kassala), the Qash Delta, the Red Sea Hills and the coastal plains. The Central Clay Plains stretch eastward from Nuba Mountain to the Ethiopian frontier, broken only by Ingessana Hills in Blue Nile state. These plains are productive and provide the main support of the national economy [125].

extreme southeast in and around the Ilemi Triangle; it is an extension of the northeastern Kenya semi-arid zone and shares much of the fauna and flora from that region. The lowland forest is the northernmost extension of the Congo Basin forests [122], [120]. However, the Livelihood Profile Project divided the country into seven livelihood zones that are defined based on climate conditions and farming systems: Eastern Flood Plains, Greenbelt, Hills and Mountains, Ironstone Plateau, Nile-Sobat Rivers, Pastoral and Western Flood Plains [121]. The country is naturally endowed with agricultural potential given its favourable soil, water and climatic conditions. It is estimated that about 70% of total land area is suitable for producing a wide range of agricultural products, including annual crops such as grains, vegetables, tree crops

The dominant land use in terms of land occupation is livestock keeping, which is practiced throughout almost all the country, but practically in dryer areas with better grass quality and lower livestock parasite occurrence. The vast forested areas provide, apart from food for livestock, timber, fuel wood, charcoal and non-timber forest products including food plants, medicines and bush meat. Most of the rural population practice cultivation. In the northern part of the country, sorghum, sesame and groundnut are the principal crops. Many farmers have little access to inputs and credits [119]. Crop production is mostly conducted on small, hand cultivated plots farmed by women-headed households. Sorghum is the main cultivated crop, in addition to maize, millet and rice. Other crops such as groundnut, cassava, sweat potato, vegetables and sesame are also grown. Rainfed mechanized cereal production is practiced on large scale in the Upper Nile state [123]. Crop production systems remain primarily subsistence in nature and crop yield is low. Less than 4% of the total land (about 2.7 million ha) is currently cultivated while more than 80% is still under natural vegetation [122]. According to UNEP [124] livestock rearing may be categorized into three systems: (a) nomadic, based on herding of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats (b) semi-nomadic agro-pastoralist, combining the herding of cattle and some sheep with cultivation (c) sedentary system, where cattle and small livestock are reared in close proximity to villages [124]. Livestock is mainly perceived as a store of value by many livestock keepers, and production of livestock products (butter, milk, meat and hide) is low [119]. Livestock are very important assets throughout the country, the main species being cattle, goats and sheep. The sale of livestock especially small ruminants, offer significant income generation opportunities for both transhumant pastoralists

Geographically, four major regions are characterizing Sudan: the Northern, Western, Eastern regions and the Central Clay Plains. The northern region lies between the Egyptian borders and Khartoum. It consists of two distinct areas: the desert and the Nile Valley. The Nile River provides an alluvial strip of habitable land some 2 km wide, whose productivity depends on the annual floods. Western Sudan is a generic term describing Darfur and Kordofan, amount‐

and animals must remain within reach of permanent wells. Consequently, the population is sparse and unevenly distributed. Eastern Sudan is located northeast of the Central Clay Plains.

. Its dominant feature is the absence of perennial streams, and people

such as coffee, tea and fruits, livestock, fishery and various forest products [122].

and sedentary livestock rearers [123].

**5.9. Farming systems in Sudan**

38 Agroecology

ing to about 850,000 km2

Sudan is a country of fragile eco-systems, frequent droughts, and as a result, pressing chal‐ lenges to address the national priorities of food security, water supply and public health. An examination of Sudan's ecological zones indicates that the majority of its land is quite vulner‐ able to changes in temperature and precipitation [126]. With the secession of South Sudan, the ecology of Sudan has shifted towards a predominantly dry lands environment. The rainy season lasts less than two months in the north and extends up to four months further south. This extreme rainfall variability over time and space has a remarkable impact on vegetation, especially in more arid areas.

The country's land and water resources can be classified into four major ecological regions: (a) arid and semi-arid ecosystems, which occur in the northern and central parts of the country. Summer temperatures can often exceed 43°C, and sandstorms blow across the Sahara from April to September, with an average rainfall of 0 – 300 mm. the soil is generally poorly devel‐ oped due to little rainfall and lack of vegetation. However, in some parts of this zone (North‐ ern Darfur state), during winter times, the air may cool down at night sufficiently to form dew, allowing certain grasses, called *'gizu'* to grow after rain. Irrigated agriculture is practiced along the Nile banks, apart from that pastoralism and agro-pastoralism are also practiced. Among the challenges are desertification and severe soil degradation; (b) low rainfall savannah (sand) are typified by low rainfall(300-400 mm) and the prevalence of sandy soils. The zone is devoted to traditional rainfed farming and pastoral systems, (c) low rainfall savannah (clay) which are typified by low rainfall (400-900 mm) and clay soils, rainfed farming and pastoral livelihoods are the majorfarming systems in this zone. Both savannah types are characterized by a mixture ofgrassesandtrees;(d)highrainfallsavannahwhichischaracterizedbymoderatelyhighrainfall (800-1300 mm) and it represents area bordering the country of South Sudan including some parts from South Darfur and Nuba Mountains [127], [128], [125].

Based on FAO, report [125], [16], and FAO report on Nile Basin [99], the following farming systems are practiced in Sudan:

**1.** Irrigated farming systems: it occupies about 1, 86 million ha, dominated by gravity-supply type of irrigation. These are originally owned and managed by the public sector. The schemes are cultivated by thousands of tenant farmers and the main crops are cotton, wheat, groundnut and sorghum. Apart from these public large schemes, pump irrigation is also practiced. Performance problems in irrigation schemes include: inefficient water management; non-collection of water charges and land use fees; low productivity; large debt burdens; unsettled land rights; and inadequate financial and marketing services. On commercial basis, sugarcane for sugar industry is also widely practiced in the fertile delta lands between the Blue and White Niles. On small scale basis, there are considerable numbers of farmers practicing traditional irrigated farming along the Nile banks all over the Sudan.


### **5.10. Farming systems in Uganda**

**2. Traditional farming systems:** this is practiced in an area account for about 8.4 million ha where there is moderately sufficient rainfall. Over 70% of the population depends on this system for their livelihoods on crop production or livestock husbandry or both. It is dominated by small scale famers who typically live in conditions of persistence poverty and are reliant on rain-fed and traditional agricultural practices. They face challenges of climate change, droughts, rainfall variability, land degradation, desertification, low productivity and persistent food insecurity. This system includes millions of small scale subsistence farmers, who grow sorghum, millet, maize, sesame, and groundnut. They

**3. Rain-fed commercial semi-mechanized farming systems**: this has been developed on generally alkaline clay soils and loams. It is found in states of Gadaref, Blue Nile, White Nile, Sennar, and Southern Kordofan. These are mostly owned and managed by the private sector. Unfortunately, this system had been perceived as one of the wrong policies in the history of agriculture in Sudan. For example, Sulieman and Buchroithner [129] claimed that it has been the main contributing factor to deforestation and land degradation [129]. On the other hand, Sulieman and Elagib, [130] reported that, in recent decades, pastoralism has been in decline because of threats posed by rapid encroachment of mechanized rain-fed agriculture, human population growth and other human activities that force extensive livestock production to shift to areas of increasing marginal produc‐ tivity [130]. However, the changes in land use practices have brought nomads/pastoralists into conflict with farmers both on mechanized schemes and on traditional farms [131].

**4. Pastoral farming systems**: these are entirely raised on natural rangelands and are mainly semi-nomadic; however, nomadic and transhumance are also there to strategically utilize the available rangeland resources. Households move with their animals and spend the rainy season in the northern semiarid zone at places of availability of both pasture and water and where they can avoid biting insects and the muddy conditions. In the dry season, they move to the south, the savannah areas. In the Eastern and the Central areas of Sudan the migration is towards the Nile during the rainy season and back during the dry season. Movement is usually practiced along the livestock routes or corridors, traditionally known as 'Masarat' or Maraheel'. The major challenges include: shortage of water, animal feed, diseases, and horizontal expansion of mechanized, rain-fed cultiva‐ tion, land degradation, conflicts, and lack of capital and poor marketing services of the livestock products. It has been emphasized by Behnke [132] that unlike other countries in the region, pastoralism is not merely an occupation of the peripheral areas of Sudan; pastoral rangelands are distributed throughout Sudan, even in Khartoum State itself, and

**5. Agro-pastoral farming systems:** it is practiced under conditions fairly similar to those of pastoral systems, but differs in the slightly available water sources and growing of some crops. Crops are grown, but play a less significant role than in most other farming systems as moisture stress is a limiting critical factor on crop production. Livestock production is the main source of income and food. Among the constraints are some socio-cultural practices, land degradation, land tenure problems, diseases, lack of security and low

mainly depend on family labour and use of traditional tools.

are the backbone of livestock production in Sudan [132].

rainfall.

40 Agroecology

Uganda lies between latitudes 4° N to 1° S and longitude 29° E and 36° E. Although temperature variations may be significant, especially over high ground areas in western, eastern, south western and parts of northern Uganda, rainfall, like in many tropical areas largely determines the climatic sub-regions (agro-climatic zones) of the country. It also determines the spatial patterns of natural resources and land use activities [133] A large part of Uganda consists of a plateau, lying between 1000 and 2500 above sea level. Temperatures are moderate, between 15° and 30°C. Precipitation varies from 750 mm to 1500 mm. Due to climate change; the onset of the rainy season is increasingly unreliable, and rainfall distribution is more uneven with erratic, heavy rainfall events [134]. It is endowed with large fresh water resources and a high agricultural potential. The population, young and predominantly rural, is mostly engaged in subsistence rainfed farming. [135]. The main water bodies are Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake Kyoga, Lakes Edward and George. The main rivers include the Victoria Nile, and the Albert Nile [136]. The Nile Victoria divides the country in two parts, flowing from Lake Victoria at Jinja through Lake Kyoga to the northern tip of Lake Albert, and then north to South Sudan. The climate is tropical but mild because of the generally high altitude. The temperature ranges from about 16° to 29° C, with 1000 mm or more rainfall over most of the country. In the extreme north-east, in Karamoja, there is small zone with less than 500 mm of rainfall. Rainfall is bimodal in the central and western regions, and mono-modal in the northern and eastern regions. In the central and western regions, the months of December to mid-February and June to mid-August are usually dry periods [135]. Soil fertility varies according to the level of rainfall. The land is generally fertile in the central and western regions and becomes less fertile as one move to the east and the north [137].

CIAT [138] had defined, delineated and characterized about 33 agro-ecological zones for Uganda, and then they have been aggregated into 14 zones. A number of classifications of agricultural production systems have been developed for Uganda [138]. For example, five systems have been distinguished by NEMA [134]. These systems are: northern and eastern cereal-cotton-cattle, intensive banana-coffee, western banana-coffee-cattle, west Nile cerealcassava-tobacco, and Kigezi afromontane.

Based on these zones, Mwebaze [139]; Kabeere and Wulff [140]; Ronner and Giller [141]; classified the farming systems into seven as follows:

	- **a. Communal pastoral systems:** this is prevalent in the south west of the country, in the central areas, and in the north and north east. Indigenous breeds of cattle, goats and sheep are raised depending on natural grazing. Among the factors limiting produc‐ tion: water scarcity, sparse population, low vegetation with low grass quality, low literacy rate, lack of effective extension systems, breeds are genetically poor and wide spread diseases.
	- **b. Agro-pastoral system**: are sedentary farmers who grow food crops both for subsis‐ tence and sale, while keeping some livestock which graze on communal land, fallows and on crop residues. Nowadays, with the increase in population and land pressure, this system evolves into mixed farming. Among the limiting factors: little control over land, crop residues and other feed sources, high mortality rates, diseases, uncontrol‐ led mating, and reduced grazing time.
	- **c. Tethering system:** this semi-intensive system, where livestock are restrained by a rope, is common in urban, peri-urban and intensively cultivated areas where herd size is small. Crop production is the farmers' main activity. Among the limiting factors are: losses due to diseases and predators, scarcity of water and veterinary and extension services, negative genetic selection, no fodder banks and environmental degradation.
	- **d. Fenced dairy farming system:** this is an intensive or semi-intensive system of dairy farmers where farmers use part or all of their land to plant or improve pastures and grow fodder. They may also buy concentrates. This system is found in south Western Uganda Central and south eastern parts of Uganda.
