**6. Final consideration**

into rural communities [58]. Amigun *et al*. explored the community perspectives on the introduction of large-scale biodiesel production from canola (*Brassica napus*) and soybean (*Glycine max*) in South Africa [60]. The local population was overwhelmingly against the proposed biodiesel production. Their reasons for the rejection included a variety of especially social and environmental factors: land regarded as identity; competition with food security; distortion of the social community fabrics; doubts about the credibility of the developers and

Several studies pointed out that the acceptance of RET depends on the complex interaction of social, institutional, environmental and techno-economic factors on a very local level [61, 62]. Smallholder agricultural systems are very diverse and therefore an assessment of these factors on individual basis is required that is based on public participation and pooled learning among

IREPA provides a people-centred, bottom-up approach for the assessment of the implemen‐ tation potential of renewable energy technologies into smallholder agricultural systems [63]. This participatory approach explores the renewable resource base and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers to characterize the role of energy in the daily routine (social, institutional, environmental, technical, and economic factors) to select appropriate RET. The researcher acts as facilitator to guide the assessment while the local stakeholders become researchers who contribute knowledge and expertise. For that the IREPA approach comprises the following

**•** The assessment of local renewable resources based on a combination of statistical databases

**•** The exploration of local social, institutional, environmental, technical and economic factors at household and community level by employing "participatory learning and action

**•** The combination of locally available resources and relevant factors to pre-select and design

**•** A participatory identification of the most appropriate RET for implementation within a specific context using the multi-criteria decision analysis method "Analytical Hierarchy

This participatory, bottom-up research structure provides a shift from the traditional top-down approaches to a holistic consideration of the local diversity. It aims to successfully induce changes into prevailing structures and behaviour patterns of smallholder agricultural systems

An important impact to the ecological and economic performance of land use systems is the productivity of these systems. To address this, the selected land-use systems and their performance can be modelled by using the **Wa**ter, **Nu**trient, **L**ight **C**apture in **A**groforestry **S**ystems model. This model deals with a wide range of agroforestry systems and annual single

with global coverage and on-ground measurements for biogenic resources;

**•** A participatory assessment of the impacts of these RETs on local livelihoods;

in order to make sustainable use of the local natural resource base.

possible air and water pollution with respect to health risks of local population.

the relevant stakeholders [60].

research methods" [64, 65].

locally appropriate RETs;

Process" (AHP) [66].

steps [63]:

136 Agroecology

More and more countries on all continents are developing bio-economy strategies striving for the sustainable use of renewable resources, especially biomass. Beginning with the develop‐ ment of bioenergy programs, bio-economic activities are growing rapidly in several countries and require an increasing supply of sustainably produced biomass. Here, the use of genetic resources to develop existing and new crops for a variety of applications in bio-based products can play an important role because bio-based products with new and improved properties also require a range of biomass properties. However, the development of bio-economies should not make the same mistakes that were observed in the development of modern bioenergies, such as transportation biofuels. The development of the modern bioenergy sector neglected the demands of smallholder farmers, who in the end did not benefit from the activities surrounding bioenergy but rather suffered the effects of land grabbing. Another much criticized effect of modern bioenergy development was the concentration on a few major crops only, such as maize or oil palm. Therefore we suggest that bio-economy strategies should ensure sustainable development of the biomass resource by:

**a.** *Ex-ante* assessment of the potential impacts of biomass production and supply systems

In section 5 of this chapter, various instruments were suggested for assessing the ecological and social impacts of biomass production systems which can be applied to *ex-ante* analysis and the planning of sustainable biomass production and supply systems.

**b.** Involving stakeholders and smallholder farmers

Acceptance of new technologies or crops and varieties is the pre-requisite for their implemen‐ tation. Therefore their development should involve stakeholders, in particular smallholder farmers. Their involvement would not only improve the chances of implementation but also incorporate local or indigenous knowledge into developments.

**c.** Using genetic resources for developing new bio-economy crops or improved varieties

As discussed in this contribution there are many untapped genetic resources, most of them close to important agricultural centres. Demand for new crops and improved varieties for a bio-economy requires specific biomass properties on the one side, but also ecological require‐ ments, such as nutrient- and water-use efficiency and stress resistance on the other. Therefore, in particular multi-purpose crops that integrate different land-use functions and biomass-use options appear most interesting for a future bio-economy. An example for such a multipurpose crop was discussed in this contribution using the example of the macaw palm. This palm can grow under conditions of abiotic stresses, such as drought, and also contributes through its perennial character to soil carbon sequestration and erosion prevention. Its products are manifold allowing the integration of food, feed, fibre, and fuel production.

**d.** Development of sustainable biomass production concepts

The increasing demand for biomass leads to increasing pressure on land which can result in land-use changes, such as conversion from grassland to crop land. Recent findings from marginal grasslands show that increasing pressure on them can negatively influence ecosys‐ tem functioning, potentially compromising long-term production potentials. On the other hand, grassland communities in Europe suffer from mismanagement or under-management. In Europe many grasslands are no longer harvested due to the decreasing demand for roughage fodder. However, the maintenance of different grassland species requires cutting, but in regimes that are adapted to the ecological needs of grassland species. Therefore, biomass production concepts need to be developed that integrate production and ecological functions. Understanding the direct, indirect, and interactive effects of land-use changes on communities and ecosystems can help to better assess and balance such inherent trade-offs among multiple ecosystem functions [76].

There is need to prove such findings for other tropical environments such as rainforests on which a strong pressure lasts due to global interest on crops such as soybean and African oil palm. The pressure on ecosystems resulting from the production of traded biomass, however, is highly variable between regions and products. Biomass consumption and trade are expected to surge over the next decades, suggesting a need to sustainably manage supply and demand of products of ecosystems on a global level [77].

There is need to find a way how to share and preserve biomes rich in species. Crops and other domesticated plants have a higher mobility than wild species and are already adapted to a wide range of environments due to anthropogenic influence in the past. Potentially new crops have undergone only little human selection if it all and are, hence, less well adapted to changes. In terms of gathered wild plants this may even be more severe. Recent studies indicate that under appropriate conditions, most native taxa may be sustainable within anthromes while at the same time increasing anthrome productivity in support of human populations [78]. The gaining economic interest on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and their sustainable use will contribute to a better recognition and esteem of biomes hosting them. Proper rules for data and information exchange, for using plant genetic resources and indigenous knowledge are required. There is need for improving the south-north dialogue and creating the ground for south-south cooperation at international level to avoid further degradation, land grabbing and bio-piracy and foster local initiatives to safeguard locations rich in biodiversity and preserve land races *in-situ* on farmers' fields. As Robert Green Ingersoll, a British philosopher and ecologist of the 18th century, once said: "In nature there are neither rewards nor punishments – there are consequences" or in other words: Either we improve the conservation of plant genetic resources or we lose them forever without having had any opportunity to explore their potential.
