**6. Conclusions, recommendations and policy implications**

### **6.1. Conclusions**

**4. The teso system:** the area receives bimodal rainfall on sandy loams of medium to low fertility. The dry season is longer from December to March. The vegetation is moist and grass savannas, short grassland which is ideal for grazing. Main crops are millet, maize, sorghum, cotton and oil seed crops. Mixed agriculture (crops and livestock) is practiced.

**5. The northern system**: the rainfall in this system is less pronouncedly bimodal with about 800 mm annually. The dry season is so severe that drought tolerant annuals are cultivated; these include finger millet, sesame, cassava, and sorghum. Tobacco and cotton are the major cash crops. The grassland is short and communal grazing abounds. This area is well

**6. The West Nile system:** the rainfall pattern resembles that of the northern system, with more rain at higher altitudes. Mixed cropping is common with a wide variety of crops. Livestock activities are limited by the presence of tsetse fly. Tobacco and cotton are also

**7. The pastoral system:** this system covers some districts in the north-east, parts of Western and Central districts. Annual rainfall is low (less than 100 mm). The system is character‐ ized by short grassland where pastoralism prevails with nomadic extensive grazing. The livestock production systems are generally two main groups according to Mbuza [142], they are: the traditional systems and the improved systems. However, according to Mwebaze [139] and based on the grazing methods, there are about seven livestock

**a. Communal pastoral systems:** this is prevalent in the south west of the country, in the central areas, and in the north and north east. Indigenous breeds of cattle, goats and sheep are raised depending on natural grazing. Among the factors limiting produc‐ tion: water scarcity, sparse population, low vegetation with low grass quality, low literacy rate, lack of effective extension systems, breeds are genetically poor and wide

**b. Agro-pastoral system**: are sedentary farmers who grow food crops both for subsis‐ tence and sale, while keeping some livestock which graze on communal land, fallows and on crop residues. Nowadays, with the increase in population and land pressure, this system evolves into mixed farming. Among the limiting factors: little control over land, crop residues and other feed sources, high mortality rates, diseases, uncontrol‐

**c. Tethering system:** this semi-intensive system, where livestock are restrained by a rope, is common in urban, peri-urban and intensively cultivated areas where herd size is small. Crop production is the farmers' main activity. Among the limiting factors are: losses due to diseases and predators, scarcity of water and veterinary and extension services, negative genetic selection, no fodder banks and environmental

**d. Fenced dairy farming system:** this is an intensive or semi-intensive system of dairy farmers where farmers use part or all of their land to plant or improve pastures and grow fodder. They may also buy concentrates. This system is found in south Western

Livestock are kept extensively in those areas which are tsetse-fly free.

known for its pastoral system with semi-nomadic cattle herding.

the major cash crops.

42 Agroecology

production systems, namely:

spread diseases.

degradation.

led mating, and reduced grazing time.

Uganda Central and south eastern parts of Uganda.

It is apparent from the different parts covered by this chapter that any single agricultural system is open to both nature and the society existing around it or more specifically to both the bio-physical and socio-economic entities.

The analysis of farming systems is perhaps one of the instruments adopted to study, among others, agricultural policies at national, regional and even at global level. It will also provide a framework of analysis to consider the different agro-ecological zones available in one setting i.e. a country or a region as well the socio-economic characterization of the population and their livelihoods. Within that framework changes in policies and other factors that negatively or positively impact levels of agricultural production in each system, could be foreseen. However, both homogeneity and heterogeneity of bio-physical and socio-economic constitu‐ ents of each agricultural system could be identified and used as variables within that analysis. In this regard, it may worth mentioning that, each farming system has its own characteristics in terms of its physical environments, market linkages, household traits and other social and economic characteristics. These characteristics of the analyzed farming system will act as pillars upon which any changes in production within the boundaries of that system are possible.

From socio-economic point of view, in addition to the available set of secondary data, about each farming system, detailed set of primary data, as well, will be needed to help knowing the developments and opportunities within the farming system under investigation. However, the detailed data will make possible grouping of the producers in each system into socioeconomic strata within their corresponding livelihood systems. In addition to that, the socioeconomic characterization of each system will be identified and knowing this at national level allows reviewing of the possible policy change or impact. At the regional level, the aggregated policy change will be examined for further adjustments and harmonization. Knowing of these detailed characteristics of each farming system is required urgently under the current global, regional and national concerns, such as climatic risks, poverty levels, environmental risks. As well, identifying the limiting constraints for the performance of each farming system is also valuable particularly for tailoring appropriate interventions that can bring some change in terms of practical solutions. Of course, tailoring of these interventions as practical solutions would mean considering the basic idea of being profitable, co-efficient and sustainable innovative solutions.

The Horn of Africa region is well endowed with natural resources, yet its countries still facing severe incidences of famine and poverty, compared with other developing regions. Agricul‐ tural sector in these countries represent the backbone of their economies, yet still unable to perform efficiently. The analysis of the farming systems existing in the region and its countries indicates the following remarks:


#### **6.2. Recommendations and policy implications**

detailed characteristics of each farming system is required urgently under the current global, regional and national concerns, such as climatic risks, poverty levels, environmental risks. As well, identifying the limiting constraints for the performance of each farming system is also valuable particularly for tailoring appropriate interventions that can bring some change in terms of practical solutions. Of course, tailoring of these interventions as practical solutions would mean considering the basic idea of being profitable, co-efficient and sustainable

The Horn of Africa region is well endowed with natural resources, yet its countries still facing severe incidences of famine and poverty, compared with other developing regions. Agricul‐ tural sector in these countries represent the backbone of their economies, yet still unable to perform efficiently. The analysis of the farming systems existing in the region and its countries

**1.** The Horn of Africa is diverse; its countries share specific characteristics. Their populations are divided along ethnic, border and religious lines. The region is the least developed food

**2.** Some of the studied farming systems lie within broad altitudinal and latitudinal ranges

**3.** Most of them are heterogynous in nature, some are sparsely populated, others are densely, and ranging from highlands to low and dry land environments, ranging from purely irrigated to mostly rain-fed systems and some are specialized in terms of the produce,

**4.** They are characterized by duality in terms of presence of traditional practice alongside somewhat modernized practices. Some of them are purely subsistence while others are market oriented. There is weak engagement of the private sector in this sector in general.

**5.** Some of them although found in higher potential areas but they show very poor agricul‐ tural performance compared to those at lower potential areas. This implies that the agro-

**6.** Some of them are found at poor agro-ecological conditions while others are at good and

**7.** There are no clear linkages between these farming systems and the input and output markets. There are also weak land management practices together with weak extension

**8.** For both crop and animal agriculture, there seem clear symptoms of poverty incidences

**9.** Farming systems existing in the region are highly dynamic which necessitates the need for understanding them carefully in order to adopt sustainable interventions that may

**10.** Productivity levels for most of the studied farming systems are very low and they lack understanding about how to cater for sustainability and efficient use of resources.

ecological zone though very important, but not the only factor.

bring positive change for the people and their livelihoods.

unsecured, poorest and conflicted region in the world.

that lead to a wide agro-ecological categorization.

while others are run on multi-products nature.

relatively good agro-ecological conditions.

particularly for smallholder producers.

service delivery.

innovative solutions.

44 Agroecology

indicates the following remarks:

Based on the preceding analysis of farming system in the region, the following recommenda‐ tions and priority interventions could be indicated to help overcoming some of the challenges faced these systems:

	- **a.** The management-related problems could be dealt with through inclusion of farmers in the management board of these schemes.
	- **b.** The water-related ones can be solved through formation of water users associations.
	- **c.** The problems related to land issues could be seen under formulation of proper land policies.
	- **d.** Soil-related issues such as decline in fertility is better be managed through natural fertilization and inter-cropping.
