**4. Examples for the potential of introducing underused genetic resources**

Globally, we are facing a pressure on vegetable oil markets with an increasing demand for food, fuel and chemical applications of vegetable oils on the one hand, and a limited potential for a sustainable extension of vegetable oil production on the other hand. The increasing demand for vegetable oils has led to the steep increase of oil palm production area in South-East Asia, nearly all of it on the cost of rainforest area and dramatic losses of biodiversity. In Europe the production of rapeseed oil increased strongly, too, on the expense of high inputs of agrochemicals. Rapeseed is one of the most demanding crops, requiring high inputs of nitrogen fertilizer and up to a dozen of applications of pesticides and insecticides. A further extension of rapeseed in Europe is limited by the availability of suitable land and narrow crop sequences.

There is lack of proper research, training, and socio-economic information to produce biofuels in a sustainable way. Hence, research in agriculture has to set a focus on improved crop selection based on the local situation and on management options including cultivation, management of pests and diseases, mechanisation, and harvesting. Furthermore, it is neces‐ sary to adapt cropping systems to local soil conditions and use by-products of biofuel crops to increase the efficiency of nutrient use and decrease negative influences on the environment.

**•** *In-situ* conservation which is the protection of biological resources in their native environ‐ ments and within naturally established and evolving populations, e.g. networks of protect‐ ed areas which are ecologically representative of the forest types present on the landscape; sustainable forest management practices, ensuring that harvesting practices are genetically sustainable and ecologically compatible with the natural regeneration of target species, maintaining locally adapted gene pools and their genetic diversity *in situ*, and conforming with the requirements of other forest-dependent species that affect forest regeneration and

**•** *Ex-situ* conservation, particularly where *in-situ* conservation cannot be practiced or will not be sufficient to ensure adequate protection for genetic resources including germplasm banks and common garden archives, seed banks, tissue and cell cultures, cryopreservation, and

Both approaches can also be applied to conserve agro-biodiversity where many land-races have vanished since the green revolution in the 1960ies. However, effectively conserving wild biodiversity in agricultural landscapes will require increased research, policy coordination, and strategic support to agricultural communities and conservationists [38]. Research needs to address open questions regarding the minimum size and level of area connectivity required to conserve biodiversity *in-situ* at landscape level. *Ex-situ* conservation is biased by human decisions. But where shall we set priorities for sampling? Who pays for the costs of collecting and sustaining such kind of environmental services? Can value be added by exploring options for development of bio-products? Identifying common priorities in shared natural resource systems, however, is a major step in sharing a common responsibility in addressing climate

**4. Examples for the potential of introducing underused genetic resources**

Globally, we are facing a pressure on vegetable oil markets with an increasing demand for food, fuel and chemical applications of vegetable oils on the one hand, and a limited potential for a sustainable extension of vegetable oil production on the other hand. The increasing demand for vegetable oils has led to the steep increase of oil palm production area in South-East Asia, nearly all of it on the cost of rainforest area and dramatic losses of biodiversity. In Europe the production of rapeseed oil increased strongly, too, on the expense of high inputs of agrochemicals. Rapeseed is one of the most demanding crops, requiring high inputs of nitrogen fertilizer and up to a dozen of applications of pesticides and insecticides. A further

This is essential for the sustainable production of bio-fuel crops [36]. There are two main approaches to conserve plant genetic resources:

health.

130 Agroecology

DNA banks [37].

change and associated problems.

All over the world, we find various activities on testing and promoting plant genetic resources for vegetable oil and biofuel production. For this purpose especially plant species which do not compete with food crops growing on less fertile land are of particular interest. So far, real success stories, if at all, are rare. *Jatropha curcas*, a species endemic to the Brazilian cerrados, nowadays widely spread in the tropical zone received strong public attention in the past but never fulfilled people's partly exaggerated expectations [39]. Many studies on this species are very enthusiastic on reclaiming wasteland while simultaneously producing high oil yields. This often contributes to hype these species, although sound fundamental research is lacking to backup and foster farmers' adaptation [40].

Jatropha has gained international recognition as feedstock for bio-diesel production in the early 1980s. Its properties convinced investors, policy makers and clean development mech‐ anism (CDM) project developers to consider it as a promising substitute for fossil fuel. Its toxic compounds exclude jatropha from human consumption. The same is true for the protein-rich press cake remaining after oil extraction which, hence, cannot be used as animal feedstuff. Jatropha grows on poor soil but yields are also poor under such conditions. This species is open-pollinating which hampers selection of specific lines for developing non-toxic varieties by breeding. Another advantage, often mentioned when arguing for this species is that jatropha is drought-resistant and well adopted to erratic rainfall conditions. Propagated by seeds it develops a deep rooting system. This is not the case when propagated by woody stem cuttings. Then, for higher yields sufficient water needs to be supplied in semi-arid or subhumid regions with erratic rainfall conditions, particularly during early growth [39].

Jatropha, however, is partly still a wild plant of which basic agronomic properties are not fully understood, while environmental effects have not been investigated yet. Main knowledge gaps are found in the cultivation of the crop, for both a description of best practice as for describing the potential environmental risks or benefits. Therefore, fueling the jatropha bio-diesel hype has to be handled with care, unless the before mentioned knowledge gaps are closed by sound research [40].

The process of introduction of jatropha was characterized by top-down approaches, often neglecting the needs and involvement of local farmers. This often led to non-acceptance or even resistance against jatropha plantations [41]. Another obstacle is the fact that jatropha products are non-edible. Many farmers that have been establishing jatropha in Africa, partially on land previously used for food production, and that did not find a market or processing facility for the jatropha nuts, cannot use the products in case food is needed. This questions the approach of planting crops that deliver non-edible products because there is no flexibility in use deciding for either food or fuel use.

Activities in the biofuel sector are also driven by external forces, e.g. environmental concerns or a growing worldwide demand for biofuel, which generates political action. Brazil's government initiated a national bio-diesel policy, promoting feedstock supply from family farms. Especially in semi-arid regions, farmers have been encouraged to grow castor beans; however farmers' uptake of improved varieties was poor as the majority of farmers face great challenges associated with limited market access, top-down trading conditions, and lack of farmers' association fostering their market position. A stronger policy impact could be achieved by promoting bio-diesel crops that have alternative markets and fit more easily into the current farming system, reducing trade-offs with current crop activities and allowing synergies between fuel and feed production. Better enforcement of resource providing contracts is critical to avoid default and to alleviate labour and land constraints, thereby improving farmers' ability to engage in bio-diesel crop production [42].

In this context, another example endemic to the neotropics - the oil-producing macaw palm (*Acrocomia aculeata*) - has to be mentioned. Macaw palm recently gained economic importance in Paraguay and Brazil. In contrast to the African oil palm (*Elaeis guineensis*), it is adapted to a much wider range of environmental conditions which allows its production outside of the humid tropical zone, reducing negative impact on tropical rain forests. Another advantage of macaw palm is that it does not contain toxic compounds. The palm is a non-domesticated species with a high yield potential of an estimated 2.5 to 10.9 tons oil per hectare and year [43-45] and a life time of 70 years [46]. It grows well under various soil and weather conditions, naturally occurring in tropical and subtropical environments from southern Mexico to northern Paraguay and Argentina [46, 47]. It is often found on degraded grasslands as single trees, providing some extra feed to cattle which eat both, the fruits and leaves. The palms sustain longer periods without rain, and dry periods may last up to several months. Macaw palm fruits have a wide range of market opportunities with local and international perspec‐ tives as they are able to provide food, feed, fibre, and fuel (Fig. 2) [45]. The production and use of macaw palm can, therefore, provide a good example for a bio-economy crop that can fulfil food and fuel demands at the same time. Macaw palms growing in the Brazilian cerrados show a huge variability in biomass production and oil yield within and across various sites which highlights the importance of protecting biodiversity hotspots as source of future crops and in view of their domestication potential [48].

**Figure 2.** Processing, dry matter yield fractions and uses of macaw palm products [45]
