**2. History of vascular access**

In 1924, Haas [14] carried out the first hemodialysis treatment in humans using glass needles in radial and cubital vein. In 1943, Kolff used venipuncture needles in the femoral artery and vein [15, 16]. Kolff's [17] twin-coil kidney made regular hemodialysis treatments possible in 1950s, making the need of a safe, reliable, long-lasting VA more imperative.

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Aubaniac [18], in 1952, described the puncture of subclavian vein as a VA, while, in the 1960s, Dillard, Quinton, and Scribner [19], based on Alwall's experience, developed arteriovenous Teflon shunt inserted into radial artery and cephalic vein. Flexible silicon rubber replaced later Teflon. Based on Seldinger's technique, Shaldon inserted catheters into femoral artery and vein for dialysis sessions in 1961 [20, 21]. Vessels in different sites were used, over time, including the subclavian, jugular, and femoral vein.

Cimino and Brescia [22] described, in 1962, a "simple venipuncture for hemodialysis." Fogarty et al. [23] invented, in 1963, a special designed catheter for thrombectomy and embolectomy with an inflatable balloon at its distal tip. In 1965, the first AVF was created, and 14 more in 1966 when Brescia, Cimino, Appel, and Hurwich published their paper [24]. Sperling [25], in 1967, created an end-to-end anastomosis in the forearm, between radial artery and cephalic vein, in 15 patients, whereas Appell did side-to-side anastomosis. End-to-end anastomosis usually is not the first choice of AVF due to high risk of steal syndrome in aging, diabetic patients of dialysis, but it remains a useful option in revision procedures, although it is correlated with higher mortality risk from infections [26].

Nowadays, artery side-to-vein anastomosis seems to be a standard procedure [27], which began from Rohl et al. [28] in 1968. Girardet et al. [29] and Brittinger et al. [30] in 1970 described their experience with AVG between femoral vein and artery and subcutaneously fixed superficial femoral artery for chronic HD. Brittinger et al. [31] were the first to implant a plastic valve as a vascular access in an animal model, but unfortunately, their efforts did not proceed to a human one. In the early 1970s, Buselmeier et al. [32] developed a U-shaped silastic prosthetic AV shunt with either one or two Teflon plugged outlets, which communicated to the outside of the body. The U-shaped portion could be totally or partially implanted subcu‐ taneously. Subsequently, pediatric hemodialysis patients were extremely favored by this procedure. In 1976, Baker [33] presented expanded PTFE grafts in 72 hemodialysis patients. In the subsequent years, several publications indicated the benefits and the shortcomings of the prosthetic material in question, remaining the primary choice of graft for hemodialysis VA to date. The same year, two authors, Mindich and Dardik, had worked with a new graft material: the human umbilical cord vein [34, 35]. Regrettably so, this material did not succeed in becoming a revolutionary graft material due to its inadequate resistance against the trauma of repeated cannulations and their complications (aneurysm and infection). After the subcla‐ vian route for hemodialysis access was firstly introduced by Shaldon in 1961, it was further processed in 1969 by Josef Erben, using the intraclavicular route [36]. In the next 20 years or so, the subclavian vein was the preferred access for temporary vascular access by central venous catheterization. Today, due to phlebographic studies revealing a 50% stenosis or occlusion rate at the cannulation site, subclavian route has been discarded. Subclavian stenosis and occlusion predispose to edema of the arm, especially after creation of an AV fistula [37].

The first angioplasty described by Dotter et al. [38], who introduced a type of balloon, was immensely conducive to the resolution of one of the most significant predicaments in vascular surgery and vascular access surgery.

In 1977, Gracz et al. [39] created the "proximal forearm fistula for maintenance hemodialysis," a variant of an AV anastomosis. An adjustment of this AVF became quite significant in the old, hypertensive, and diabetic patients on the grounds that it allows a proximal anastomosis with a low risk of hyper circulation [40]. In 1979, Golding et al. [41] developed a "carbon transcu‐ taneous hemodialysis access device" (CATD), commonly known as "button," as a blood access not requiring needle puncture. As a procedure of the third choice, these devices were expensive and never gained widespread acceptance. Shapiro et al. [42] described another type of "button," a device similar to that developed by Golding.
