Preface

**Section 3 Teaching Entrepreneurial Skills: Experiences 139**

**Education 141** Anna Pawłowska

**VI** Contents

**Scenario 225**

**Education 245**

**Viewpoint 247**

Wan Daud

**and Perspectives 171** Sílvio Manuel Brito

**Cross-Cultural Perspective 201** Iiris Aaltio and Qian Wang

Chapter 11 **Training New Housing Entrepreneurs — A Malaysian**

**Section 4 Orientations and Reflections on Entrepreneurial**

Chapter 13 **Mismatch in Teachers' Ontological Conception of Entrepreneurship Education 261** Kaarlo Paloniemi and Pekka Belt

Chapter 8 **Customer Orientation of Current and Future Entrepreneurs in Research Using Projection Methods — Implications for**

Chapter 9 **Teaching and Detecting The Creative Potential — Experience**

Chapter 10 **Entrepreneurship Education as Learning to Form Identities —**

Chapter 12 **New Perspectives in Entrepreneurship Education — A Brazilian**

Mastura Jaafar, Syed Putra Syed Abu Bakar and Wan Mohd Dzulkifli

Eric Charles Henri Dorion, Cristine Hermann Nodari, Pelayo Munhoz Olea, Paula Patricia Ganzer and Claudio Baltazar Côrrea de Mello

Today entrepreneurship is seen as a solution for the fast changing economic demands worldwide and has been recognized as a path to sustainable economic development. De‐ spite recognition of entrepreneurship on the road to global economic development (e.g., Acs and Audretsch 2010), a large body of research on the elements of entrepreneurship educa‐ tion (Block and Stumpf 1992; Fayolle 2005; Honig 2004) remains unresolved.

The study of entrepreneurship education has examined the traits and characteristics of en‐ trepreneurs (Dyer 1994; McClelland 1987). One such feature is the motivation and determi‐ nants of motivation, which have been and continue to be the focus of many studies (Shane, Locke, and Collins 2003).

Other features include, for example, the existence of an entrepreneurial family, education level, role models, or desire to change (McMullen and Shepherd 2006). A current topic of study revolves around the recognition of opportunities and entrepreneurship based on op‐ portunities (Grégoire and Shepherd 2012). Other topics include the need for achievement, goal setting, risk tolerance, uncertainty tolerance, and self-efficacy.

The other step in the study of entrepreneurship education is to analyze the effectiveness of different entrepreneurial education programs. Recent research has shown conflicting results providing positive and negative results. Examples of a positive result are an increased opti‐ mism and a positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions (Sánchez, 2013). Examples of nega‐ tive results are found in von Graevenitz, Harhoff, y Weber (2010).

Entrepreneurship is a set of features that can be learned and therefore can be taught. In fact, over 25 years ago Ronstadt (1987) raised the question of what should be taught and how it should be taught. However, little agreement remains today on both the methods used and the specific elements to teaching entrepreneurship (Neck and Greene 2011). There is also a wide variety of approaches with little agreement between them (e.g., Peterman and Ken‐ nedy 2003). Moreover, students learn at different rates, have different motivations, start with different knowledge bases, have different levels of experience, and have access to dif‐ ferent resource networks. These distinguishing features are also found in teachers having different specialties, disciplines, different levels of capacity, and different resources and so‐ cial networks. However, despite these differentiating factors, interest in entrepreneurship education continues to rise worldwide, both in quantity and quality.

To try to iron out these differences, Shane (2012), and Eckhardt and Shane (2013) introduced the relationship "individual-opportunity". Entrepreneurship education should take into ac‐ count this complex interaction between the entrepreneur and opportunity. This vision is al‐ so supported by Garud and Giuliani (2013), when they argue that the entrepreneurial path is dynamic and requires ongoing adjustment in any of the identified threads of the entrepre‐ neurial process (e.g. scanning, identification and evaluation). These threads will depend on the subjective interpretation that entrepreneurs make, and opportunities may be limited by the educator and the educational ecosystem in which the entrepreneur operates. Therefore, entrepreneurship education, in part, must focus on an individual level and can not be a gen‐ eralized process that can be introduced at any institution of higher education.

According to Dale Meyer (2011), academic field of entrepreneurship is "stalled" due to the use of econometric methodologies and secondary databases that "distance researchers from actual people and behaviors that catalyze entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship" (p.7). But we do not see this as a problem but as an opportunity and this means; for example, that our students are outside their current environments where they are studying. On the other hand, not only do we need our students to be out of class, but we also need to get out of our offices directly and share these experiences with our students. All this means a radical trans‐ formation of existing pedagogical models, an intellectual revolution carried out by teachers and students.

Although this approach has its risks, it is true that in an extremely dynamic environment where we live, if educators hope to have enough information to act, a history of cases con‐ solidated, sufficient resources, etc., then indecision overtakes the decision. A commitment for students to find opportunities invited to failure, criticism and discouragement may exist. But in our role as educators, we must teach and model our students to overcome these diffi‐ culties, in short, we must be a good example of entrepreneurs.

This is the purpose for which this book has been written and we've structured it into four sections.

In the first section, we collect the papers produced from four continents. From the continent of Africa, Professor Wilfred Isak April explores the Spirit of Entrepreneurial Education in Namibia and serves a springboard for many more experiments and studies to be conducted in Namibia. The second chapter travels to America, specifically Brazil. Dr. Silveira Leite presents some recent literature on aspiring female entrepreneurs in order to argue about the social (re)signification that relates the role of women in family and society, approaching the transformation of evaluative concepts that surround the socio-economic life of women through books and websites that encourage entrepreneurship and economic decision practi‐ ces to reach financial independence. From Asia, Professor Li Wemming addresses the prob‐ lem of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities. After decades of development, audience and penetration of entrepreneurship education at Universities is gradually increas‐ ing, and entrepreneurship education has also changed from the early entrepreneurship, rais‐ ing the quality and diversified educational styles mode. Overall, entrepreneurship education at Universities has profoundly changed in terms of educational forms, education‐ al contents, education models and so on. However, because of the short period and low starting point of entrepreneurship education in Chinese Universities, the present entrepre‐ neurship education in Chinese Universities still has problems. And from Europe, Professor Sanchez makes a journey through various programs of entrepreneurship education in differ‐ ent regions of Spain. *"Our aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of the situation in Spain today and help design future actions trust to serve as a stimulus to value these experiences"* .

In the second section, "Experiences in Entrepreneurship Education," Carvalho and Franco intended to explain the need to form partnerships to promote entrepreneurship education, how those partnerships are characterized, the obstacles faced in forming and maintaining these relationships and their success factors. Therefore, this study intends to respond to two research questions: (1) What is the structure and functioning of the relationships formed by the school with local and regional bodies to promote entrepreneurship education, and (2) What is the contribution of the relationships formed by the school with local and regional bodies to promote entrepreneurship education.

dynamic and requires ongoing adjustment in any of the identified threads of the entrepre‐ neurial process (e.g. scanning, identification and evaluation). These threads will depend on the subjective interpretation that entrepreneurs make, and opportunities may be limited by the educator and the educational ecosystem in which the entrepreneur operates. Therefore, entrepreneurship education, in part, must focus on an individual level and can not be a gen‐

According to Dale Meyer (2011), academic field of entrepreneurship is "stalled" due to the use of econometric methodologies and secondary databases that "distance researchers from actual people and behaviors that catalyze entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship" (p.7). But we do not see this as a problem but as an opportunity and this means; for example, that our students are outside their current environments where they are studying. On the other hand, not only do we need our students to be out of class, but we also need to get out of our offices directly and share these experiences with our students. All this means a radical trans‐ formation of existing pedagogical models, an intellectual revolution carried out by teachers

Although this approach has its risks, it is true that in an extremely dynamic environment where we live, if educators hope to have enough information to act, a history of cases con‐ solidated, sufficient resources, etc., then indecision overtakes the decision. A commitment for students to find opportunities invited to failure, criticism and discouragement may exist. But in our role as educators, we must teach and model our students to overcome these diffi‐

This is the purpose for which this book has been written and we've structured it into four

In the first section, we collect the papers produced from four continents. From the continent of Africa, Professor Wilfred Isak April explores the Spirit of Entrepreneurial Education in Namibia and serves a springboard for many more experiments and studies to be conducted in Namibia. The second chapter travels to America, specifically Brazil. Dr. Silveira Leite presents some recent literature on aspiring female entrepreneurs in order to argue about the social (re)signification that relates the role of women in family and society, approaching the transformation of evaluative concepts that surround the socio-economic life of women through books and websites that encourage entrepreneurship and economic decision practi‐ ces to reach financial independence. From Asia, Professor Li Wemming addresses the prob‐ lem of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities. After decades of development, audience and penetration of entrepreneurship education at Universities is gradually increas‐ ing, and entrepreneurship education has also changed from the early entrepreneurship, rais‐ ing the quality and diversified educational styles mode. Overall, entrepreneurship education at Universities has profoundly changed in terms of educational forms, education‐ al contents, education models and so on. However, because of the short period and low starting point of entrepreneurship education in Chinese Universities, the present entrepre‐ neurship education in Chinese Universities still has problems. And from Europe, Professor Sanchez makes a journey through various programs of entrepreneurship education in differ‐ ent regions of Spain. *"Our aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of the situation in Spain*

*today and help design future actions trust to serve as a stimulus to value these experiences"* .

In the second section, "Experiences in Entrepreneurship Education," Carvalho and Franco intended to explain the need to form partnerships to promote entrepreneurship education,

eralized process that can be introduced at any institution of higher education.

culties, in short, we must be a good example of entrepreneurs.

and students.

VIII Preface

sections.

Mojca Duh, Marina Letonja and Jaka Vadnja explore family small or medium-sized firms (SMEs) which are challenged by a succession in Slovenia and how entrepreneurialism and knowledge transfer contribute to effective succession in family SMEs. Upon the results of interviews with 20 founders (owners/managers) and their successors in family SMEs in Slovenia, these authors believe that *"entrepreneurialism (entrepreneurial competences of succes‐ sors) and knowledge transfer (especially tacit one - from founders to successors) in different forms are found very important and are crucial for effective succession in family SMEs, thus contributing to long-term sustainability of the family firms".*

Dambusse Libombo, Anabela Dinis and Mário Franco discuss the issue of cooperation net‐ works as a learning instrument and how they can be used for the development of entrepre‐ neurial skills of teachers in higher education. More specifically, these authors seek to identify how this type of university networks can be decisive for the development of teach‐ ers' skills and for the promotion of entrepreneurship, in particular in the context of develop‐ ing countries. The main argument presented in this chapter is that, especially in these countries that have major weaknesses concerning entrepreneurial culture and human capi‐ tal, collaborative partnerships with other international and national universities and organi‐ sations are fundamental for the generation and spread of knowledge and entrepreneurial mind.

In the third section, "Teaching Entrepreneurial Skills: Experiences", the theme of the poten‐ tial sources of ineffectiveness in entrepreneurial education is addressed by professor Paw‐ łowska. The aim of this chapter was therefore to determine whether, in the cognitive systems, beliefs and perceptions of those involved in entrepreneurship, these elements are present. From the point of view of conducting business effectively, their presence would in‐ dicate a satisfactory level of consumer orientation competence. This would mean that they are cognitively able to take a pro-customer perspective and it is likely that this will translate into behaviour. Above all, however, they actually utilise the knowledge obtained in the for‐ mal learning process. The data obtained show that a significant proportion of respondents have consumer orientation competence at a very low level.

Professor Silvio M. Brito addresses the issue of creativity, how to identify the creative poten‐ tial of entrepreneurs and how to teach and promote creativity. *"Given some constructive defi‐ ciency in the data analysis of investigations, we hope it will be applied to more disciplines, courses and professions, and also to age. In the analysis of the samples, it was found that is very difficult to find a "pure creative". The scientific community must extend this theme to these conditions, to crea‐ tivity consulting firms, teachers and students, and also extend the study to genetic studies, brain studies, biological studies, motivational studies, and to all types of interpersonal relationship, and use higher samples to cover larger universes and increase the probability of finding pure creative people."*

The question of entrepreneurs' professional identity and related cross-cultural issues is tack‐ led by the professors Iiris Aaltio and Qian Wang. They believe that there is a need for new skills such as generalist skills, social skills and abilities for creating and sustaining new,

complex trust-based business networks. They believe entrepreneurship education can pro‐ mote such abilities. In this chapter they explore how research on entrepreneurship and en‐ trepreneurship education worldwide has taken account of the new requirements for flexible entrepreneurial identities, and what are the essential elements of recent high-quality re‐ search and what can be learnt from this for the future.

Finally, the authors, Mastura Jaafar, Syed Putra Syed Abu Bakar and Wan Mohd Dzulkifli Wan Daud address an entrepreneurial skill understudied in the literature and considered by these authors as relevant in the context of Malaysia where they develop their work, the housing: *the main objective of this endeavor is to "turn the potential entrepreneurs into knowledgea‐ ble housing developers" with marketing, management, and basic financial skills.* In this chapter, the authors develop the courses, and their effectiveness has been conducted on this entrepre‐ neurial skill.

In the last section we address some orientations and reflections on entrepreneurship educa‐ tion. Specifically, Dorion et al. consider the dimensions of globalization, culture and educa‐ tion, on one hand, the dimensions of change, uncertainty, learning and innovation in the entrepreneur's life and dimension of context, strategy and leadership in teaching at the uni‐ versity, on the other hand, as basic dimensions to consider in every good reflection on entre‐ preneurial education. Although focus of its reflection is in the case of Brazil, reflections and considerations made by these authors are also valid for other countries. The reality about entrepreneurship education, as an economic development tool, raises a lot of interrogations about the necessity of systemizing before acting. The pedagogic perspective of teaching as a context, nor a process, seems to bring a solution to the obvious lack of results, permitting to establish the bases to develop the adequate vision for the entrepreneurial reality and to show a context of action. This combination, through an innovative educative strategy, en‐ hances the necessity to establish new parameters in function of both context and strategy.

Finally, Kaarlo Paloniemi and Pekka Belt are focused on ontological and epistemological is‐ sues. These authors intend to study in this chapter, from ontological point of view, the re‐ cent theoretical developments in both entrepreneurship and education, and to discuss the impact of possible ontological discrepancies in teachers' conceptions of entrepreneurship education. *"That is, we base our approach on the insight that, firstly, the modern entrepreneurship literature favors opportunity creation over opportunity discovery, and simultaneously, the modern literature on education prefers the views of social constructionism to behaviorism. Secondly, we see that while teachers of entrepreneurship education at any level of our education system are able to match these recent theoretical standpoints, still, they seem to base the entrepreneurial part of entre‐ preneurship education on traditional theories rather than on the modern view on entrepreneurship. Finally, we see that teachers at the university level seem to cling to ontological conceptions of tradi‐ tional theories of both entrepreneurship and education. Thus, there seems to be a mismatch in entre‐ preneurship teachers' ontological conception between entrepreneurship and the educational methods teachers are using in organizing their activities for entrepreneurship education."*

> **José C. Sánchez-García** Chair of Entrepreneurship University of Salamanca Spain

## **References**

complex trust-based business networks. They believe entrepreneurship education can pro‐ mote such abilities. In this chapter they explore how research on entrepreneurship and en‐ trepreneurship education worldwide has taken account of the new requirements for flexible entrepreneurial identities, and what are the essential elements of recent high-quality re‐

Finally, the authors, Mastura Jaafar, Syed Putra Syed Abu Bakar and Wan Mohd Dzulkifli Wan Daud address an entrepreneurial skill understudied in the literature and considered by these authors as relevant in the context of Malaysia where they develop their work, the housing: *the main objective of this endeavor is to "turn the potential entrepreneurs into knowledgea‐ ble housing developers" with marketing, management, and basic financial skills.* In this chapter, the authors develop the courses, and their effectiveness has been conducted on this entrepre‐

In the last section we address some orientations and reflections on entrepreneurship educa‐ tion. Specifically, Dorion et al. consider the dimensions of globalization, culture and educa‐ tion, on one hand, the dimensions of change, uncertainty, learning and innovation in the entrepreneur's life and dimension of context, strategy and leadership in teaching at the uni‐ versity, on the other hand, as basic dimensions to consider in every good reflection on entre‐ preneurial education. Although focus of its reflection is in the case of Brazil, reflections and considerations made by these authors are also valid for other countries. The reality about entrepreneurship education, as an economic development tool, raises a lot of interrogations about the necessity of systemizing before acting. The pedagogic perspective of teaching as a context, nor a process, seems to bring a solution to the obvious lack of results, permitting to establish the bases to develop the adequate vision for the entrepreneurial reality and to show a context of action. This combination, through an innovative educative strategy, en‐ hances the necessity to establish new parameters in function of both context and strategy. Finally, Kaarlo Paloniemi and Pekka Belt are focused on ontological and epistemological is‐ sues. These authors intend to study in this chapter, from ontological point of view, the re‐ cent theoretical developments in both entrepreneurship and education, and to discuss the impact of possible ontological discrepancies in teachers' conceptions of entrepreneurship education. *"That is, we base our approach on the insight that, firstly, the modern entrepreneurship literature favors opportunity creation over opportunity discovery, and simultaneously, the modern literature on education prefers the views of social constructionism to behaviorism. Secondly, we see that while teachers of entrepreneurship education at any level of our education system are able to match these recent theoretical standpoints, still, they seem to base the entrepreneurial part of entre‐ preneurship education on traditional theories rather than on the modern view on entrepreneurship. Finally, we see that teachers at the university level seem to cling to ontological conceptions of tradi‐ tional theories of both entrepreneurship and education. Thus, there seems to be a mismatch in entre‐ preneurship teachers' ontological conception between entrepreneurship and the educational methods*

*teachers are using in organizing their activities for entrepreneurship education."*

**José C. Sánchez-García** Chair of Entrepreneurship University of Salamanca

Spain

search and what can be learnt from this for the future.

neurial skill.

X Preface

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**Entrepreneurship Education in Different Countries**

XII Preface
