**Entrepreneurship Education for Women in Brazil — Challenges and Limits**

Elaine da Silveira Leite

[3] Brockhaus, R.H, Hills, G.E, Klandt, H. & Welsch, P. (2001). *Entrepreneurship Educa‐*

[4] Freire, P. (1995). *Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Reliving Pedagogy of the Oppressed*. New

[5] NIED. (2006). *Draft Syllabus of Entrepreneurship. Junior Secondary Phase*. Windhoek:

[6] Timmons, J.A. (1988). *The Entrepreneurial Mind*. Andover, MA.: Brick House Publish‐

*tion: A Global View.* Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.

York: Continuum.

12 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

ing.

Ministry of Education.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59038

## **1. Introduction**

A brief socioeconomic literature review, approaching economic, political and social analyses, reveals that Brazilian society has distinctive characteristics, in which the emergence of new economic agents and institutions are responsible for disseminating financial activities and entrepreneur practices in the country. The Brazilian financial market has developed several institutions to create a stable environment encouraging savings and investment from the majority of the population who are unable, unfamiliar with or were marginalized by the financial system.

It is possible to observe a serious of actions that were important for the development of the Brazilian economic scenario; and, it is also significant highlighted that this events were particularly emphasized in Brazilian media as being essential for economic growth. These included some procedures about providing new laws for corporations; offering protection for minority shareholders1 ; strengthening of Securities and Exchange Commission of Brazil, whose activities were restructured to support financial market development 2 ; establishing benefits for companies that adopt the corporate governance practices launched by the Brazilian Development Bank3 ; and the creation of a capital market plan4 to guarantee the sustainability of the stock market. These recent events have brought security and ensured the creditability of the Brazilian financial market5 .

<sup>2</sup> Data taken from: "FIDC: novas instruções da CVM devem trazer mais proteção ao investidor." Administradores. 12 Dec. 2006. Web. 10 Aug. 2009. <http://www.administradores.com.br/informe-se/informativo/fidc-novas-instrucoes-dacvm-devem-trazer-mais-protecao-ao-investidor/8663/>

© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

<sup>1</sup> Data taken from: Adriana Dias, "Impactos positivos da nova lei das Sociedades Anônimas". Empreendedor. 15 Fev. 2008. Web. 10 Aug. 2009. <http://www.empreendedor.com.br/codigo=6596>

Therefore, in April 2008, Brazil was classified as investment grade. It suggests that the country was regarded as having low risk of default and the nation is safe to receive investment6 . Consequently, the news affected the stock market and its index registered a new record score7 . It is also important to mention that Brazil also received substantial investment by foreign investors, as a consequence of the world attention focused on the BRIC's (Brazil, Russia, India and China)8 .

At least, Brazil symbolically won a great position in the international scenario and it is seen as a virtuous economic, political and legal environment. In this scenario, new agents emerged; they are considered financial intermediaries that entice ordinary people to became entrepre‐ neur and encourage them to the finance field through different activities such as production of books, lectures and coaches. In this sense, it is attractive to present theses intermediates and their activities, because this makes it possible to understand how some actors are able to bring individuals into new economic practices.

The Brazilian economy context allowed the emergence of new actors. They are moral entre‐ preneurs of finance, educating on ways to invest honestly to achieve economic success, even during times of crisis. By capitalizing on volatility and uncertainty, they educate how insta‐ bility can be the best time for the development of economic skills.

The expansion of this culture of investment is popularized and connected with models of selfhelp. This phenomenon has been consolidated into a new model of society that supports the growth of the entrepreneur and financial practices in Brazil and it legitimatizes personal economic activities.

6 Data taken from: Claudia Violante, "Após grau de investimento, Bovespa bate recorde histórico". Agência Estado, 30 Apr. 2008: Economic Section. Print.

7 (Bovespa) Stock Exchange Index. Data taken from: Bovespa. 10 May 2008. Web. 10 Aug. 2009 <http://www.bmfboves‐ pa.com.br/indices>

8 Data taken from: Anne Warth and Francisco Carlos de Assis, "Brasil é o 10º em ranking mundial de investimento estrangeiro." Agência Estado 17 Sep. 2009. Web. 10 Nov. 2009. <http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/economia,brasil-eo-10-em-ranking-mundial-de-investimento-estrangeiro,436642,0.htm>

<sup>3</sup> Data taken from: Catherine Vieira. "Os pioneiros da governança corporativa".Valor Econômico 29 Jun. 2004. Web. 10 Aug. 2009. <Http://www.lavca.org/lavca/allpress.nsf/0/966BC1542A814BDA86256EC6001EF760>

<sup>4</sup> Data taken from: "Plano Diretor do Mercado de Capitais, o que muda para o investidor?" Portal Acionista. 10 Aug. 2009. Web. 10 Aug. 2009. <http:// www.acionista.com.br/dep\_tecnico/070809\_plano\_diretor.htm>

<sup>5</sup> It is important to mention Apolinárioet al. (2002) who states that the Brazilian government has adopted new strategies to make the national stock market stronger. The "desestatização", which has been observed for the last years by selling government's stocks from the two biggest Brazilian companies, Petrobras and the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, represents the last stage of privatization process, which was initiated in 1997. This process is called "Stock Market Democratization". The success in moving funds from FGTS (Time Service Warranty Funds) to Petrobras Privatization Mutual Funds (FMP) made Brazilians' interest in investing their money into the FMPCVRD increase greatly, causing the biggest stock sale operation that has ever happened in Brazil.

This paper presents some recent literature on aspiring female entrepreneurs in order to argue about the social (re)signification that relates the role of women in family and society, ap‐ proaching the transformation of evaluative concepts that surround the socio-economic life of women through books and websites that encourages entrepreneurship and economic decision practices to reach financial independence.

## **2. State and new economic practices**

Therefore, in April 2008, Brazil was classified as investment grade. It suggests that the country was regarded as having low risk of default and the nation is safe to receive investment6

Consequently, the news affected the stock market and its index registered a new record

At least, Brazil symbolically won a great position in the international scenario and it is seen as a virtuous economic, political and legal environment. In this scenario, new agents emerged; they are considered financial intermediaries that entice ordinary people to became entrepre‐ neur and encourage them to the finance field through different activities such as production of books, lectures and coaches. In this sense, it is attractive to present theses intermediates and their activities, because this makes it possible to understand how some actors are able to bring

The Brazilian economy context allowed the emergence of new actors. They are moral entre‐ preneurs of finance, educating on ways to invest honestly to achieve economic success, even during times of crisis. By capitalizing on volatility and uncertainty, they educate how insta‐

The expansion of this culture of investment is popularized and connected with models of selfhelp. This phenomenon has been consolidated into a new model of society that supports the growth of the entrepreneur and financial practices in Brazil and it legitimatizes personal

3 Data taken from: Catherine Vieira. "Os pioneiros da governança corporativa".Valor Econômico 29 Jun. 2004. Web. 10

4 Data taken from: "Plano Diretor do Mercado de Capitais, o que muda para o investidor?" Portal Acionista. 10 Aug.

5 It is important to mention Apolinárioet al. (2002) who states that the Brazilian government has adopted new strategies to make the national stock market stronger. The "desestatização", which has been observed for the last years by selling government's stocks from the two biggest Brazilian companies, Petrobras and the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, represents the last stage of privatization process, which was initiated in 1997. This process is called "Stock Market Democratization". The success in moving funds from FGTS (Time Service Warranty Funds) to Petrobras Privatization Mutual Funds (FMP) made Brazilians' interest in investing their money into the FMPCVRD increase greatly, causing the

6 Data taken from: Claudia Violante, "Após grau de investimento, Bovespa bate recorde histórico". Agência Estado, 30

7 (Bovespa) Stock Exchange Index. Data taken from: Bovespa. 10 May 2008. Web. 10 Aug. 2009 <http://www.bmfboves‐

8 Data taken from: Anne Warth and Francisco Carlos de Assis, "Brasil é o 10º em ranking mundial de investimento estrangeiro." Agência Estado 17 Sep. 2009. Web. 10 Nov. 2009. <http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/economia,brasil-e-

Aug. 2009. <Http://www.lavca.org/lavca/allpress.nsf/0/966BC1542A814BDA86256EC6001EF760>

2009. Web. 10 Aug. 2009. <http:// www.acionista.com.br/dep\_tecnico/070809\_plano\_diretor.htm>

. It is also important to mention that Brazil also received substantial investment by foreign investors, as a consequence of the world attention focused on the BRIC's (Brazil, Russia,

score7

India and China)8

economic activities.

.

14 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

individuals into new economic practices.

biggest stock sale operation that has ever happened in Brazil.

o-10-em-ranking-mundial-de-investimento-estrangeiro,436642,0.htm>

Apr. 2008: Economic Section. Print.

pa.com.br/indices>

bility can be the best time for the development of economic skills.

.

The debate about the role of the State and the economy in Brazil led to a series of studies, mainly from the 1980s, and it continues at present, especially about the state's role such as regulation and deregulation issues (Evans, 1995). Overall, the 1980s were characterized by a neo-conservative wave and its proposal of a minimal state. In 1990s, when the neoliberal proposal became less acceptable, the movement toward reform, or more specifically, the state reconstruction began to be a dominant program (Bresser-Pereira, 1997). According to Bresser-Pereira and Grau (1999), the globalization process from the 1990s also required new methods of more efficient public administration; consequently, it increased the importance of new actors to implement social services that was guaranteed by the State.

At this same time, the State was seen as inefficient and corrupt, in which political and economic reforms were being discussed to change this scenario. However, this situation created a new dynamic, which provided the rise of new agents and organizations, for example, the growth of non-governmental organization (NGOs) and self-help groups that were concerned about bringing social and economic development to Brazilian nation (Bresser-Pereira; Grau, 1999).

These developments help us understand not only the reform of the State but also the devel‐ opment of the Brazilian financial market and the emergence of corporate governance issues in Brazil (Grün, 2003). Corporate governance, which is shaped by the financial sphere, appeared as a requirement for transparency via society, emerging as a criticism of the Brazilian bureau‐ cratic model. The corporate governance movement was supported during the Fernando Henrique Cardoso government (1995-2002) and was tied to the privatization issues, because talking about transparency was essential to warm up the capital market and to attract investors. The government needed to be transparent to increase investors' confidence in the privatization process, which means that the government was required to adopt corporate governance to be perceived as transparent institution (Grün, 2003).

Carvalho (2002) argues that it is possible to observe modifications of institutional investor's attitudes during the Fernando Henrique Cardoso government. As a result, important facts emerge, such as, the internationalization of the Brazilian capital market, the increasing number of companies accessing international market through American Depositary Receipt (ADR)9 ; the opening of the financial system for multinational institutions, and the increasing impor‐ tance of foreign investors in the domestic stock market.

<sup>9</sup> Datataken from: "International Investing: get the facts". Securities and Exchange Commission.Divisionof Corporation Finance.Web. 10 Dec. 2009.<http://www.sec.gov/pdf/ininvest.pdf>

In 2002, the principal candidate for the Presidency, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who represents the left and unionism, went to Bovespa (the principal stock exchange in Brazil). At that time, he wanted to demonstrate adherence to economic and corporate governance practices established in the financial market. As a symbolic approach, it is possible to argue that corporate governance has gained huge attention in the nation (Grün, 2003).

It is important to highlight, according to Sá (2003), that the corporate governance discourse is associated with economic progress, and that the financial actors claim that it is through the economic growth that Brazilian society will achieve social development. In general, social and economic development became to be seen as part of the same political approach.

Therefore, corporate governance becomes a great solution for Brazilian society. It is recognized not only as a neoliberal prescription to solve the problem of companies' capitalization, but also as a means to enlarge both financial markets, and the Brazilian economy and social field (Grün, 2004).

In this sense, Brazil, like other emerging nations, is experiencing rapid financialization. This process is shaped by financial changes in the global financial market and involves restructuring of the country's financial organization through privatization, fiscal and monetary reform and the creation of new programs and institutions that encourage economic growth and popular investment (Grün, 2009). Financialization includes not only financial intermediaries but also self-help deals (Leite, 2012).

The financialization processes is formed by an interesting dynamic in Brazil, in which corporate governance practices gain significance in the context of the critique of the inefficient state. Here, it is possible to observe the rise of new economic actors that appeared as a solution to change the "uncertainty" of the economic and political scenarios.

Thus, the pathway of corporate governance, which goes through the economic and political issues to the capital market in Brazil, opens a new way to understand how actors try to change the traditional perception of the market through their symbolic strategies (Grün, 2007). Moreover, regarding the popularization of financial market issues, the Brazilian state is watching its expansion, but to some extent, without control over the situation.

At the same time, that the financial market is being reshaped, it is possible to notice the rise of personal finance and entrepreneurial discourses that it is linked to self-help schemes in Brazil. An interesting evidenece of this scenario comes from the bookstores' shelves that are filled with books and releases that deal with money and financial advices.

McGee (2005) explains that in a period of declining security, there is no surprise if one finds a marked increase in the number of self-help titles. In this way, McGee emphasizes how the promise of self-help can lead individuals into a new sort of enslavement, into a cycle where the self is not improved but endlessly belabored.

Simultaneously, it allocates to the individual sphere the need to rely on private financing, rather than relying on the government. It formed the basis for the development of a new way of thinking in Brazil, the stimulus to economic growth by individuals through the ideals of self-help, that means – "if success is solely the result of one's own efforts, then the responsibility for any failure must necessarily be individual shortcomings or weaknesses" (McGee, 2005:13). This movement seeks to reach the general population, it is not restricted to a portion of society able to innovate, save and invest in the markets.

## **3. Interlocking: Entrepreneur, personal finance and women**

In Brazil, Paula and Wood Jr. (2003) highlight that the first signs of demand for personal finance issues were noted after the release of the books: *Your Financial Future*10 and *Rich Dad, Poor Dad*.

Among the list of publications related to personal finance, there are several books directed to women, for example, "Rich Woman – the investment guide for Women". The formula she uses is her "husband's idea" – he is the author of *Rich Dad, Poor Dad*. She employs her own history of life to teach how to be financially independent. Other illustration is the book: *Normal Girls Go Shopping; Expert Girls Go to the Stock Market* written by Brazilian authors –; they advertise – "You do not know, but you were made to invest". The authors focus on how women are educated to hate money 11. In general, the advices for women emphasize that women do not enrich because they focus on needs of others rather than on themselves. Consequently, these facts prevent women from becoming independent.

These books follow a model that structures a kind of "cultural guide", in which enhances questions about conspicuous consumption, biological and social women's periods like – career, marriage, children, divorce, boyfriend, pregnancy, etc. By the way, it is important to observe that they emphasize the quest for financial independence, but highlight issues that lead to the idea of housekeeping and family.

The book titled "Smart woman: (…) makes investments" 12 is a typical example. The narrative focus on issues related to career and indicated some steps to achieve financial independence, but it also highlighted that women could not forget how to be a good mother and a respectable housewife. The author emphasizes the needed for women to think of theirselves, but also points to their traditional role in family.

In general, these publications also deal with traditional housekeeping like shopping, caring children and family. These subjects appeared associated with issues like financial planning, credit cards, and investments as guidelines to motivate them to set goals and to manage time, money and other resources as central entrepreneurship skills to achieve financial independ‐ ence.

In this sense, several reports about the increasing number of women participation in markets and their relationship with money were found in a range of economic Brazilian newspaper13. Some reports mention it as a new phenomenon that were being occurred, mostly in the upper

In 2002, the principal candidate for the Presidency, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who represents the left and unionism, went to Bovespa (the principal stock exchange in Brazil). At that time, he wanted to demonstrate adherence to economic and corporate governance practices established in the financial market. As a symbolic approach, it is possible to argue that

It is important to highlight, according to Sá (2003), that the corporate governance discourse is associated with economic progress, and that the financial actors claim that it is through the economic growth that Brazilian society will achieve social development. In general, social and

Therefore, corporate governance becomes a great solution for Brazilian society. It is recognized not only as a neoliberal prescription to solve the problem of companies' capitalization, but also as a means to enlarge both financial markets, and the Brazilian economy and social field (Grün,

In this sense, Brazil, like other emerging nations, is experiencing rapid financialization. This process is shaped by financial changes in the global financial market and involves restructuring of the country's financial organization through privatization, fiscal and monetary reform and the creation of new programs and institutions that encourage economic growth and popular investment (Grün, 2009). Financialization includes not only financial intermediaries but also

The financialization processes is formed by an interesting dynamic in Brazil, in which corporate governance practices gain significance in the context of the critique of the inefficient state. Here, it is possible to observe the rise of new economic actors that appeared as a solution

Thus, the pathway of corporate governance, which goes through the economic and political issues to the capital market in Brazil, opens a new way to understand how actors try to change the traditional perception of the market through their symbolic strategies (Grün, 2007). Moreover, regarding the popularization of financial market issues, the Brazilian state is

At the same time, that the financial market is being reshaped, it is possible to notice the rise of personal finance and entrepreneurial discourses that it is linked to self-help schemes in Brazil. An interesting evidenece of this scenario comes from the bookstores' shelves that are filled

McGee (2005) explains that in a period of declining security, there is no surprise if one finds a marked increase in the number of self-help titles. In this way, McGee emphasizes how the promise of self-help can lead individuals into a new sort of enslavement, into a cycle where

Simultaneously, it allocates to the individual sphere the need to rely on private financing, rather than relying on the government. It formed the basis for the development of a new way of thinking in Brazil, the stimulus to economic growth by individuals through the ideals of self-help, that means – "if success is solely the result of one's own efforts, then the responsibility

to change the "uncertainty" of the economic and political scenarios.

with books and releases that deal with money and financial advices.

the self is not improved but endlessly belabored.

watching its expansion, but to some extent, without control over the situation.

corporate governance has gained huge attention in the nation (Grün, 2003).

economic development became to be seen as part of the same political approach.

2004).

self-help deals (Leite, 2012).

16 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

<sup>10</sup>*Free translation made by the author.*

<sup>11</sup> Ibid.

<sup>12</sup> Ibid.

middle classes – it shows that some women left their professional life to manage the family's assets. As presented in the quote below:

*(…) she is graduated in marketing management. Main Occupation "home broker." That's how she defines herself. Three years ago, she started managing the family financial assets. She was encouraged by her husband, a mechanical engineer who works in the area of power generation. She attended a seminar of the "Women in Action," realized by Bovespa. Since then, she has managed the couple's investments. She is happy, because she is watching the multiplication of their money14.*

In this scenario, the São Paulo Stock Exchange leads a program directed to female entrepre‐ neurs – it is called "Women in action" (2003). The project was designed to give women the step-by-step guidance to learn about business plan. It also elucidates demands about budget skills, and presents advices about financial options and requirements.

This fact is clear more evident, when it focus on Sebrae (Brazilian government agency that provides support to micro and small enterprises) that encourages women of all social classes to became entrepreneur. For example, the "Yearbook of Women Entrepreneurs and Workers in Micro and Small Businesses" endorses that investigators analyzed gender profiles in small businesses from 2001 to 2011 and they reveal that female entrepreneurs in the country grew by 21.4% in this period (Stewart, 2013)15. In the yearbook, a technical Director emphasizes that:

*"As business women, they can better reconcile their work with their obligations to take care of their homes and their children. Nearly half of these women are solely responsible for the education of their children, and that doesn't stop them from starting a business with dedication."16*

At present, it is notable the spread of entrepreneurship education as a subject in the curriculum of all educational levels, from preschool to high school. At the same time, it is important to mention the expansion of MBA´s that focus on business management professionals in the country. However, Sebrae, since the early 1990s stands out as the main institution related to the promotion of entrepreneurship culture in Brazil.

It is worth to emphasize that, in the beginning of 2014´s, was inaugurated the Sebrae Business School (São Paulo) the first public educational institution dedicated to offer courses about entrepreneurship at technical and graduation levels17.

<sup>13</sup> Data taken from: Emcincoanos, número de mulheresnabolsacresceumais de setevezes. Patricia Alves. Portal InfoMoney. 07/08.

*<sup>14</sup> Data taken from: "Público feminino é arma da bolsa parareterpessoafísica". Valor Econômico, 26/03/2009.Free translation made by the author.*

<sup>15</sup> Data taken form: Women Entrepreneurs are on the Rise, Making it Work in Brazil. By Emily Stewart. October 15, 2013. In:http://pulsosocial.com/en/2013/10/15/women-entrepreneurs-are-on-the-rise-making-it-work-in-brazil/. Access: July, 2014.

*<sup>16</sup> Ibid.*

<sup>17</sup> Data taken from: http://www.sebraesp.com.br/index.php/239-uncategorised/institucional/escola-de-negocios. Access: August, 2014.

Thus, entrepreneurship themes in schools and universities is a recent topic. There are no records of specific courses directed to women in these institutions. Besides the acting of Sebrae, regarding to entrepreneurship education of women, there are programs sponsored by the federal government and nonprofit institutions. In this case, it is noteworthy to highlight some projects in Brazil.

middle classes – it shows that some women left their professional life to manage the family's

*(…) she is graduated in marketing management. Main Occupation "home broker." That's how she defines herself. Three years ago, she started managing the family financial assets. She was encouraged by her husband, a mechanical engineer who works in the area of power generation. She attended a seminar of the "Women in Action," realized by Bovespa. Since then, she has managed the couple's investments. She is happy, because she is watching the*

In this scenario, the São Paulo Stock Exchange leads a program directed to female entrepre‐ neurs – it is called "Women in action" (2003). The project was designed to give women the step-by-step guidance to learn about business plan. It also elucidates demands about budget

This fact is clear more evident, when it focus on Sebrae (Brazilian government agency that provides support to micro and small enterprises) that encourages women of all social classes to became entrepreneur. For example, the "Yearbook of Women Entrepreneurs and Workers in Micro and Small Businesses" endorses that investigators analyzed gender profiles in small businesses from 2001 to 2011 and they reveal that female entrepreneurs in the country grew by 21.4% in this period (Stewart, 2013)15. In the yearbook, a technical Director emphasizes that:

*"As business women, they can better reconcile their work with their obligations to take care of their homes and their children. Nearly half of these women are solely responsible for the education of their children, and that doesn't stop them from starting a business with*

At present, it is notable the spread of entrepreneurship education as a subject in the curriculum of all educational levels, from preschool to high school. At the same time, it is important to mention the expansion of MBA´s that focus on business management professionals in the country. However, Sebrae, since the early 1990s stands out as the main institution related to

It is worth to emphasize that, in the beginning of 2014´s, was inaugurated the Sebrae Business School (São Paulo) the first public educational institution dedicated to offer courses about

13 Data taken from: Emcincoanos, número de mulheresnabolsacresceumais de setevezes. Patricia Alves. Portal

15 Data taken form: Women Entrepreneurs are on the Rise, Making it Work in Brazil. By Emily Stewart. October 15, 2013. In:http://pulsosocial.com/en/2013/10/15/women-entrepreneurs-are-on-the-rise-making-it-work-in-brazil/. Access: July,

17 Data taken from: http://www.sebraesp.com.br/index.php/239-uncategorised/institucional/escola-de-negocios. Access:

*14 Data taken from: "Público feminino é arma da bolsa parareterpessoafísica". Valor Econômico, 26/03/2009.Free translation*

skills, and presents advices about financial options and requirements.

assets. As presented in the quote below:

18 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

*multiplication of their money14.*

*dedication."16*

InfoMoney. 07/08.

*made by the author.*

August, 2014.

2014. *16 Ibid.*

the promotion of entrepreneurship culture in Brazil.

entrepreneurship at technical and graduation levels17.

On the one hand, the "Mulheres Mil" is a program inserted into the set of public policy priorities of the federal government, in which aims to stimulate equity, access to education, and gender equality, especially, in the Northeast and North regions. Under three axes – education, citizenship and sustainable development – the program seeks to provide social inclusion focused on autonomy and creation of alternatives workplace to improve the quality of their lives and their communities18.

Another program is the "10,000 Women" promoted by Fundação Getulio Vargas and IE Business School, launched in 2008, is a philanthropic initiative that seeks to bring business education for women and to improve the quality of their learning. 19.

On the other hand, there are also initiatives from nonprofits associations, like the Association of Women Entrepreneurs (Brasilia) that seek to ensure the empowerment of women, as well as, to promote opportunities for the social and cultural equality between men and women. It is important to note that the courses offered range from computer, hardware, and telemarket‐ ing to courses like home services and caregiver for the elderly sector20.

In general, the stimulus to be an entrepreneur, proclaimed by the "gurus" and government institutions, emphasizes the importance of planning a career path that involves being a businessperson and financially independent. That means, women could be an autonomous worker, and they also could work in their own home; therefore, it is possible being a respectable mother and a virtuous housewife – "Generally, women are better able to achieve a balance between their personal and professional lives than men. In fact, many women go the entre‐ preneurial path in order to have more flexibility with their time" – elucidates a technical Director of Dieese in the reporter (Stewart, 2013).

However, these discourses obscure the underworld of informal and precarious labor, affecting in particular the lower classes.This phenomenon reinforces the traditional role of women and it supports the fact that they are working longer and harder than ever before. Far from the idea that women work for a salary or for their independence, most women work because they needed it.

These financial consultants have been infiltrated through different sectors of society, forming a particular dynamic. This movement has resonance in Brazilian society, because it resets the social roles in their place, that is, the women are 'backing home' to take care of families' money (Leite, 2012).

<sup>18</sup> Data taken from: http://mulheresmil.mec.gov.br/index.php. Access: August, 2014.

<sup>19</sup> Data taken from: http://www.10000mulheres.com.br/. Access: August, 2014.

<sup>20</sup> Data taken from: http://www.amedf.org.br/. Access: August, 2014.

The arguments employed by such consultants massively reinforce the needed for entrepre‐ neurial motivation to achieve financial independence. However, such arguments appear strictly related to issues such as marriage, home, family, children, quality of life, etc. The advisors also report some financial family problems, and they consider a lack of financial understanding and poor money management skills that were not coordinated by the women.

These events indicate an interesting sociological phenomenon, in which the woman comes out of the labor market and back into the domestic sphere, that means, the women are coming back to their traditionally safe environment – the *oikos*.

Whereas, the "housekeepingt" is the role that historically was part of the women's activities, but, in this case, the female figure is seen not as a house manager, but as a kind of a home "investor". Apparently, this new phenomenon places the woman in her place of origin: the home.

We are watching a phenomenon that involves issues relating to the family; where the "cultural guide" preaches that women have to take care of their home and children, not only financially but also in a traditional way. The relationship between financial world and the role of wife/ mother can also be easily found in books that encourages entrepreneurship attitudes in Brazil.

By comparing books considered bestsellers in the United States with which are translated in Brazil, it is possible to note that the advices directed to women given by Brazilian intermedia‐ ries are not so aggressive related to some suggestions given by one of the most popular financial counselors in the United States.

The American financial guru uses aggressive and hostile language to give financial advices and to talk about money to the viewers´ of her show. Overall, her aggressive style and the visibility she gives to the fact that she is lesbian apparently would not work in Brazilian society. After more than 10 years of success in the United States, there are no translations of her books to Portuguese. However, there is an adaptation of her financial guide "Women and Money," in 2009, realized by the principal financial advisor in Brazil.

In the preface of "Women and Money," the Brazilian author addresses that he agrees with the simple way she presents complex subjects such as finance for the public. However, he emphasizes that some opinions and suggestions made by Suze are clearly different from his arguments.

On the other hand, "*Rich Dad, Pood Dad´s*", who also is one of the best-known American financial book – the author has a different attitude. His principles follows the form of a story, which tells the Rich Dad's path to get rich.

Thus, it is necessary to point out that the "adaptation"of ideas is a great evidence that outlines the "cultural guide," which conduct and attract individuals to the financial universe in which issues such as family, money, and wealth express a peculiarity of Brazilian society.

From the exposure of these facts, it is possible to argue that the construction of this new kind of economic figure is tied to the ideas that lead to family issues in Brazil, which becomes an apparatus for stability and security. This "new figure" annihilates the negative aspects of the entrepreneur, if he is greedy and individualistic, the new example should worry in accumu‐ lating wealth to enjoy and ensure your family's future. In other words, the expansion of the financial and entrepreneur practices is supported by Christian ideals about the strengthening of the family ties, which focus on the need for savings.

The arguments employed by such consultants massively reinforce the needed for entrepre‐ neurial motivation to achieve financial independence. However, such arguments appear strictly related to issues such as marriage, home, family, children, quality of life, etc. The advisors also report some financial family problems, and they consider a lack of financial understanding and poor money management skills that were not coordinated by the women.

These events indicate an interesting sociological phenomenon, in which the woman comes out of the labor market and back into the domestic sphere, that means, the women are coming back

Whereas, the "housekeepingt" is the role that historically was part of the women's activities, but, in this case, the female figure is seen not as a house manager, but as a kind of a home "investor". Apparently, this new phenomenon places the woman in her place of origin: the

We are watching a phenomenon that involves issues relating to the family; where the "cultural guide" preaches that women have to take care of their home and children, not only financially but also in a traditional way. The relationship between financial world and the role of wife/ mother can also be easily found in books that encourages entrepreneurship attitudes in Brazil.

By comparing books considered bestsellers in the United States with which are translated in Brazil, it is possible to note that the advices directed to women given by Brazilian intermedia‐ ries are not so aggressive related to some suggestions given by one of the most popular financial

The American financial guru uses aggressive and hostile language to give financial advices and to talk about money to the viewers´ of her show. Overall, her aggressive style and the visibility she gives to the fact that she is lesbian apparently would not work in Brazilian society. After more than 10 years of success in the United States, there are no translations of her books to Portuguese. However, there is an adaptation of her financial guide "Women and Money,"

In the preface of "Women and Money," the Brazilian author addresses that he agrees with the simple way she presents complex subjects such as finance for the public. However, he emphasizes that some opinions and suggestions made by Suze are clearly different from his

On the other hand, "*Rich Dad, Pood Dad´s*", who also is one of the best-known American financial book – the author has a different attitude. His principles follows the form of a story,

Thus, it is necessary to point out that the "adaptation"of ideas is a great evidence that outlines the "cultural guide," which conduct and attract individuals to the financial universe in which

From the exposure of these facts, it is possible to argue that the construction of this new kind of economic figure is tied to the ideas that lead to family issues in Brazil, which becomes an apparatus for stability and security. This "new figure" annihilates the negative aspects of the

issues such as family, money, and wealth express a peculiarity of Brazilian society.

to their traditionally safe environment – the *oikos*.

in 2009, realized by the principal financial advisor in Brazil.

which tells the Rich Dad's path to get rich.

counselors in the United States.

20 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

home.

arguments.

The appeals for the individuals to take control of their own financial independence symboli‐ cally legitimize foreign economic practices that was seen before as a negative skills. Thus, the financial advisors help to demystify the capital market, which gradually become a not "hazard" form of investment in Brazilian society.

There is a mechanism that operates both in the objective and in subjective spheres of society, in which sets up the legitimacy of the financial world in the country. The "new" economic culture that have been created is surrounded by family ethics and operates as an apparatus capable of changing social behaviors and sensitivities, ie, the *habitus* (Bourdieu, 1997), which, in turn, reflects social rearrangements and redirects the roles of individuals and family in society.

The advices instill in the public receptor a new perception about the financial world, leading individuals to believe that acting "economically" is a moral action. There is a moral influence being created to perform individual's actions that transforms attitudes and practices. Personal finance promoters have created a new social space, supported by performances, miraculous calculations, magic and science. Therefore, the idea about happiness and satisfaction is associated with the possession of money (Zelizer, 1994; Simmel, 1990).

*The tremendous importance of money for understanding the basic motives of life lies in the fact that money embodies and sublimates the practical relation of man to the objects of his will, his power and his impotence; one might say, paradoxically, that man is an indirect being. I am here concerned with the relation of money to the totality of human life only in so far as it illuminates our immediate problem, which is to comprehend the nature of money through the internal and external relationships that find their expression, their means or their effects in money (Simmel, 1990: 211).*

Historically, Donzelot (1986) demonstrates the importance of savings for the advent of working class families as a practice of discipline individual unruly behavior. The rebirth of the questions that refer to a temperance movement reinforces the meaning of the familialism concept (Lenoir, 2003), which suggests thinking "family" as a category that is integrated to financial sphere as a natural institution.

For this author, the meaning of "family" is dynamic, because, historically, it has been changing with the emergence of economic models and new forms of political and social organization. According to Lenoir, the family cannot be regarded as a principle of evolution, but as a product of economic, political and social context, in which it is possible to argue that the advance of financial and entrepreneurial practices also operates as a tool that "normalize" the routine of a family life – leading women to their traditional place.

It is noteworthy that other agents and institutions also contribute to strengthening the current ethics of the family as disciplinary rules of behavior (Foucault, 1994). For example, in Brazil, there is the "State", which formulates policies and programs of economic and social inclusion that values the family unit, and the Catholic Church, which carries out a campaign about the indissolubility of marriage, promoting ideas against the abortion, the homosexuality and the contraception, etc.

Similarly, it is possible to observe the expansion of neopentecostal churches, which strengthen the family entity as a synonym for professional and economic success; they try to establish a new meaning for "money", introducing economic topics such as entrepreneurship, business, personal finance, among others. At the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, according to Mariano, the individual with financial problems are induced to participate in the ritual of prosperity, and, if he pay the tithe, he will receive pastoral councils, prayers, exorcisms, and promises of incentives for self-employed (Mariano, 1999: 60).

In the same way, the individuals, are called by the personal financial promoters, to reflect about the budget and to start carrying out a new financial plan, and also they are incentivized to initiate an innovative business. These prosperity churches are symbolic associated with financial and entrepreneur intermediaries, because culturally they are promoting new attitudes regarding the financial and entrepreneurial life. In fact, there is a formation of a "cultural guide" that admit the versions of different agents and institutions that figure the social space; however, we are watching a cultural progress of the finance and entrepreneur ideas proposed by unthinkable characters surrounded by an optimism culture and familialism ethics.

This brief scenario shows a specific reality in Brazil, the apparent link between this sector and family issues illustrates a peculiarity, which supports, respectively, the rise of the financial intermediaries and the legitimacy of the investment and entrepreneurs practice as a "natural" phenomenon.

The logic employed as an argumentative "sermon" operates as a symbolic violence (Bourdieu, 1997), which induces the individual to strictly control their daily economic practices. People are influenced by biases existing in the financial field, so become an entrepreneur and accumulate wealth; it is part of a natural human condition. The magic that makes up the formulas presented by the consultants has been linked to family metaphors of the universe that are used to justify the financial world (Lakoff, 1996), while concepts such as investment, uncertainty, instability and risk are been part of the individuals and families daily lives.

This dynamic opens way to reflect about transfer the analysis focused on socioeconomic aspects to the cultural field, but this finding may indicate that we are facing the rise of a conservative society, in which a new "order of justice" has been established in Brazil (Douglas, 1996; Grün, 1998). It is possible to observe the existence of an ideology that values the ethics of moral norms reinforced by economic inclusion of families disseminated by a variety of agents, which make up a sort of second nature, that is, a national habitus (Elias, 1986).

Gurus' performances help to instill in the public receptor a new perception about the financial world. According to Becker (1977), social norms are created by groups or individuals that are called "moral entrepreneurs." Therefore, these gurus are significant to spread new social values. They are "moral entrepreneurs" of financial and entrepreneurial education.

The books and contents analyzed try to educate and to bring items to be copied – this could transformer the social meanings given to people and social activities. The mechanism used by gurus transforms individual in their collective experience and thus it contributes to the (re) production of *habitus* (Bourdieu, 1997).

There is a moral influence being created to perform individuals that transforms attitudes and modes of action. Financial education promoters have created a new social space, supported by performances, miraculous calculations, magic and science. Therefore, the idea about happiness and satisfaction are connected to the possession of money (Zelizer, 1994; Simmel, 1990) and linked with the notion of heteronormative family.

"When personal finance becomes the way in which ordinary people are invited to participate in that large abstraction called the economy, a new set of signals are introduced as to how life is to be lived and what it is for" (Martin, 2002). The argument supported by Martin reinforces what happened in Brazil. The personal finance advice creates an "obsession" for making money that dominates lifestyle, personal ambitions and decisions.

Consequently, the risk becomes part of everyday life (Martin, 2002). The moral entrepreneurs also use the argument that, currently, people have no more security in daily life. In a period, where instability and unemployment worries the population, personal finance books show cases of business or professional success based on self-help schemes and family triumph.

## **4. Final considerations**

there is the "State", which formulates policies and programs of economic and social inclusion that values the family unit, and the Catholic Church, which carries out a campaign about the indissolubility of marriage, promoting ideas against the abortion, the homosexuality and the

Similarly, it is possible to observe the expansion of neopentecostal churches, which strengthen the family entity as a synonym for professional and economic success; they try to establish a new meaning for "money", introducing economic topics such as entrepreneurship, business, personal finance, among others. At the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, according to Mariano, the individual with financial problems are induced to participate in the ritual of prosperity, and, if he pay the tithe, he will receive pastoral councils, prayers, exorcisms, and

In the same way, the individuals, are called by the personal financial promoters, to reflect about the budget and to start carrying out a new financial plan, and also they are incentivized to initiate an innovative business. These prosperity churches are symbolic associated with financial and entrepreneur intermediaries, because culturally they are promoting new attitudes regarding the financial and entrepreneurial life. In fact, there is a formation of a "cultural guide" that admit the versions of different agents and institutions that figure the social space; however, we are watching a cultural progress of the finance and entrepreneur ideas proposed by unthinkable characters surrounded by an optimism culture and familialism

This brief scenario shows a specific reality in Brazil, the apparent link between this sector and family issues illustrates a peculiarity, which supports, respectively, the rise of the financial intermediaries and the legitimacy of the investment and entrepreneurs practice as a "natural"

The logic employed as an argumentative "sermon" operates as a symbolic violence (Bourdieu, 1997), which induces the individual to strictly control their daily economic practices. People are influenced by biases existing in the financial field, so become an entrepreneur and accumulate wealth; it is part of a natural human condition. The magic that makes up the formulas presented by the consultants has been linked to family metaphors of the universe that are used to justify the financial world (Lakoff, 1996), while concepts such as investment, uncertainty, instability and risk are been part of the individuals and families daily lives.

This dynamic opens way to reflect about transfer the analysis focused on socioeconomic aspects to the cultural field, but this finding may indicate that we are facing the rise of a conservative society, in which a new "order of justice" has been established in Brazil (Douglas, 1996; Grün, 1998). It is possible to observe the existence of an ideology that values the ethics of moral norms reinforced by economic inclusion of families disseminated by a variety of agents, which make up a sort of second nature, that is, a national habitus (Elias, 1986).

Gurus' performances help to instill in the public receptor a new perception about the financial world. According to Becker (1977), social norms are created by groups or individuals that are called "moral entrepreneurs." Therefore, these gurus are significant to spread new social

values. They are "moral entrepreneurs" of financial and entrepreneurial education.

promises of incentives for self-employed (Mariano, 1999: 60).

contraception, etc.

22 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

ethics.

phenomenon.

In recent years, there has been a proliferation of articles and books heralding this supposed phenomenon. It illustrates the emergence of financial guides services directed to individuals and families in Brazil. In general, these specialists, considered "gurus", search for guiding individuals toward changes, related to entrepreneurial motivations and practices of risky investments. Currently, these gurus teach about new careers, how to succeed a new enterprise, how to make money; in this sense, they also provide some recommendations about savings and investments.

The most recent studies related to entrepreneurship and women take into consideration researches that focus on the problems they face, their managerial practices, and their skills for success and gender differences. Specifically, the interest in understanding women's entrepre‐ neurial activities is a result of the importance they are gaining in the entrepreneurial sector as well as evidence that women efforts are been associated with being an entrepreneur, securing their financial independence without leaving their traditional role as mother and as housewife.

In this regard, the results show, in what extent, publications on entrepreneurship and personal finance focused on women "magically" standardizes feminists ideals linked to the notion of material wealth (money) and financial independence, at the same time, it is strictly associated with moral values that defines the "traditional" role of women.

These financial consultants have been infiltrated through different sectors of society, forming a particular dynamic, for example, they are called to give lectures in neopentecostal churches, in this sense, the priests also have transmitted financial thoughts 'religiously' to their believers. This movement has resonance in Brazilian society, because it resets the social roles in their place, that is, an important evidence a is that the women are 'backing home'.

By these evidences, this paper presented that entrepreneur issues are been embedded in Brazilian society. It constitutes a kind of "cultural guide" that addresses a moral topic, supporting the idea of personal and financial success. These speeches are embeddedness by an optimism culture that encourages individuals to take economic choices that were not considered as a moral practice before.

## **Author details**

Elaine da Silveira Leite\*

Address all correspondence to: elaineleite10@gmail.com

Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil

## **References**


in this sense, the priests also have transmitted financial thoughts 'religiously' to their believers. This movement has resonance in Brazilian society, because it resets the social roles in their

By these evidences, this paper presented that entrepreneur issues are been embedded in Brazilian society. It constitutes a kind of "cultural guide" that addresses a moral topic, supporting the idea of personal and financial success. These speeches are embeddedness by an optimism culture that encourages individuals to take economic choices that were not

[1] Apolinário, A. Silva, A. R. Diniz, C. E. M. Ribeiro, E. P. Capistrano, E. O. "O Impacto do FGTS na Alavancagem do Mercado de Capitais Brasileiro." In: *XXII Encontro Na‐*

[4] Bourdieu, Pierre. "Le Champs Économique." *Actes de la recherché en Sciences Sociales*.

[5] Bresser-Pereira, L. C. "State Reform in the 1990s: Logic and Control Mechanisms." In: *Institutions and the role of the State*. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1 (1997): 175-219.

[6] Bresser-Pereira, L. C. and Grau, N. C. "Entre o Estado e o Mercado: o Público Não Estatal." In: *O Público Não-Estatal na Reforma do Estado.* Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV,

[7] Carvalho, A. G. "Governança Corporativa no Brasil em Perspectiva." *Revista de Ad‐*

[8] Carruthers, B. G. & Espeland, W. N. *Money, Meaning and Morality*. American Behav‐

[2] < http://www.abepro.org.br/biblioteca/ENEGEP2002\_TR34\_1217.pdf> Web.

[3] Becker, Howard S. *Uma Teoria da Ação Coletiva.* Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1997.

place, that is, an important evidence a is that the women are 'backing home'.

considered as a moral practice before.

24 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil

119 (1997): 15-57.

(1999): 15-48.

Address all correspondence to: elaineleite10@gmail.com

*cional de Engenharia de Produção*. October, 2002.

*ministração de Empresas*. 37 (2002): 19-32.

ioral Scientist, 41, 1384, 1998.

**Author details**

**References**

Elaine da Silveira Leite\*

[27] Martin, Randy. *Financialization of Daily Life*. Philadelphia: Temple University, 2002. Print.


## **Entrepreneurship Education in China**

Weiming Li and Chunyan Li

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59301

## **1. Introduction**

[28] *McGee, M. Self-Help, Inc.: Makeover Culture in American Life*. London: Oxford Universi‐

[29] Paula, A. P. P. & Wood T. Jr. "Pop-Management: Contos de Paixão, Lucro e Poder."

[30] Preda, Alex. "The Rise of Popular Investor: Financial Knowledge and Investing in England and France, 1840-1880". *The Sociological Quartely*. 42 (2001): 205-232.

[31] SÁ, G. A revolução cultural no mercado acionário. *Revista de Administração da USP*,

[33] Stewart, Emily. Women Entrepreneurs are on the Rise, Making it Work in Brazil. In: http://pulsosocial.com/en/2013/10/15/women-entrepreneurs-are-on-the-rise-making-

*Encontro de Estudos Organizacionais*. 9. 24 (2003): 39-51. Print.

[32] Simmel, George. *The Philosophy of Money.* New York: Routledge, 1990.

[34] Zelizer, Viviana. *The Social Meaning of Money*. New York: Princeton, 1994.

São Paulo, v. 38, n. 2, p. 112–125, abr/maio/jun, 2003.

it-work-in-brazil/. October 15, 2013. Access: July, 2014.

[35] Weber, Max. A Bolsa. Lisboa: Relógio d'água, 1984.

ty Press, 2005. Print.

26 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

The current rise of entrepreneurship education in China adapts to the requirements of the construction of an innovation-oriented country and the development of high-quality educa‐ tion, itself. The significant influence of entrepreneurial activities on promoting the develop‐ ment of economics, the progress of science and technology, the creation of jobs, and the improvement of employment structures has been widely recognized by the community. The latest data show that in the entrepreneurship rankings of more than 60 countries and regions involved in a global entrepreneurship survey, China jumped from eleventh in 2002 to second in 2012 [1]. However, compared to this increase in active entrepreneurial activities, the development level of entrepreneurship education is not mature enough to meet the needs of entrepreneurial practice. The perfection of the entrepreneurship education system, therefore, is badly needed, and we must raise the level of entrepreneurship education, promoting the entrepreneurial qualities and abilities of university students. With the posting of "Several Opinions Proposed by the Ministry of Education on Improving the Overall Quality of Higher Education" in April 2012, the Ministry of Education made some clear and specific require‐ ments, such as: "innovation and enterprise education should run through the whole process of personnel training", "formulating the teaching basic requirements on innovation and entrepreneurship education in universities, developing the innovation and entrepreneurship education curriculum", "vigorously carrying out the training of qualified teachers", and "supporting students to engage in innovation and entrepreneurship training". Strengthening innovation and entrepreneurship education will be one of the most important directions for higher education reform in the future, underlining the profound impact innovation and entrepreneurship education has on comprehensively improving the quality of higher educa‐ tion.

Entrepreneurship education in China did not start until the Ministry of Education initiated a pilot project of entrepreneurship education in April 2002 at nine universities, such as Tsinghua

© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and so on. Along with this initiative, Chinese universities have been promoting entrepreneurship education continuously for the past 10 years, trying to increase students' professional quality and entrepreneurial abilities. However, matters like curriculum design or teachers training are still prominent due to the short period of entrepreneurship education development that began from a low degree of development.

Taking 2002 as a starting point, and relying on investigations into Chinese entrepreneurship education in the past 10 years, this article will propose constructive ideas about perfecting the entrepreneurship education system of university students. Firstly, the paper will probe into the evolution of the aspects of educational forms, educational content, education models, and other areas of entrepreneurship education in the university, clarifying its development. Secondly, the paper will analyse the weaknesses of the curriculum system, teachers, education models, and supporting mechanism, pointing out the existing problems in universities' entrepreneurship education.

## **2. Evolution of university entrepreneurship education**

Entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities began in the late 1990s. With increasingly engagement in entrepreneurial activities, innovation and entrepreneurship are urgently needed for economic and social development, and entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities is in continued progress to conform the practical requirement.

#### **2.1. Pilot project from entrepreneurship competition to entrepreneurship education**

The entrepreneurship education of university students started in the early 1980s in the United States, and was introduced to China in the form of entrepreneurship competition in the late 1990s. In May 1998, Tsinghua University and a Shanghai magazine successfully combined with several universities to hold the first Tsinghua Business Plan Competition and introduce it into domestic university campuses. With the sponsorship of the Communist Youth League, the China Association for Science and Technology, and the All-China Students Federation, the first "Challenge Cup" Chinese University Student Business Plan Competition was held by Tsinghua University in 1999, establishing its reputation. Nearly 400 works from more than 120 universities were brought together by the competition, initiating an upsurge of innovation and entrepreneurship throughout the universities nationwide, and having a broad impact on society.

Along with the nationwide spread of the business plan competition, university teaching activity had more and more to do with business plan competition counselling, entrepreneur‐ ship courses, and entrepreneurial talents training. The Ministry of Education launched the pilot work of entrepreneurship education in April 2002, which at first had nine selected universities as follows: Tsinghua University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronau‐ tics, Heilongjiang University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Wuhan University, Xi'an Jiao Tong University, and North-western Polytech‐ nic University. There is also exploration of entrepreneurship education suitable to our nation's situation, which is through an entrepreneurship education pilot to encourage universities to practice entrepreneurship education in various ways. As a result of an entrepreneurship education pilot of nearly 10 years' duration, Chinese universities have achieved the transition from active entrepreneurship competitions to initiative entrepreneurship education, as well as a beneficial exploration of the pattern of entrepreneurship education — not only forming diverse entrepreneurship educational schemes at typical pilot universities, but also forming distinctive ones at non-pilot universities, laying the foundation for the widespread use of entrepreneurship education throughout the country.

### **2.2. Shift from teacher-oriented training to student-oriented cultivation**

University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and so on. Along with this initiative, Chinese universities have been promoting entrepreneurship education continuously for the past 10 years, trying to increase students' professional quality and entrepreneurial abilities. However, matters like curriculum design or teachers training are still prominent due to the short period of entrepreneurship education development that began from a low degree

Taking 2002 as a starting point, and relying on investigations into Chinese entrepreneurship education in the past 10 years, this article will propose constructive ideas about perfecting the entrepreneurship education system of university students. Firstly, the paper will probe into the evolution of the aspects of educational forms, educational content, education models, and other areas of entrepreneurship education in the university, clarifying its development. Secondly, the paper will analyse the weaknesses of the curriculum system, teachers, education models, and supporting mechanism, pointing out the existing problems in universities'

Entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities began in the late 1990s. With increasingly engagement in entrepreneurial activities, innovation and entrepreneurship are urgently needed for economic and social development, and entrepreneurship education in Chinese

The entrepreneurship education of university students started in the early 1980s in the United States, and was introduced to China in the form of entrepreneurship competition in the late 1990s. In May 1998, Tsinghua University and a Shanghai magazine successfully combined with several universities to hold the first Tsinghua Business Plan Competition and introduce it into domestic university campuses. With the sponsorship of the Communist Youth League, the China Association for Science and Technology, and the All-China Students Federation, the first "Challenge Cup" Chinese University Student Business Plan Competition was held by Tsinghua University in 1999, establishing its reputation. Nearly 400 works from more than 120 universities were brought together by the competition, initiating an upsurge of innovation and entrepreneurship throughout the universities nationwide, and having a broad impact on

Along with the nationwide spread of the business plan competition, university teaching activity had more and more to do with business plan competition counselling, entrepreneur‐ ship courses, and entrepreneurial talents training. The Ministry of Education launched the pilot work of entrepreneurship education in April 2002, which at first had nine selected universities as follows: Tsinghua University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronau‐ tics, Heilongjiang University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Wuhan University, Xi'an Jiao Tong University, and North-western Polytech‐

**2.1. Pilot project from entrepreneurship competition to entrepreneurship education**

**2. Evolution of university entrepreneurship education**

universities is in continued progress to conform the practical requirement.

of development.

society.

entrepreneurship education.

28 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

Problems with faculty form the primary block to launching entrepreneurship education. From 27 October to 2 November in 2003, with the participation of 200 teachers from more than 100 universities, the first core teacher training of entrepreneurship education was held by the Minister of Education at the Ruxin Conference Center of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, marking the start of entrepreneurship education teaching. In the next 10 years, the Business Management Training School of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astro‐ nautics had held ten successful core teacher training of entrepreneurship education, which, at the beginning, included entrepreneurship education content, the curriculum of entrepreneur‐ ship, and how to help students change idea to business. In recent training courses, besides the content of entrepreneurship education, experience sharing through patterns, methods, technology, and innovative experiments in national universities is being more and more important. By the end of 2012, this training project had trained more than 1,300 core teachers for universities' entrepreneurship education.

Another important measure to promote teacher training is KAB (Know About Business Entrepreneurship Education), which has been pushed through international co-operation by the Communist Youth League and All-China Students Federation from August 2008. This is an attempt to develop Chinese entrepreneurship education, aiming to explore a Chinese entrepreneurship education that takes into account international experience. [2] By the end of March 2012, KAB (China) had trained 4,045 teachers from 1,008 universities, created university student KAB entrepreneurship club in 153 universities, founded university student KAB entrepreneurship education bases in 185 universities, had more than 300,000 university students participate in learning and practicing entrepreneurship [3], offered the course of "University Student KAB Entrepreneurship Foundation" at 850 universities such as Tsinghua University, China Youth University for Political Science, Zhejiang University, etc., published two sets of course textbooks for the preparation of teachers and students, and established four systems, as follows: course construction, teacher training, quality control, and interflow promotion.

In the wake of the run of core teacher training of entrepreneurship education and KAB (China), universities had, period by period, been increasing their reserves of teachers and the serious shortage of teachers has also been fixed, step by step. The shift from teacher-oriented training to student-oriented cultivation has been achieved due to the increase in the number of universities setting entrepreneurship courses and placing increased importance on entrepre‐ neurship education in personnel training. For example, entrepreneurship education in Nankai University covers the entire learning process, and in order to offer diversity courses and entrepreneurship practices the students are divided into several types according to different goals and demand: such as entrepreneurship optional courses and simulation company training camps designed for students interested in learning about the knowledge and experi‐ ences of entrepreneurship, with a follow-up service provided for students attempting to apply entrepreneurship practice to apprenticeship, pair work, and so on.

#### **2.3. Transition from classroom teaching to multiple teaching patterns**

Closed classroom teaching is the most common method of traditional curriculum education in domestic universities, which can neither interest students nor improve their entrepreneurial skills if applied to entrepreneurship education directly. In the pilot process of entrepreneurship education, universities have begun to search for a variety of patterns, of which Wenzhou University and three pilot universities (including Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, and Heilongjiang University) are selected as cases to illustrate this paper.

## *2.3.1. Tsinghua university: Deep focus*

Relying on its strong research advantage and its promotion of entrepreneurship education to all students, Tsinghua University applied the entrepreneurship course system to the scenarios of technological innovation, technological commercialization, and high technology industry, concentrating on talent training that can increase an enterprise's capacity for independent innovation and international competitiveness. China Center for Entrepreneurial Research and technological innovation at Tsinghua University has more than 10 entrepreneurship courses. In addition, the Tsinghua-Berkeley Global Technology Entrepreneurship Program is built in partnership with Berkeley University of California, customizing courses and compulsory practical projects like "technological entrepreneurship", "characteristic industry innovation and entrepreneurship", "intellectual property management", and so on, to help students get access to the leading technology enterprises in Zhongguancun and increase the capability of technology innovation. In addition, Tsinghua has also had a special Science and Technology Innovation Center with Science and Technology Innovation Fund to support students' innovation activities and provide guidance and consultation.

#### *2.3.2. Renmin university of China: Class extension*

To improve the overall entrepreneurship ability and quality of students, Renmin University of China combined curriculum education with practice education through class extension. "The First Class" is the core class of teaching, with entrepreneurship courses like "entrepre‐ neurial spirit", "venture capital", "entrepreneurship management", and so on [4]. Courses are improving on several fronts, simultaneously: on the one hand, increasing the proportion of optional courses to broaden the students' choices; on the other hand, advocating participatory teaching to develop students' creative thinking. "The Second Class", also known as the extracurricular practice class, is the extension of "The First Class", encouraging students to join in various social practice activities and social welfare activities. Adopting entrepreneur‐ ship education lectures and competitive activities, entrepreneurial practice groups came into being in the form of projects and social organizations relying on professions.

## *2.3.3. Heilongjiang university: Entity experience*

universities setting entrepreneurship courses and placing increased importance on entrepre‐ neurship education in personnel training. For example, entrepreneurship education in Nankai University covers the entire learning process, and in order to offer diversity courses and entrepreneurship practices the students are divided into several types according to different goals and demand: such as entrepreneurship optional courses and simulation company training camps designed for students interested in learning about the knowledge and experi‐ ences of entrepreneurship, with a follow-up service provided for students attempting to apply

Closed classroom teaching is the most common method of traditional curriculum education in domestic universities, which can neither interest students nor improve their entrepreneurial skills if applied to entrepreneurship education directly. In the pilot process of entrepreneurship education, universities have begun to search for a variety of patterns, of which Wenzhou University and three pilot universities (including Tsinghua University, Renmin University of

Relying on its strong research advantage and its promotion of entrepreneurship education to all students, Tsinghua University applied the entrepreneurship course system to the scenarios of technological innovation, technological commercialization, and high technology industry, concentrating on talent training that can increase an enterprise's capacity for independent innovation and international competitiveness. China Center for Entrepreneurial Research and technological innovation at Tsinghua University has more than 10 entrepreneurship courses. In addition, the Tsinghua-Berkeley Global Technology Entrepreneurship Program is built in partnership with Berkeley University of California, customizing courses and compulsory practical projects like "technological entrepreneurship", "characteristic industry innovation and entrepreneurship", "intellectual property management", and so on, to help students get access to the leading technology enterprises in Zhongguancun and increase the capability of technology innovation. In addition, Tsinghua has also had a special Science and Technology Innovation Center with Science and Technology Innovation Fund to support students'

To improve the overall entrepreneurship ability and quality of students, Renmin University of China combined curriculum education with practice education through class extension. "The First Class" is the core class of teaching, with entrepreneurship courses like "entrepre‐ neurial spirit", "venture capital", "entrepreneurship management", and so on [4]. Courses are improving on several fronts, simultaneously: on the one hand, increasing the proportion of optional courses to broaden the students' choices; on the other hand, advocating participatory teaching to develop students' creative thinking. "The Second Class", also known as the extracurricular practice class, is the extension of "The First Class", encouraging students to

entrepreneurship practice to apprenticeship, pair work, and so on.

innovation activities and provide guidance and consultation.

*2.3.2. Renmin university of China: Class extension*

*2.3.1. Tsinghua university: Deep focus*

30 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**2.3. Transition from classroom teaching to multiple teaching patterns**

China, and Heilongjiang University) are selected as cases to illustrate this paper.

Relying on the construction of entrepreneurship practice base for university students, Hei‐ longjiang University insisted on the combination of theory and practice in the pilot process and paid more attention to fostering students' entrepreneurship practice ability. School sources were integrated in various ways to create conditions of entity entrepreneurial experience for students. For instance, scientific laboratories are open to students so that they can come into contact with advanced equipment and the newest scientific achievements, stimulating students' entrepreneurial enthusiasm to use the leading technology. Beyond that, operational entities are also be founded to enhance students' entrepreneurial practice experience: such as a technology services company, students' supermarket, students' bookstall, students' tutor department, and so on. These entities are managed and operated by entrepreneurial practice students, letting them experience the entirety of entity operating and entrepreneurship under the guidance of teachers, fostering their entrepreneurship spirit and entrepreneurship ability.

## *2.3.4. Wenzhou university: Position entrepreneurship*

Driven by its training in position entrepreneurship sense and ability, Wenzhou University promotes entrepreneurship education successfully and has become a state level experimental area of entrepreneurship talent training outside the Ministry of Education's pilot universities. An entitative entrepreneurial talent training school has been founded, and a unique entrepre‐ neurial talent training system has been structured, through the setting of classes like entre‐ preneurial pioneer class, manager developing class, enterprise successor class, and bi-major of entrepreneurship and management. There is also a 3-level linkage practice carrier of entrepreneurship education, consisting of a professional entrepreneurial studio, an entrepre‐ neurship centre of school, and a pioneer park of university with the functions of transforma‐ tion, enhancement, and incubation. In addition, with the integration of social sources with a local advantage, Wenzhou University combined with Wenzhou's chamber of commerce nationwide, constructing students' position entrepreneurship practice bases outside of the school with well-known group companies such as Red Dragonfly, AOKANG, CHINT, etc. [5] This enterprise has the aim of training students to become position entrepreneurial talents with the expertise to be highly entrepreneurial on three levels: position entrepreneurial sense training, position entrepreneurial ability training, and position entrepreneurial management practice.

#### **2.4. Transition from knowledge impartment to quality-oriented education**

At the beginning of domestic entrepreneurship education in universities, there was more concentration on the impartment of knowledge and theory to students and less focus on quality-oriented entrepreneurship education, leading to the shortage of entrepreneurial enthusiasm and practice ability among the majority of students, even after they had completed their education. In practice, universities changed this situation after exploring the different levels of their provision, shifting from knowledge impartment to quality-oriented education. For instance, pilot universities like Tsinghua University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and Heilongjiang University comprehensively improved their students' entrepreneurial quality from practical skills, entrepreneurial spirit, and anti-risk ability, through the building of a pioneer park, establishing entrepreneurial funds, or offering entitative business platforms. Moreover, other universities are trying to integrate entrepre‐ neurship education into quality-oriented education, such as Wenzhou University, which is attempting to integrate contemporary Zhejiang merchants, Wenzhou merchants, and students' entrepreneurial stories into the ideological and political theory course. This would not only improve the effectiveness of the ideological and political theory course, but also enrich and update quality-oriented educational content such as courses in philosophy, entrepreneurial spirit training, psychology, and business ethics.

## **3. The problem of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities**

In the development of entrepreneurship education in a decade of development in China, we have made some achievements. Compared with foreign comprehensive entrepreneurship education systems, however, there is still a big gap. This article will focus on the following points to elaborate why this should be the case.

## **3.1. The unreasonable design of curriculum**

Teaching is the most basic form of education, and the higher education curriculum is the core of the teaching process. Through the analysis of a decade of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities, the unreasonable design of the curriculum is mainly reflected in the following aspects.

## *3.1.1. The single course forms*

The enterprise education must break the traditional teaching model, which is closed, and increase the proportion of the curriculum that addresses other forms of education: including entrepreneurship training and combat simulation, as well as practical experience in entrepre‐ neurship. However, there are only a few schools that could do this at present, and many colleges in different places still regard the "classroom" as the core model, which is supple‐ mented by a number of other activities. These courses cannot provide opportunities for students to participate in entrepreneurial practice actively, with the consequence that students cannot play a role effectively with initiative, enthusiasm, and innovation. As a result, it affects the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education.

#### *3.1.2. The limited number of courses*

Only 41 in 107 universities which are in the "211 project" offer entrepreneurship courses in China, while there are over 1,600 universities providing more than 2,200 entrepreneurial courses in America [6]. In contrast, the entrepreneurship courses provided by many univer‐ sities in China are very limited, there is only one course called "Entrepreneurial Management" or "Graduate Employment and Entrepreneurial Guidance". This makes it difficult to meet the needs of students who want to learn entrepreneurship theory and train in entrepreneurial skills.

## *3.1.3. The insufficient course subdivision*

their education. In practice, universities changed this situation after exploring the different levels of their provision, shifting from knowledge impartment to quality-oriented education. For instance, pilot universities like Tsinghua University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and Heilongjiang University comprehensively improved their students' entrepreneurial quality from practical skills, entrepreneurial spirit, and anti-risk ability, through the building of a pioneer park, establishing entrepreneurial funds, or offering entitative business platforms. Moreover, other universities are trying to integrate entrepre‐ neurship education into quality-oriented education, such as Wenzhou University, which is attempting to integrate contemporary Zhejiang merchants, Wenzhou merchants, and students' entrepreneurial stories into the ideological and political theory course. This would not only improve the effectiveness of the ideological and political theory course, but also enrich and update quality-oriented educational content such as courses in philosophy, entrepreneurial

**3. The problem of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities**

In the development of entrepreneurship education in a decade of development in China, we have made some achievements. Compared with foreign comprehensive entrepreneurship education systems, however, there is still a big gap. This article will focus on the following

Teaching is the most basic form of education, and the higher education curriculum is the core of the teaching process. Through the analysis of a decade of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities, the unreasonable design of the curriculum is mainly reflected in the

The enterprise education must break the traditional teaching model, which is closed, and increase the proportion of the curriculum that addresses other forms of education: including entrepreneurship training and combat simulation, as well as practical experience in entrepre‐ neurship. However, there are only a few schools that could do this at present, and many colleges in different places still regard the "classroom" as the core model, which is supple‐ mented by a number of other activities. These courses cannot provide opportunities for students to participate in entrepreneurial practice actively, with the consequence that students cannot play a role effectively with initiative, enthusiasm, and innovation. As a result, it affects

Only 41 in 107 universities which are in the "211 project" offer entrepreneurship courses in China, while there are over 1,600 universities providing more than 2,200 entrepreneurial

spirit training, psychology, and business ethics.

32 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

points to elaborate why this should be the case.

the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education.

*3.1.2. The limited number of courses*

**3.1. The unreasonable design of curriculum**

following aspects.

*3.1.1. The single course forms*

As the pioneer of entrepreneurship education in China, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics has set up the "School of Business Management Training", offering three required courses in entrepreneurial management introduction, business communication, business practices, and five optional courses such as team training, development training, entrepre‐ neurial market research, corporate and contract law, and business finances. However, compared with Stanford University (with 21 entrepreneurship courses) and the Berkeley University of California (with 23 entrepreneurship courses), this curriculum is still not large enough and lacks the support to develop different types and levels of students.

## **3.2. The shortage of qualified teachers**

Entrepreneurship education is a comprehensive discipline. It requires teachers to have not only high quality professional and teaching skills, but also to have the ability to guide business practices. In the teachers' construction of entrepreneurship education, our universities are facing a huge gap in demand [7]. The shortage of highly qualified teachers of entrepreneurship education has become the bottleneck that constrains the rapid development of entrepreneur‐ ship education.

## *3.2.1. A limited overall number of teachers*

As an emerging discipline and curriculum, most training of universities' entrepreneurial management teachers, especially teachers with the relevant professional backgrounds, still cannot meet the needs of actual teaching in recent years.

#### *3.2.2. Shortage of teaching skills*

Most university teachers engaged in education enter work directly after graduating from school. Many teachers have instructed students after they had received relevant knowledge and training. The majority of the content is theoretical explanation, and the entrepreneurship education courses are academic. This cannot truly cultivate students' entrepreneurial aware‐ ness and ability.

#### *3.2.3. Teachers' weak ability in practice guidance*

In order to strengthen practical entrepreneurship education, most universities employed a group of entrepreneurs as visiting teachers. Although this arrangement was widely welcomed by students, limited lectures were lack of systematic. In addition, some of the entrepreneurs were so lacking in teaching experience that the effect was sometimes unsatisfactory.

## **3.3. Entrepreneurship education model needing to be perfected**

Entrepreneurship education is a systematic project, which is engaged in economy and management, humanities, and other fields. To bring entrepreneurship education into the orbit of the university, there should be plans to perfect the entrepreneurship education model. However, the following problems still exist in entrepreneurship education of Chinese univer‐ sities.

#### *3.3.1. The lack of a systematic education model*

Although more and more teachers in Chinese universities are engaged in entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship has not yet been fully integrated into the national system of discipline construction and universities have to rely on teachers and teaching conditions in other disciplines in order to expand entrepreneurship education. This meant that the model was heavily influenced by traditional teaching models, leading to the lack of independence, pertinence, and an appropriate system of entrepreneurship educational patterns. Simultane‐ ously, in addition to providing a small number of "entrepreneurial foundation" courses, most universities lacked a completely systematic entrepreneurship education curriculum, and instead classified entrepreneurship education as one category within career planning or careers guidance, rather than forming independent entrepreneurship courses and a systematic entrepreneurship curriculum group.

## *3.3.2. The lack of planning in education model*

The promotion of entrepreneurship education should be planned and designed according to students' different levels and majors. Reasonable planning is reflected in systematic manage‐ ment, adopting certain entrepreneurship education models relating to educational goals, educational programs, educational implementation, and the evaluation of education. Entre‐ preneurship education in most universities cannot meet the above requirements: on the one hand, teacher training of entrepreneurship education and supporting policies in many universities is not yet fully in place, thus failing to meet different types of students' needs for entrepreneurship education; on the other hand, entrepreneurship education in many univer‐ sities is still at the stage of observation, learning, and exploring, and cannot form stable and mature entrepreneurial education models, leading to a lack of long-term arrangement and design.

#### **3.4. The unsound supporting mechanisms of entrepreneurship education**

In recent years, entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities has been gradually developing, but many universities are concerned only with the entrepreneurial activities of a small group of people rather than the majority. Some universities prefer utilitarian exploration with quick results, hoping to rapidly achieve the effect of releasing employment pressure by entrepreneurship [8], leading to failed entrepreneurship education, supporting mechanisms such as matching funds mechanism, hatch mechanisms, policies safeguard mechanism, and hindering the development of entrepreneurship education of university students.

## *3.4.1. The shortage of funds to support entrepreneurship practice*

**3.3. Entrepreneurship education model needing to be perfected**

*3.3.1. The lack of a systematic education model*

34 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

entrepreneurship curriculum group.

*3.3.2. The lack of planning in education model*

sities.

design.

Entrepreneurship education is a systematic project, which is engaged in economy and management, humanities, and other fields. To bring entrepreneurship education into the orbit of the university, there should be plans to perfect the entrepreneurship education model. However, the following problems still exist in entrepreneurship education of Chinese univer‐

Although more and more teachers in Chinese universities are engaged in entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship has not yet been fully integrated into the national system of discipline construction and universities have to rely on teachers and teaching conditions in other disciplines in order to expand entrepreneurship education. This meant that the model was heavily influenced by traditional teaching models, leading to the lack of independence, pertinence, and an appropriate system of entrepreneurship educational patterns. Simultane‐ ously, in addition to providing a small number of "entrepreneurial foundation" courses, most universities lacked a completely systematic entrepreneurship education curriculum, and instead classified entrepreneurship education as one category within career planning or careers guidance, rather than forming independent entrepreneurship courses and a systematic

The promotion of entrepreneurship education should be planned and designed according to students' different levels and majors. Reasonable planning is reflected in systematic manage‐ ment, adopting certain entrepreneurship education models relating to educational goals, educational programs, educational implementation, and the evaluation of education. Entre‐ preneurship education in most universities cannot meet the above requirements: on the one hand, teacher training of entrepreneurship education and supporting policies in many universities is not yet fully in place, thus failing to meet different types of students' needs for entrepreneurship education; on the other hand, entrepreneurship education in many univer‐ sities is still at the stage of observation, learning, and exploring, and cannot form stable and mature entrepreneurial education models, leading to a lack of long-term arrangement and

In recent years, entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities has been gradually developing, but many universities are concerned only with the entrepreneurial activities of a small group of people rather than the majority. Some universities prefer utilitarian exploration with quick results, hoping to rapidly achieve the effect of releasing employment pressure by entrepreneurship [8], leading to failed entrepreneurship education, supporting mechanisms such as matching funds mechanism, hatch mechanisms, policies safeguard mechanism, and

**3.4. The unsound supporting mechanisms of entrepreneurship education**

hindering the development of entrepreneurship education of university students.

Funds are the primary problem to be solved for entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities. At present, funds used to meet the need of students' entrepreneurship practices mainly consist of the entrepreneurial fund established by the government, the investment and risk fund established by private entrepreneurs, and the entrepreneurial fund established by schools, though the amount of most entrepreneurial funds are very limited. Even the entre‐ preneurial fund of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics that first started entrepreneurship education is three million (and the entrepreneurial fund of Fudan University is 10 million) its exemplary role is still limited. Universities are different from profit-making organizations, after all, and it is difficult for the majority of universities to spend large amounts of money on supporting students' entrepreneurial practice with the immature conditions of models such as alumni donations.

#### *3.4.2. The unreasonable supporting of incubator space with entrepreneurship*

The problem of incubator space has become a bottleneck, restricting the development of entrepreneurial practice teaching in Chinese universities. Incubator space can be the business practice field to simulate entrepreneurial aspects, and it can also be the simple laboratory space and an important place where students can enter the market; practice business activities; experience technological innovation,results transformation and commercial activities; achieve self-development; and run an enterprise. These all require universities to provide buildings, land, and hardware facilities as support. However, due to the limitation of funds, conditions, and emphasis on entrepreneurship, many universities failed to provide the necessary incuba‐ tor spaceorthe limitedspace, andhave impededthe entrepreneurialpracticesof some students.

#### *3.4.3. The inadequate policy security supporting entrepreneurship practice*

TheinadequatesecuritysupportingpoliciesrelatedwithentrepreneurshipeducationinChinese universities has become another bottleneck, restricting the development of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities. In the past ten years, although state and local governments have successively introduced a number of policies to encourage students to establish a business —suchasproposingtoallowstudents toremainontheschoolrollforentrepreneurship,relaxing the standards of loans of university student entrepreneurship, reducing and eliminating the revenue for university student entrepreneurship, and other many preferential policies — the genuine impact that these policies have on entrepreneurship education is very limited. On the one hand, most policies are encouraging university students to leave the campus and partici‐ pate in entrepreneurship, but failed to support the entrepreneurship education of all stu‐ dents; on the other hand, most universities failed to develop specific safeguards or implement rules for providing ancillary support, thus affecting the effect of the implementation.

## **4. Conclusion**

With increasingly active entrepreneurial activities in China, entrepreneurial contributions to the nation and local economies have become increasingly prominent, and the need to

vigorously develop entrepreneurship education has been the general consensus among universities. Universities have explored entrepreneurship education adapted to the actual needs of our country since the Ministry of Education started the pilot project of entrepre‐ neurship education. After decades of development, the audience and penetration of entrepreneurship education at universities is gradually increasing, and entrepreneurship education has also gradually changed from the early entrepreneurship competitions, teacher-oriented training, classroom teaching, and knowledge impartment into focusing on entrepreneurial ability training, raising quality, and diversified educational styles. Over‐ all, entrepreneurship education at universities has experienced profound change in terms of educational forms, content, models, and so on. However, because of the short period and the undeveloped starting point of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universi‐ ties, the present entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities still experiences problems like the unreasonable design of curricula, the shortage of qualified teachers, the single model of entrepreneurship education, and the lack of supporting mechanisms. In future development, to catch up with the pace of European and other developed coun‐ tries', our country should further strengthen the construction of curriculum systems, entrepreneurship practice systems, faculty systems, educational model systems, and education evaluation systems. Through perfecting the entrepreneurship education system; further enhancing entrepreneurship education quality in Chinese universities; and cultivat‐ ing high-level entrepreneurship talents with excellent creative thinking, entrepreneurial skills, and entrepreneurial practical ability, we can provide personnel security and intellectual support for implementing the development strategies of the innovationoriented country.

## **Acknowledgements**

This work is sponsored by Hainan University education and teaching research project, China (HDJY1338)

## **Author details**

Weiming Li and Chunyan Li

Hainan University, China

## **References**

[1] Feng YaHong. China become the most active global entrepreneurship area (EB/OL. http://cppcc.people.com.cn/BIG5/n/2013/ 0201/c34948-20401987.html.

[2] KAB The National Promotion Office. KAB Entrepreneurship Education (China) project promotion planEB/OL. http://www.kab.org.cn/content/2011-09/15/ content\_4894576. html.

vigorously develop entrepreneurship education has been the general consensus among universities. Universities have explored entrepreneurship education adapted to the actual needs of our country since the Ministry of Education started the pilot project of entrepre‐ neurship education. After decades of development, the audience and penetration of entrepreneurship education at universities is gradually increasing, and entrepreneurship education has also gradually changed from the early entrepreneurship competitions, teacher-oriented training, classroom teaching, and knowledge impartment into focusing on entrepreneurial ability training, raising quality, and diversified educational styles. Over‐ all, entrepreneurship education at universities has experienced profound change in terms of educational forms, content, models, and so on. However, because of the short period and the undeveloped starting point of entrepreneurship education in Chinese universi‐ ties, the present entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities still experiences problems like the unreasonable design of curricula, the shortage of qualified teachers, the single model of entrepreneurship education, and the lack of supporting mechanisms. In future development, to catch up with the pace of European and other developed coun‐ tries', our country should further strengthen the construction of curriculum systems, entrepreneurship practice systems, faculty systems, educational model systems, and education evaluation systems. Through perfecting the entrepreneurship education system; further enhancing entrepreneurship education quality in Chinese universities; and cultivat‐ ing high-level entrepreneurship talents with excellent creative thinking, entrepreneurial skills, and entrepreneurial practical ability, we can provide personnel security and intellectual support for implementing the development strategies of the innovation-

This work is sponsored by Hainan University education and teaching research project, China

[1] Feng YaHong. China become the most active global entrepreneurship area (EB/OL.

http://cppcc.people.com.cn/BIG5/n/2013/ 0201/c34948-20401987.html.

oriented country.

(HDJY1338)

**Author details**

**References**

Weiming Li and Chunyan Li

Hainan University, China

**Acknowledgements**

36 Entrepreneurship Education and Training


## **Chapter 4**

## **Entrepreneurship Education in Spain**

José C. Sánchez-García and Brizeida Hernández-Sánchez

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58978

## **1. Introduction**

The study of entrepreneurship at all stages of education has been the subject of debate in the international sphere for many years. For some time now the European Union has been recommending its member States to carry out specific actions in order to foster an enterprising spirit among students. Currently some very important documents and recommendations for action are available, and they call on public authorities, business associations, schools, NGOs and other interested parties to promote entrepreneurship in education.

Although numerous studies have shown that business skills can be cultivated as early as the first stages of schooling and that there is a strong relation between an adequate educational offering in entrepreneurship and greater business activity, the truth is that the educational training in entrepreneurship offered is still poor in all countries, especially at the pre-university level [1-6]

The aim of this chapter is to present concrete experiences of the practical application of entrepreneurship education in Spain and also to contribute to the dissemination and exchange of best practices in that country. In doing so we hope to offer a complete panorama of the current situation in Spain and help to design future actions. We also hope this serves as a stimulus to highlight all of these experiences.

#### **1.1. International framework: OECD and EU**

At the European level, entrepreneurship education has mainly been approached from international agencies such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU), of which Spain is a member.

© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The OECD groups 30 States committed to promoting democracy and a market economy. It came into being in 1961 as the successor of the Organization for European Economic Cooper‐ ation (OEEC). The OECD compiles statistics and comparative economic data; it investigates social change and developmental patterns in areas such as commerce, the environment, agriculture and other sectors. In this way its member States can compare experiences and seek effective solutions to problems that are common to all. In the fields of education and employ‐ ment, the OECD is not only working hard to ensure equal access to education but also fighting against social exclusion and unemployment.

Among the milestones in fostering an enterprising spirit we would highlight the Bologna Conference and the Istanbul Conference. On June 14-15, 2000, the 1st Ministerial Conference was held in Bologna to discuss "Enhancing the Competitiveness of SMEs in the Global Economy: Strategies and Policies," thus giving rise to the so-called Bologna Process on SME policies and entrepreneurship. The result of that conference was the Bologna Charter on SME Policies in 2000 [4], which proposed a consistent approach to SME policies. The Charter recommends that SME policies should take into account that the capability of these companies to manage innovation can be improved by: the dissemination of a culture of innovation, and the dissemination of technological and market information (e.g. by creating links between companies and educational systems).

The OECD Ministerial Conference held in Istanbul on June 3-5, 2004 to discuss "Promoting Entrepreneurship and Innovative SMEs in a Global Economy" examined how to promote entrepreneurship as a force for innovation, as well as the effects of globalization on SMEs and their ability to compete globally. The Ministerial Declaration from the Istanbul Conference regarding the promotion of innovative and internationally competitive SMEs reaffirms the need to support the development of the best public policies, including education, in order to foster the creation and rapid growth of innovative SMEs. It specifically proposes the devel‐ opment of a culture that favours entrepreneurship and recognizes successful businesses as well as the integration of entrepreneurship at all levels of the formal education system to facilitate this development. Formal education should be complemented with "learn by doing" activities and other practical workshops; this objective thus demands special attention to teacher training programs.

In regard to the European Union (EU), it should be pointed out that the treatment of entre‐ preneurship education in the European context has its origins in several different authorities. First, the European Commission, through the Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry (DG Enterprise and Industry), which is in charge of promoting the agenda of entrepreneurial initiative, including in education, by means of political cooperation outside the structure of binding Community legislative instruments. This matter has also been addressed by the DG of Education and Culture and in the DG for Regional and Urban Policy. Entrepreneurship education has thus been subject to consideration in the different agencies of the Council of Europe, and in the mandatory European Council meetings every semester.

The reasons why entrepreneurship education has been approached from such different angles in the EU are obvious. The DG of Education and Culture seeks to have comparable qualifica‐ tions in order to foster the free circulation of persons and workers. The DG for Enterprise and Industry seeks to promote a business mentality and enrich the productive fabric of Europe. Both of these touch on regional cohesion policies, addressed to eliminating the differences in economic development of the member States and their regions.

The OECD groups 30 States committed to promoting democracy and a market economy. It came into being in 1961 as the successor of the Organization for European Economic Cooper‐ ation (OEEC). The OECD compiles statistics and comparative economic data; it investigates social change and developmental patterns in areas such as commerce, the environment, agriculture and other sectors. In this way its member States can compare experiences and seek effective solutions to problems that are common to all. In the fields of education and employ‐ ment, the OECD is not only working hard to ensure equal access to education but also fighting

Among the milestones in fostering an enterprising spirit we would highlight the Bologna Conference and the Istanbul Conference. On June 14-15, 2000, the 1st Ministerial Conference was held in Bologna to discuss "Enhancing the Competitiveness of SMEs in the Global Economy: Strategies and Policies," thus giving rise to the so-called Bologna Process on SME policies and entrepreneurship. The result of that conference was the Bologna Charter on SME Policies in 2000 [4], which proposed a consistent approach to SME policies. The Charter recommends that SME policies should take into account that the capability of these companies to manage innovation can be improved by: the dissemination of a culture of innovation, and the dissemination of technological and market information (e.g. by creating links between

The OECD Ministerial Conference held in Istanbul on June 3-5, 2004 to discuss "Promoting Entrepreneurship and Innovative SMEs in a Global Economy" examined how to promote entrepreneurship as a force for innovation, as well as the effects of globalization on SMEs and their ability to compete globally. The Ministerial Declaration from the Istanbul Conference regarding the promotion of innovative and internationally competitive SMEs reaffirms the need to support the development of the best public policies, including education, in order to foster the creation and rapid growth of innovative SMEs. It specifically proposes the devel‐ opment of a culture that favours entrepreneurship and recognizes successful businesses as well as the integration of entrepreneurship at all levels of the formal education system to facilitate this development. Formal education should be complemented with "learn by doing" activities and other practical workshops; this objective thus demands special attention to

In regard to the European Union (EU), it should be pointed out that the treatment of entre‐ preneurship education in the European context has its origins in several different authorities. First, the European Commission, through the Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry (DG Enterprise and Industry), which is in charge of promoting the agenda of entrepreneurial initiative, including in education, by means of political cooperation outside the structure of binding Community legislative instruments. This matter has also been addressed by the DG of Education and Culture and in the DG for Regional and Urban Policy. Entrepreneurship education has thus been subject to consideration in the different agencies of the Council of

The reasons why entrepreneurship education has been approached from such different angles in the EU are obvious. The DG of Education and Culture seeks to have comparable qualifica‐ tions in order to foster the free circulation of persons and workers. The DG for Enterprise and

Europe, and in the mandatory European Council meetings every semester.

against social exclusion and unemployment.

40 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

companies and educational systems).

teacher training programs.

Table 1 provides a synthesis of the main milestones in the European debate about the intro‐ duction of entrepreneurship education, from the year 2000 with the launching of the Lisbon strategy until the present. More information can be found regarding some of the milestones and documents included in the Table as well as how entrepreneurship education is treated in the EU by consulting the corresponding section of the SME portal of the European Commission [7].


**Table 1.** Summary of the principal milestones in the European debate on entrepreneurship education (2000-2012)

The debate in Europe began with the Special Meeting of the European Council in Lisbon, 2000 [8] to examine the development of entrepreneurship education in the EU agenda. The Euro‐ pean Council meeting held on 23-24 March 2000 adopted the goal of making the EU's knowl‐ edge-based economy the most competitive and dynamic in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth, with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion, by 2010. As a means to achieving this objective it was agreed, among other things, that it was necessary to create the best possible environment for small businesses and entrepreneurship. The European Charter for Small Enterprises, also known as the Feira Charter [9], was subsequently adopted by the Council of General Affairs in Lisbon on 13 June 2000, and was approved at the European Council Meeting at Santa María da Feira, held on 19-20 June of that same year. The Charter recommends that member State governments should concentrate their strategic efforts around ten lines of action of capital importance for the context in which small businesses operate.

Among these lines of action, the most outstanding, in the first place, is education and learning for entrepreneurship, since in order to cultivate an enterprising spirit from an early age it is necessary to offer studies relating to the business sphere, mainly at the secondary and university levels, and foster both the business initiatives of young people and educational programmes addressed to small businesses.

In addition, the DG Enterprise and Industry of the European Commission, in conjunction with EU member States, organized the Niva Sophia Antipolis Forum in Training for Entrepreneur‐ ship in October 2000 [10]*,* which brought together 350 representatives from a wide range of educational agencies and institutions and local development initiatives, national representa‐ tives and representatives from the business world and business organizations. Debates were structured around three workshops:


As a result of these workshop debates a report was written highlighting the following as educational goals, especially at the lower level (primary and secondary):


Moreover, the IV Multiannual Programme Fostering Enterprise and Entrepreneurship 2001-2005, approved by Council Decision of 20 December 2000 [11], considers a compilation of reports of best practices following the methodology known as "best procedure". This methodology consists of applying the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) –stipulated in the Lisbon Strategy as the work methodology - for the specific context of SME support policies [12].

Among the activities of the Multiannual Programme in question, the European Commission has published three reports on the introduction of entrepreneurship into non-university education, basedonthe aforementionedmethodology ofthe exchange of bestpractices.Experts fromall ofthemember Stateshave contributedto identifying the bestpractices forthese reports. The contact point in Spain for the designation of experts is the DGPYME (DG for SMEs), which has named the experts proposed by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science in all these groups.

The contents of these reports can be summarized as follows:

edge-based economy the most competitive and dynamic in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth, with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion, by 2010. As a means to achieving this objective it was agreed, among other things, that it was necessary to create the best possible environment for small businesses and entrepreneurship. The European Charter for Small Enterprises, also known as the Feira Charter [9], was subsequently adopted by the Council of General Affairs in Lisbon on 13 June 2000, and was approved at the European Council Meeting at Santa María da Feira, held on 19-20 June of that same year. The Charter recommends that member State governments should concentrate their strategic efforts around ten lines of action of capital importance for the context in which small businesses operate. Among these lines of action, the most outstanding, in the first place, is education and learning for entrepreneurship, since in order to cultivate an enterprising spirit from an early age it is necessary to offer studies relating to the business sphere, mainly at the secondary and university levels, and foster both the business initiatives of young people and educational

In addition, the DG Enterprise and Industry of the European Commission, in conjunction with EU member States, organized the Niva Sophia Antipolis Forum in Training for Entrepreneur‐ ship in October 2000 [10]*,* which brought together 350 representatives from a wide range of educational agencies and institutions and local development initiatives, national representa‐ tives and representatives from the business world and business organizations. Debates were

**1.** From school to university: what teaching and learning strategies, what action should be

As a result of these workshop debates a report was written highlighting the following as

**•** Fostering pupils' and students' problem-solving capabilities. This should improve their ability to plan, make decisions and communicate, as well as making them more willing to

**•** Pupils and students should become ever more able to cooperate, network, take on new roles,

**•** Pupils and students should develop self-confidence and a motivation to act, learn to think critically and independently, and in particular, acquire the will and the ability to learn

**•** Pupils and students should acquire a thirst for creativity, proactivity, and personal initiative, as well as be prepared to face risks when their ideas are put into practice, that is, what are

Moreover, the IV Multiannual Programme Fostering Enterprise and Entrepreneurship 2001-2005, approved by Council Decision of 20 December 2000 [11], considers a compilation

taken to encourage the entrepreneurial spirit in young people? **2.** How can vocational training promote entrepreneurial initiative?

educational goals, especially at the lower level (primary and secondary):

**3.** New management practices and the development of "intrapreneurship".

take on responsibilities, i.e. the typical aspects of *management competencies*.

etc. In other words, the aspects typical of *social competencies* should be fostered.

programmes addressed to small businesses.

42 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

structured around three workshops:

autonomously, that is, *personal competencies*.

known as typical *enterprising qualities*.

	- **•** A broad concept of education in enterprising attitudes and capabilities, which includes the development of certain personal qualities and does not focus directly on enterprise creation,
	- **•** A specific concept of education addressing enterprise creation.

The recommendations of the expert group included organizing a "European Day of Entrepre‐ neurship Education" and the creation of permanent networks of experts on this matter; an enhancement of efforts to compile quantitative data, including the adoption of national action plans; better offers of specific training for teachers; greater promotion of existing international programmes based on learning through practice ; the creation of a national or regional framework for entrepreneurship education and the realization of political commitments.


methodology for disseminating an entrepreneurial mind-set. This project made an inventory of student business programmes in secondary schools, based on information contributed by the member States. It also adopted the term "mini-company" or "student company" as a "*pedagogical tool based on practical experience by means of running a complete enterprise project, and on interaction with the external environment (i.e. the business world or the local community*)" either with real cases or virtual simulations.

The expert group identified certain factors for the effectiveness and success of these student enterprises, such as contact with the local business community, the adaptability of these programmes to different types of education and students'enthusiasm or motivation. They also recommended that these mini-companies (also known as student companies) should be present in educational systems. More specifically, public authorities were recommended to:


The European Commission's Communiqué of 11 November 2003, Education and Training 2010 [16], recognizes the efforts made by the member States to adapt educational and training systems to the knowledge society and economy, but urges them to increase the rhythm of the reforms and to adopt a global, consistent and concerted strategy.

In 2006, The European Commission's Communiqué of 13 February entitled "Promoting an enterprising mind-set through education and training"" [17] supports the member States in developing a more systematic strategy for entrepreneurship education.

The continuation of this Communiqué gave rise to the Conference held in Oslo on 26-27 October 2006 regarding "Entrepreneurship Education in Europe: Fostering Entrepreneurial Mind-sets through Education and Learning" [18], convened by the Commission together with the Norwegian government, and the result of which was the Oslo Agenda for Entrepreneur‐ ship Education in Europe. This is the next milestone after the Feira Charter in the development of entrepreneurship education in the EU.

During the Conference, representatives of the different national, regional and local govern‐ ments, business associations, teachers and students, NGOs and the Commission itself ex‐ changed examples of best practices and proposals were launched to advance in this matter at all levels of education, from Primary School to University.

The conclusions of the Conference advocated better integration of the programmes and activities within the curricula, while maintaining flexibility as to their contents and partici‐ pants. Entrepreneurship can be integrated into the curricula as a horizontal element in all study contexts or as an independent subject. In any case the Conference conclusions recommend introducing new pedagogical methods in all subjects.

methodology for disseminating an entrepreneurial mind-set. This project made an inventory of student business programmes in secondary schools, based on information contributed by the member States. It also adopted the term "mini-company" or "student company" as a "*pedagogical tool based on practical experience by means of running a complete enterprise project, and on interaction with the external environment (i.e. the business world or the*

The expert group identified certain factors for the effectiveness and success of these student enterprises, such as contact with the local business community, the adaptability of these programmes to different types of education and students'enthusiasm or motivation. They also recommended that these mini-companies (also known as student companies) should be present in educational systems. More specifically, public authorities were recommended to:

**•** establish permanent cooperation among the different ministries, business associations, NGOs, educational institutions and municipalities in order to foster activities based on the

**•** approve and actively promote student companies in schools and among heads and teachers;

**•** guarantee the elimination of legal and administrative barriers to the creation and imple‐

The European Commission's Communiqué of 11 November 2003, Education and Training 2010 [16], recognizes the efforts made by the member States to adapt educational and training systems to the knowledge society and economy, but urges them to increase the rhythm of the

In 2006, The European Commission's Communiqué of 13 February entitled "Promoting an enterprising mind-set through education and training"" [17] supports the member States in

The continuation of this Communiqué gave rise to the Conference held in Oslo on 26-27 October 2006 regarding "Entrepreneurship Education in Europe: Fostering Entrepreneurial Mind-sets through Education and Learning" [18], convened by the Commission together with the Norwegian government, and the result of which was the Oslo Agenda for Entrepreneur‐ ship Education in Europe. This is the next milestone after the Feira Charter in the development

During the Conference, representatives of the different national, regional and local govern‐ ments, business associations, teachers and students, NGOs and the Commission itself ex‐ changed examples of best practices and proposals were launched to advance in this matter at

The conclusions of the Conference advocated better integration of the programmes and activities within the curricula, while maintaining flexibility as to their contents and partici‐ pants. Entrepreneurship can be integrated into the curricula as a horizontal element in all study

*local community*)" either with real cases or virtual simulations.

**•** develop a general strategy for teaching entrepreneurship in schools;

reforms and to adopt a global, consistent and concerted strategy.

developing a more systematic strategy for entrepreneurship education.

student company methodology;

44 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

mentation of mini-companies.

of entrepreneurship education in the EU.

all levels of education, from Primary School to University.

The conclusions also underscored the need to create a common European platform for projects in operation and teaching materials that will contribute to the dissemination of information and facilitate comparative analyses. Teacher mobility in this sense should be supported throughout Europe. In addition, they consider that the participation of individuals with business experience must be a basic element in entrepreneurship education, and that cooper‐ ation between the public and private sectors should be increased, involving companies as part of their corporate social responsibility. This participation on the part of companies should be recognized with some kind of prize awarded at the European level.

At national level the creation of guide groups is recommended, complemented by a European observatory in which all interested parties are represented (public administrations, companies, schools, students, etc.). The role of the observatory would be to determine the objectives of entrepreneurship education, taking into consideration its different elements.

The European Commission, again according to these conclusions, should take the initiative when assessing programmes and activities to ensure that the outcomes can be compared. In particular, it should support research into the impact of activities based on student minicompanies and specific business projects.

All of this was included in the Oslo Agenda for Entrepreneurship Education in Europe 2006*,* which is a proposal to take a step forward in fostering entrepreneurship in education through systematic and effective actions. The agenda contains a rich menu of educational options addressed to those in charge at different levels of action so that they can choose the most suitable options for them from among those proposed and adapt them to their specific situation.

These proposals were drawn up around six spheres of action: the framework of political development, support for schools, support for teachers and educators, entrepreneurship activities in schools and higher education, building networks and opening up education to the outside world, and communication activities [19].

The Recommendation of the European Parliament and Council of 18 December 2006, regarding the key competencies for permanent education [20] follows the Oslo Agenda chronologically.

According to this Recommendation, the key competencies for life-long learning comprise a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are necessary for personal development, social integration, active citizenship and employment. They are essential for the knowledge society as a whole, and guarantee greater flexibility in the labour market, allowing it to adapt to the constant changes taking place in a globalized world. Young people should acquire these competencies by the end of their compulsory education and training, such that they are capacitated for adult life and the working world.

The Recommendation defines eight key competencies [21], and describes the knowledge, skills and attitudes that each of them comprises. They are listed below:


All of these competencies are interdependent and all of them stress critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem-solving, risk-assessment, decision-making and the constructive manage‐ ment of emotions. Number seven, the sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, is defined as the ability to put ideas into action. It presupposes creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to attain objectives. The subject is aware of his or her work environment and is able to take advantage of the opportunities that arise*.*

Another outstanding milestone in the EU context is the Small Business Act (SBA) of June 2008 [22]. In a Communiqué, the European Commission includes ten principles to guide the formulation and execution of policies for improving the legal and administrative framework of small and medium sized businesses in the EU and its member States. Its full title is "*Think Small First – "A Small Business Act" for Europe: An initiative in favour of small enterprises*". The Communiqué recognizes that the role of SMEs in our society is becoming more and more important, as they create employment and are key protagonists in guaranteeing the prosperity of local and regional communities.

Among its ten principles it first highlights precisely the one that involves actions relating to entrepreneurship education: *"Create an environment in which entrepreneurs and family businesses can thrive and entrepreneurship is rewarded".* In this sense the EU and member States wished to provide more support for future entrepreneurs, especially by stimulating entrepreneurial talent and interest, above all in women and young people.

After adoption of the SBA, The European Commission is making a new effort to improve the introduction of entrepreneurial initiative in the educational systems of all the member States. To do so, the DG Enterprise/Industry and the DG Education /Culture jointly organized a series of high level panels to bring together representatives from member States' Ministries of Education and Industry. These panels met in 2009 by groups of countries.

Our review of the principal milestones, events and reports from the European Union in this matter concludes with the report and assessment of the pilot action by the four high-level panels held in 2009. The report commissioned by the European Commission and entitled "Towards Greater Cooperation and Coherence in Entrepreneurship Education from March 2010, includes the successful outcomes attained and the goals that still remain to be achieved in order to develop this subject matter in a uniform way throughout all EU territory.

As can be seen, the European debate regarding policies supporting SMEs and entrepreneur‐ ship is conceding well-deserved importance to education and training, and in the near future new European actions and programmes will be proposed to provide them with more momentum.

## **2. Promoting entrepreneurship education in Spain**

**1.** Communication in one's native language

**3.** Mathematical competencies and basic competencies in science and technology

All of these competencies are interdependent and all of them stress critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem-solving, risk-assessment, decision-making and the constructive manage‐ ment of emotions. Number seven, the sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, is defined as the ability to put ideas into action. It presupposes creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to attain objectives. The subject is aware of his or her work environment and is able to take advantage of the opportunities that arise*.* Another outstanding milestone in the EU context is the Small Business Act (SBA) of June 2008 [22]. In a Communiqué, the European Commission includes ten principles to guide the formulation and execution of policies for improving the legal and administrative framework of small and medium sized businesses in the EU and its member States. Its full title is "*Think Small First – "A Small Business Act" for Europe: An initiative in favour of small enterprises*". The Communiqué recognizes that the role of SMEs in our society is becoming more and more important, as they create employment and are key protagonists in guaranteeing the prosperity

Among its ten principles it first highlights precisely the one that involves actions relating to entrepreneurship education: *"Create an environment in which entrepreneurs and family businesses can thrive and entrepreneurship is rewarded".* In this sense the EU and member States wished to provide more support for future entrepreneurs, especially by stimulating entrepreneurial

After adoption of the SBA, The European Commission is making a new effort to improve the introduction of entrepreneurial initiative in the educational systems of all the member States. To do so, the DG Enterprise/Industry and the DG Education /Culture jointly organized a series of high level panels to bring together representatives from member States' Ministries of

Our review of the principal milestones, events and reports from the European Union in this matter concludes with the report and assessment of the pilot action by the four high-level panels held in 2009. The report commissioned by the European Commission and entitled "Towards Greater Cooperation and Coherence in Entrepreneurship Education from March 2010, includes the successful outcomes attained and the goals that still remain to be achieved

in order to develop this subject matter in a uniform way throughout all EU territory.

**2.** Communication in foreign languages

**7.** Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship

**8.** Cultural awareness and expression

**4.** Digital competency **5.** Learning how to learn

46 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**6.** Social and civic competencies

of local and regional communities.

talent and interest, above all in women and young people.

Education and Industry. These panels met in 2009 by groups of countries.

Spain's Ministry of Education is charged, among other things, with the general programming of the educational system, the minimum curricular contents, and defining educational standards. For its part, the Ministry of Industry, responsible for policies supporting SMEs and enterprise creation, is charged with the dissemination and follow-up of Community directives for policies in support of entrepreneurship; it also carries out actions for fostering and promoting entrepreneurial initiative, sometimes in collaboration with the Ministry of Educa‐ tion, in fulfilment of Spain's 2006 Plan for Business Promotion. Added to these difficulties in coordination is the fact that, in Spain, powers in education have been transferred to the corresponding Autonomous Communities into which the country is divided (Figure 1), making it even more difficult to establish joint and unified programmes in regard to entre‐ preneurship education.

**Figure 1.** Autonomous Communities of Spain

In 2003 Spain's DG for SMEs held a series of institutional contacts with the Ministry of Education with the idea of including entrepreneurial initiative as a basic competency to be attained in education, and to name experts from that Ministry to the work groups and meetings on the matter organized by the European Commission's DG of Enterprise and Industry. Likewise, Spain's DG for SMEs informed the EU of the best practices that, in this aspect, were beginning to be developed in Spain, underscoring the case of *Valnalón* in Asturias.

Since then, this DG has continued systematically to disseminate the European directives in this matter in order to incorporate this European objective as a basic aspect of Spanish public policies, both in the General State Administration and in the Autonomous Communities, and has continued to keep the EU informed of the most important Spanish experiences in this sense. With the reform of Constitutional Act 2/2006, of 3 May, of Education (LOE), the DG for SMEs again worked together with the Ministry of Education to ensure that entrepreneurial initiative was included in the Act as one of the major basic goals of the educational system, a matter which in the end was indeed included in the LOE. Both Ministries have also collaborated on the development of curricular contents in the different types of education. Since then, and up until now, the different laws and regulations relating to education have tried to spotlight the importance of this topic, which has now been officially introduced into the Royal Decrees on Teaching.

Nonetheless, even before the LOE was passed, quite a few enterprise-creating initiatives had been developing for some years in secondary and vocational schools in many of Spain's Autonomous Communities: Asturias, Extremadura, Galicia, etc. Some of them collaborate with each other and share educational methodologies and materials, as is the case of the EJE and EME programmes created by Valnalón in Asturias and implemented in many other Autonomous Communities.

Other important work that must be mentioned is that carried out by the Junior Achievement Foundation [23] since its establishment in Spain in 2001. Junior Achievement collaborates directly with schools all over Spain to prepare and inspire young people to be successful in a global economy by generating an entrepreneurial mind-set through different educational activities and competitions.

The compilation of these and other experiences is based on the publication, "Fostering an Entrepreneurial Mind-set in Schools" (Spanish Higher Council of Chambers of Commerce and the Ministry of Education, Social Policy and Sport - 2009), which contains an analysis of the situation in Spain, reflecting certain experiences and best practices in education, and the works by Sánchez, et al [1, 4]*.* These references have helped to identify existing best practices and they have been thoroughly and systematically updated, taking into account the new normative framework. For this task, the information used was provided by the different Regional Ministries of Education, Industry and Labour of Spain's Autonomous Communities, as well as information supplied by Chambers of Commerce and European Centres for Enterprise and Innovation.

We now move on to the entrepreneurship initiatives carried out in Spain by its Autonomous Communities. Some projects had to be left out because they are just getting started, and there may be others that as yet we have been unable to detect. This first sample of programmes and activities, however, can serve as a summarized and synthesized approach to the situation of entrepreneurship education in Spain, classified by Autonomous Regions. Table 2 lists the main entrepreneurship education programmes that are still currently in force in each of the Auton‐ omous Communities. The column marked "Results" specifies the number of schools involved and the number of students that participated during the last year for which data is available, usually 2010.

In 2003 Spain's DG for SMEs held a series of institutional contacts with the Ministry of Education with the idea of including entrepreneurial initiative as a basic competency to be attained in education, and to name experts from that Ministry to the work groups and meetings on the matter organized by the European Commission's DG of Enterprise and Industry. Likewise, Spain's DG for SMEs informed the EU of the best practices that, in this aspect, were

Since then, this DG has continued systematically to disseminate the European directives in this matter in order to incorporate this European objective as a basic aspect of Spanish public policies, both in the General State Administration and in the Autonomous Communities, and has continued to keep the EU informed of the most important Spanish experiences in this sense. With the reform of Constitutional Act 2/2006, of 3 May, of Education (LOE), the DG for SMEs again worked together with the Ministry of Education to ensure that entrepreneurial initiative was included in the Act as one of the major basic goals of the educational system, a matter which in the end was indeed included in the LOE. Both Ministries have also collaborated on the development of curricular contents in the different types of education. Since then, and up until now, the different laws and regulations relating to education have tried to spotlight the importance of this topic, which has now been officially introduced into the Royal Decrees on

Nonetheless, even before the LOE was passed, quite a few enterprise-creating initiatives had been developing for some years in secondary and vocational schools in many of Spain's Autonomous Communities: Asturias, Extremadura, Galicia, etc. Some of them collaborate with each other and share educational methodologies and materials, as is the case of the EJE and EME programmes created by Valnalón in Asturias and implemented in many other

Other important work that must be mentioned is that carried out by the Junior Achievement Foundation [23] since its establishment in Spain in 2001. Junior Achievement collaborates directly with schools all over Spain to prepare and inspire young people to be successful in a global economy by generating an entrepreneurial mind-set through different educational

The compilation of these and other experiences is based on the publication, "Fostering an Entrepreneurial Mind-set in Schools" (Spanish Higher Council of Chambers of Commerce and the Ministry of Education, Social Policy and Sport - 2009), which contains an analysis of the situation in Spain, reflecting certain experiences and best practices in education, and the works by Sánchez, et al [1, 4]*.* These references have helped to identify existing best practices and they have been thoroughly and systematically updated, taking into account the new normative framework. For this task, the information used was provided by the different Regional Ministries of Education, Industry and Labour of Spain's Autonomous Communities, as well as information supplied by Chambers of Commerce and European Centres for Enterprise and

We now move on to the entrepreneurship initiatives carried out in Spain by its Autonomous Communities. Some projects had to be left out because they are just getting started, and there

beginning to be developed in Spain, underscoring the case of *Valnalón* in Asturias.

Teaching.

Autonomous Communities.

48 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

activities and competitions.

Innovation.




**Autonomous**

50 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**Community Project name Began Educational level Results**

Jóvenes Productoras Cinematográficas

Creación y gestión de microempresas

Canary Islands Una empresa en mi escuela, EME y EJE

> Escuela juventud emprendedora

Jornadas de creación de

Vitamina E-Iniciativa Emprendedora

empresas

Cataluña Seminarios de generación de ideas

Secondary

Simulación de Empresas 2002 Vocational 15 schools, 640 students

Secondary, Vocational

2003 Compulsory

2003 100 students per year

2004 Upper Secondary 400 students

2006 600 students

Secondary, Vocational, Upper Secondary

Secondary (4th yr.)

1999 Upper Secondary, FP 240 workshops, 6667

attendees

123 schools, 2420 students.

119 seminars, 53 workshops

37 schools

Eje profesional 2005 Vocational 3400 students Taller de Empresarios 1994 17-25 years of age 9000 students

Balearic Islands Jornadas de autoocupación 2002 Vocational 25 schools, 850 students

Crea Institut Empresa 2008 Vocational

Simulación de empresas Vocational

Innova Junior 2007 Compulsory

Programa emprendedores 2007 Compulsory

Estada a l'empresa Upper Secondary

Cultura emprendedora Compulsory Secondary

Castile-Leon Vitamina E-Primaria 2007 Primary 26 schools, 236 students

2004 Compulsory

2007 Compulsory

Aprende a emprender 2002 Vocational 193 schools, 14000 students

Secondary, Upper Secondary

Secondary

Vitamina E-Upper Secondary 2007 Upper Secondary 293 schools

Cantabria Labor ESO 2005 Compulsory Secondary

Castile-La Mancha Emprender en el aula 2006 Compulsory Secondary


**Table 2.** Entrepreneurship Education Projects in Spain's Autonomous Communities

## **3. Discussion**

Having taken into account the contents and scope of the actions taken in all of Spain's Autonomous Communities, we are now able to approach a diagnosis of the state of the art of entrepreneurship education in Spain, a diagnosis that in turn we should be able to compare with the activities being carried out in this sense by other countries in our context. This assessment will provide some perspective and bring to light some of the best practices.

Until the latest University Act (LOE) came into force, only a few of the Autonomous Com‐ munities had included entrepreneurship education in their curricula as an elective subject. The pioneers in this sense were Asturias, Navarre and Castile-Leon. Since the University Act was passed, it has gradually and systematically been introduced into the curricula of all the Autonomous Communities, particularly in Vocational education (Ciclos Formativos and Formación Profesional).

Among the activities included in Table 2, sometimes the initiatives came from the schools themselves, which sought out different organizations and agencies (e.g. Chambers of Com‐ merce or Young Entrepreneurs Associations-YEA) for help in developing part of the curricu‐ lum. Certain other initiatives had their origin in the educational authorities departments of the regional administrations, which made different projects and programmes available to schools to complement already existing educational projects. Other initiatives, such as the case of *Valnalón* (Asturias), have been public initiatives carried out through private entities that have embarked on a new integral project to combat (and very successfully so) the deteriorated economic and employment situation of their region, and that have managed to transfer their experience to other regions.

**Autonomous**

52 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

**Community Project name Began Educational level Results**

Guía-activa FP Vocational

Hasi eta hazi secundaria 2007 Compulsory Secondary Hasi eta hazi Bachillerato 2007 Upper Secondary Kosmodisea 2006 Primary, Compulsory

Gaze 2008 University 1000 students

Urratsbat 2008 Vocational 40 schools

Having taken into account the contents and scope of the actions taken in all of Spain's Autonomous Communities, we are now able to approach a diagnosis of the state of the art of entrepreneurship education in Spain, a diagnosis that in turn we should be able to compare with the activities being carried out in this sense by other countries in our context. This assessment will provide some perspective and bring to light some of the best practices.

Until the latest University Act (LOE) came into force, only a few of the Autonomous Com‐ munities had included entrepreneurship education in their curricula as an elective subject. The pioneers in this sense were Asturias, Navarre and Castile-Leon. Since the University Act was passed, it has gradually and systematically been introduced into the curricula of all the Autonomous Communities, particularly in Vocational education (Ciclos Formativos and

Among the activities included in Table 2, sometimes the initiatives came from the schools themselves, which sought out different organizations and agencies (e.g. Chambers of Com‐

Empresa joven educativa 2004 Compulsory

**Table 2.** Entrepreneurship Education Projects in Spain's Autonomous Communities

Sensibilización 2008 Vocational 30 schools, 3000 students

Concurso ideas de negocio 2004 Vocational 104 ideas presented

Vocational

Secondary, Upper Secondary

Vocational, Upper Secondary

Secondary, Vocational

40 schools, 5430 students

13 cooperatives, 165

students

Navarre Empresa Joven Europea Compulsory Secondary

Concurso Jóvenes Emprendedores

emprendedores

Rioja Olimpiada de

**3. Discussion**

Formación Profesional).

Basque Country Hasi eta hazi primaria 2007 Primary

The programmes and projects mentioned here are the result of efforts made by individuals, educators, non-profit organizations and policy-makers to improve the outlook of the educa‐ tional system in Spain and to open up vital prospects for students facing an ever more competitive labour market. Some projects have not been included because they are only in the very early stages, and there may be others that we were unable to detect, but all in all this is a fairly good sampling of the programmes and activities taking place and as a first approach to entrepreneurship education in Spain.

In all, there is a good number of both curricular and extracurricular activities in all of Spain's Autonomous communities, even though in a few cases they are a matter of initiatives linked to regional strategies for fostering an enterprising culture, most of which are isolated actions that would require more scope, systematization and support in the future. With a few exceptions in which the different regional ministries involved (usually those of Education, Industry and Economy) cooperate and channel their effort through an agency charged with implementing all the entrepreneurship education activities (Asturias with *Valnalón*, Andalusia with the *Fundación Red Andalucía Emprende*, the *Gabinete de Iniciativa Joven* in Extremadura, or in the Basque country with *Tknika*), there is usually scarce coordination and cooperation among the different regional ministries with responsibilities in this matter.

One reason for this lack of coordination is that entrepreneurship education requires a multi‐ disciplinary and cross-sectional approach that leaves it without a consolidated identity. We could say that it has an "image problem" that makes it a subject matter that is difficult to pin down, even in the areas of Education.

Until now one of the best practices observed is that of creating a public entity governed by private law (the case of *Valnalón*) which brings together financing and knowledge from the competent regional ministries and which acts as a valid interlocutor for municipalities and schools to collaborate in the implementation of activities that should be deployed at the different levels of local administrations. In several Autonomous Communities with more than one province this kind of activity is sometimes promoted by the town councils.

It has also been observed that in places where the actions taken by the regional ministries responsible have not yet been developed adequately, initiatives come into play from Chambers of Commerce, Young Entrepreneurs Associations (YEA), and the European Business and Innovation Centre Network (EBN). Often it is the schools themselves that directly look to these entities, as well as other private ones such as Junior Achievement, when seeking an educational offer of this type. And what on occasion is specific cooperation can sometimes turn into full collaboration, involving the institutional authorities and achieving a consistent programming of educational activities.

In the Autonomous Communities in which the collaboration between the regional ministries is optimal, the Chambers of Commerce, YEA and EBN do not usually address their training programmes to non-university students owing to a lack of demand. However, they do support entrepreneurs who wish to set up a business regardless of their age, such that any student seeking help and guidance to implement a business project will find it even though there are no programmed activities addressed to students as such.

In addition, it was found that not enough information is being shared horizontally (among schools or among Autonomous Communities) in relation to existing experiences in matters of entrepreneurship education; there is no centralizing agency to disseminate the best practices or encourage cooperation among the Autonomous Communities in this area.

This information deficit could be approached through a system that evaluates the outcomes of the educational system. Likewise, best practices could be reported and exchanged through the organization of forums or periodical seminars among those responsible for the areas of education and industry in the different Autonomous Communities. This type of forum could also be promoted or fostered jointly from the Ministries of Industry and of Education. Recall that political commitments were made, including the evaluation of the progress made by member States in entrepreneurship education, as a the result of the 2006 Oslo Agenda, as well as other EU documents.

In regard to the dissemination of information, the impulse in horizontal information about experiences in entrepreneurship education has come from *Valnalón* in Asturias, which has taken the initiative on numerous occasions to transfer their educational project to other Autonomous Communities. This has meant that their own programmes (EME, EJE, JES, etc.) can be found in other Autonomous Communities (Andalusia, Canary Islands, Extremadura, Navarre and the Basque Country) where they have been successfully applied. The DG for SMEs has also contributed to making known these and other best practices in European and national contexts.

Another positive aspect to be highlighted in this review is the creation of entrepreneurship "seedbeds" in schools, in EBNs, and exceptionally in some Chambers of Commerce (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria). The seedbeds are one of the best ways to bring the business world together with education. They not only play an important role as a vehicle for the "demon‐ stration effect" but also a follow-up can be made of the businesses created within them, facilitating assessment of the activities carried out according to their business performance, especially in the context of vocational training.

There are indications that point to these seedbeds as a great success in regard to student participation (especially in vocational training), because students can experience first-hand the creation of an enterprise, and find support from their tutors for launching it if the prospects for success are favourable. The economic success obtained by many of these companies serves to encourage other students to follow their example and put aside their fears about creating an enterprise, not to mention the economic benefit it provides for the region.

The itinerary for entrepreneurship education should begin in Early Childhood and Primary Education, and culminate in an entrepreneurial seedbed, where students who so desire can launch a business project and count on the necessary support until the enterprise has reached maturity. Entrepreneurial seedbeds exist in all of Spain's Autonomous Communities, although not all of them are linked to the educational system. The experience of *Tknika* and the *Urratsbat* program in the Basque Country, where companies started from seedbeds have been followed up since 2007, found that 136 of these enterprises are not only still in business but in 2007 had a turnover worth €5,000,000. This experience shows the profitability that can come from institutional investment in entrepreneurship education, and the production and employment that can result from these companies born of entrepreneurial seedbeds.

In short, the ability to launch entrepreneurial projects has gradually been gaining much deserved prominence in recent years, both on the national and international economic agendas, for two reasons: on one hand, owing to its vital importance in fostering the compet‐ itiveness of human capital, and therefore the productive fabric of the country, and on the other, because of its ability to create employment. Enterprises not only create employment but also social stability, and therefore entrepreneurship should be stimulated from all possible angles if we wish to fight unemployment and generate wealth in a modern economy. It is well known that enterprising individuals tend to perceive market opportunities in their environment that they can develop successfully where others may see only risk.

Thus, given the context of the globalized knowledge economy we find ourselves immersed in, it seems logical to enrich its field of action for the benefit of all. The attitude we take towards entrepreneurship education will have a large impact on economic growth in Spain, because it promotes both individual creativity and economic dynamism. The creation of new enterprises, the commercialization of new ideas and innovation are essential for the economy.

It is therefore necessary to coordinate the financial and personal efforts of the different Administrations involved; they in turn must also improve communication and structures among themselves with periodic meetings and/or specialized publications. It is also necessary to devote greater effort to motivating, training and rewarding teachers and schools, because the specification of the curriculum and the inclusion of this type of subject matter in the school's educational project depends on the will of the teaching staff. Teachers should therefore be the first objective of entrepreneurship education because they really are the first and most important link in the educational chain.

## **Author details**

collaboration, involving the institutional authorities and achieving a consistent programming

In the Autonomous Communities in which the collaboration between the regional ministries is optimal, the Chambers of Commerce, YEA and EBN do not usually address their training programmes to non-university students owing to a lack of demand. However, they do support entrepreneurs who wish to set up a business regardless of their age, such that any student seeking help and guidance to implement a business project will find it even though there are

In addition, it was found that not enough information is being shared horizontally (among schools or among Autonomous Communities) in relation to existing experiences in matters of entrepreneurship education; there is no centralizing agency to disseminate the best practices

This information deficit could be approached through a system that evaluates the outcomes of the educational system. Likewise, best practices could be reported and exchanged through the organization of forums or periodical seminars among those responsible for the areas of education and industry in the different Autonomous Communities. This type of forum could also be promoted or fostered jointly from the Ministries of Industry and of Education. Recall that political commitments were made, including the evaluation of the progress made by member States in entrepreneurship education, as a the result of the 2006 Oslo Agenda, as well

In regard to the dissemination of information, the impulse in horizontal information about experiences in entrepreneurship education has come from *Valnalón* in Asturias, which has taken the initiative on numerous occasions to transfer their educational project to other Autonomous Communities. This has meant that their own programmes (EME, EJE, JES, etc.) can be found in other Autonomous Communities (Andalusia, Canary Islands, Extremadura, Navarre and the Basque Country) where they have been successfully applied. The DG for SMEs has also contributed to making known these and other best practices in European and

Another positive aspect to be highlighted in this review is the creation of entrepreneurship "seedbeds" in schools, in EBNs, and exceptionally in some Chambers of Commerce (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria). The seedbeds are one of the best ways to bring the business world together with education. They not only play an important role as a vehicle for the "demon‐ stration effect" but also a follow-up can be made of the businesses created within them, facilitating assessment of the activities carried out according to their business performance,

There are indications that point to these seedbeds as a great success in regard to student participation (especially in vocational training), because students can experience first-hand the creation of an enterprise, and find support from their tutors for launching it if the prospects for success are favourable. The economic success obtained by many of these companies serves to encourage other students to follow their example and put aside their fears about creating

an enterprise, not to mention the economic benefit it provides for the region.

or encourage cooperation among the Autonomous Communities in this area.

of educational activities.

54 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

as other EU documents.

national contexts.

especially in the context of vocational training.

no programmed activities addressed to students as such.

José C. Sánchez-García\* and Brizeida Hernández-Sánchez

\*Address all correspondence to: jsanchez@usal.es

Chair of Entrepreneurship, Salamanca University, Salamanca, Spain

## **References**


[15] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Entrepreneurship. http://ec.euro‐ pa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support\_measures/training\_education/mini‐ comp.htm (accesed 6 February 2015)

**References**

56 Entrepreneurship Education and Training

*ricula and Learning Outcomes*

*nal, (7*), 239-254

February 2015)

ruary 2015)

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[2] Eurodyce (2012). *Entrepreneurship education at school in Europe: National Strategies, Cur‐*

[3] Dirección General de Política de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa (2010). *El fomento de*

[4] Sánchez, J.C. (2011). University training for entrepreneurial competencies: Its impact on intention of venture creation. *International Entrepreneurship and Management Jour‐*

[5] Sánchez, J.C. (2013) The Impact of an Entrepreneurship Education Program on Entre‐ preneurial Competencies and Intention. *Journal of Small Business Management, 447-465*

[6] Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. GEM. http://www.gemconsortium.org (accesed 9

[7] European Commission.Enterprise and Industry. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entre‐

[8] European Council. Council of the European Union. Presidency Conclusions. Lisbon European Council. http://consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms\_Data/docs/

[9] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Industrial competitiveness. http:// ec.europa.eu/enterprise/enterprise\_policy/charter/docs/charter\_es.pdf (accesed 5 Feb‐

[10] Direction Generale de Entreprises. DGE. http://www.industrie.gouv.fr/pratique/

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[12] European Council. Council of the European Union. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ uedocs/cms\_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/104692.pdf (accesed 5 February 2015)

[13] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Industrial Policy communication http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support\_measures/training\_educa‐

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**Experiences in Entrepreneurship Education**
