**Author details**

Ashok K. Sood1\*, John W. Zeller1,2, Robert A. Richwine1 , Yash R. Puri1 , Harry Efstathiadis2 , Pradeep Haldar2 , Nibir K. Dhar3 and Dennis L. Polla4

\*Address all correspondence to: aksood@magnoliaoptical.com

1 Magnolia Optical Technologies, Woburn, MA, USA

2 State University of New York College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, Albany, NY, USA

3 Defense Advanced Research Project Agency, Arlington, VA, USA

4 College of Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

#### **References**


[9] J. Liu, R. Camacho-Aguilera, J. T. Bessette, X. Sun, X. Wang, Y. Cai, L. C. Kimerling, and J. F. Michel, "Ge-on-Si optoelectronics," *Thin Sol. Films* 520(8), 3354-3360 (2012).

**Author details**

Pradeep Haldar2

USA

**References**

Ashok K. Sood1\*, John W. Zeller1,2, Robert A. Richwine1

1 Magnolia Optical Technologies, Woburn, MA, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: aksood@magnoliaoptical.com

354 Advances in Optical Fiber Technology: Fundamental Optical Phenomena and Applications

3 Defense Advanced Research Project Agency, Arlington, VA, USA

tion," *IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev.* 48(6), 1092-1096 (2001).

*sors* 11(1), 696-718 (2011).

Technology, 2007.

547-556 (1994).

*Top. Quant. Electron.* 43(4), 311-315 (2007).

and Dennis L. Polla4

2 State University of New York College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, Albany, NY,

4 College of Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

[1] DiLello, Nicole Ann. "Fabrication and characterization of germanium-on-silicon pho‐ todiodes." Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2012.

[2] A. K. Sood, R. A. Richwine, Y. R. Puri, N. DiLello, J. L. Hoyt, T. I. Akinwande, N. Dhar, S. Horn, R. S. Balcerak, and T. G. Bramhall, "Development of low dark current SiGe-detector arrays for visible-NIR imaging sensor," *Proc. SPIE* 7660, 76600L (2010).

[3] G. Masini, L. Colace, G. Assanto, H. C. Luan, and L. C. Kimerling, "High-perform‐ ance p-i-n Ge on Si photodetectors for the near infrared: from model to demonstra‐

[4] J. Wang and S. Lee, "Ge-photodetectors for Si-based optoelectronic integration," *Sen‐*

[6] L. Colace, G. Masini, V. Cencelli, F. DeNotaristefani, and G. Assanto*,* "A near-infra‐ red digital camera in polycrystalline germanium integrated on silicon," *IEEE J. Sel.*

[7] Olubuyide, O. Oluwagbemiga. "Low pressure epitaxial growth, fabrication and char‐ acterization of Ge-on-Si photodiodes." Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of

[8] H. Efstathiadis and F. W. Smith, "Thermodynamic modelling of the local atomic or‐ der in amorphous alloys based on silicon and germanium," *Philosophical Mag. B* 70(3),

[5] Image Courtesy of Hamamatsu. (*Source*: http://www.vision-systems.com)

, Nibir K. Dhar3

, Yash R. Puri1

, Harry Efstathiadis2

,


[37] K. Ang, S. Zhu, J. Wang, K. Chua, M. Yu, G. Lo, and D. Kwong, "Novel silicon-car‐ bon (Si: C) Schottky barrier enhancement layer for dark-current suppression in Geon-SOI MSM photodetectors," *IEEE Electron. Dev. Lett.* 29, 704-707 (2008).

[23] C. Callan, J. Goodman, M. Cornwall, N. Fortson, R. Henderson, J. Katz, D. Long, R. Muller, M. Ruderman, and J. Vesecky, "Sensors to support the soldier." No.

[24] A. K. Sood, R. A. Richwine, A. W. Sood, Y. R. Puri, DiLello, J. L. Hoyt, T. I. Akin‐ wande, N. K. Dhar, R. S. Balcerak, and T. G. Bramhall, "Characterization of SiGe-de‐ tector arrays for visible-NIR imaging sensor applications," *Proc. SPIE* 8012, 801240

[25] Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps; photo by Sgt. Timothy Brumley. (*Source*: http://

[26] M. Zoberbier, S. Hansen, M. Hennemeyer, D. Tönnies, R. Zoberbier, M. Brehm, A. Kraft, M. Eisner, and R. Völkel, "Wafer level cameras—novel fabrication and packag‐

[27] C. Leinert, "The 1997 Reference of Diffuse Night Sky Brightness," *Astronomy and As‐*

[28] M. Vatsia, "Atmospheric Optical Environment," Research and Development Techni‐

[29] R. Littleton, "Spectral irradiance of the night sky for passive low light level imaging

[30] C. H. Lin and C. W. Liu, "Metal-insulator-semiconductor photodetectors," *Sensors*

[31] J. C. Campbell, S. Demiguel, F. Ma, A. Beck, X. Guo, S. Wang, X. Zheng, X. Li, J. D. Beck, M.A. Kinch, A. Huntington, L. A. Coldren, J. Decobert, and N. Tscherptner, "Recent advances in avalanche photodiodes*," IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Electron*. 10,

[33] A. K. Okyay, A. M. Nayfeh, K. C. Saraswat, T. Yonehara, A. Marshall, and P. C.

[34] K. W. Ang, S. Zhu, M. Yu, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong, *IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett*. 20,

[35] Wang, Jian. "Fabrication and characterization of germanium photodetectors." Ph.D.

[36] H. Zang, S. Lee, M. Yu, W. Loh, J. Wang, G. Lo, and D. Kwong, "High-speed metalgermanium-metal configured PIN-like Ge-photodetector under photovoltaic mode and with dopant-segregated Schottky-contact engineering," *IEEE Photon. Technol.*

[32] P. R. Berger, "MSM photodiodes," *IEEE Potentials* 15(2), 25-29 (1996).

JSR-04-210. Mitre Corp., McLean, VA (2005).

356 Advances in Optical Fiber Technology: Fundamental Optical Phenomena and Applications

ing technologies," Int. Image Sens. Workshop (2009).

applications," *Proc. of MSS,* Passive Sensors (2005).

*trophysics Supplement Series* 127 (1998).

McIntyre, *Opt. Lett*. 31, 2565-2567 (2006).

dissertation, National University of Singapore, 2011.

cal Report ECOM-7023, Sept. 1972.

10(10), 8797-8826 (2010).

777-787 (2004).

754-756 (2008).

*Lett.* 20, 1965-1967 (2008).

(2011).

www.defense.gov)


on-insulator high speed photodetectors using low-temperature ultrathin Si0.8Ge0.2 buffer," *Appl. Phys. Lett.* 91, 073503 (2007).


[61] L. Virot, L. Vivien, J. M. Fédéli, Y. Bogumilowicz, J. M. Hartmann, F. Boeuf, P. Cro‐ zat, D. Marris-Morini, and E. Cassan, "High-performance waveguide-integrated ger‐ manium PIN photodiodes for optical communication applications," *Photon. Res.* 1(3), 140-147 (2013).

on-insulator high speed photodetectors using low-temperature ultrathin Si0.8Ge0.2

[50] S. Klinger, M. Berroth, M. Kaschel, M. Oehme, and E. Kasper, "Ge-on-Si p-i-n photo‐ diodes with a 3-dB bandwidth of 49 GHz," *IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett*. 21(13), 920-922

[51] D. Suh, S. Kim, J. Joo, and G. Kim, "36-GHz high-responsivity Ge photodetectors

[52] D. Feng, L. Shirong, P. Dong, N. N. Feng, H. Liang, D. Zheng, C. C. Kung, J. Fong, R. Shafiiha, J. Cunningham, A. V. Krishnamoorthy, and M. Asghari, "High-speed Ge photodetector monolithically integrated with large cross-section silicon-on-insulator

[53] J. Liu, D. D. Cannon, K. Wada, Y. Ishikawa, S. Jongthammanurak, T. Danielson, J. Mi‐ chel, and L. C. Kimerling, "Tensile strained Ge p-i-n photodetectors on Si platform

[54] D. Ahn, C. Hong, J. Liu, W. Giziewicz, M. Beals, L. Kimerling, J. Michel, J. Chen, and F. X. Kartner, "High performance, waveguide integrated Ge photodetectors," *Opt.*

[55] T. Yin, R. Cohen, M. M. Morse, G. Sarid, Y. Chetrit, D. Rubin, and M. J. Paniccia, "31GHz Ge n-i-p waveguide photodetectors on silicon-on-insulator substrate," *Opt.*

[56] M. Beals, J. Michel, J. F. Liu, D. H. Ahn, D. Sparacin, R. Sun, C. Y. Hong, L. C. Kimerl‐ ing, A. Pomerene, D. Carothers, J. Beattie, A. Kopa, A. Apsel, M. S. Rasras, D. M. Gill, S. S. Patel, K. Y. Tu, Y. K. Chen, and A. E. White, "Process flow innovations for pho‐

[57] L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J. Damlencourt, E. Cas‐ san, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, "42 GHz pin Germanium photodetector integrated in a

[58] D. Suh, J. Joo, S. Kim, and G. Kim, "High-speed RPCVD Ge waveguide photodetec‐ tor," *Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Group IV Photonics (GFP*

[59] N. Feng, P. Dong, D. Zheng, S. Liao, H. Liang, R. Shafiiha, D. Feng, G. Li, J. Cunning‐ ham, and A. Krishnamoorthy, "Vertical pin germanium photodetector with high ex‐ ternal responsivity integrated with large core Si waveguides," *Opt. Express* 18, 96-101

[60] C. T. DeRose, D. C. Trotter, W. A. Zortman, A. L. Starbuck, M. Fisher, M. R. Watts, and P. S. Davids, "Ultra compact 45 GHz CMOS compatible germanium waveguide

photodiode with low dark current," Opt. Express. 19(25), 24897-24904 (2011).

tonic device integration in CMOS," *Proc. SPIE* 6898, 689804 (2008).

silicon-on-insulator waveguide," *Opt. Express* 17, 6252-6257 (2009).

*'09)*, San Francisco, CA, USA, pp. 16-18 (2009).

for C and L band telecommunications," *Appl. Phys. Lett*. 87(1), 011110 (2005).

grown by RPCVD," *IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett.* 21, 672-674 (2009).

waveguide," *Appl. Phys. Lett*. 95(26), 261105 (2009).

*Express* 15, 3916-3921 (2007).

*Express* 15, 13965-13971 (2007).

buffer," *Appl. Phys. Lett.* 91, 073503 (2007).

358 Advances in Optical Fiber Technology: Fundamental Optical Phenomena and Applications

(2009).

(2010).


[87] C. Bulutay, "Interband, intraband, and excited-state direct photon absorption of sili‐ con and germanium nanocrystals embedded in a wide band-gap lattice," *Phys. Rev. B* 76, 17 (2007).

[73] L. Colace, G. Masini, F. Galluzzi, G. Assanto, G. Capellini, L. Di Gaspare, E. Palange, and F. Evangelisti, "Metal-semiconductor-metal near-infrared light detector based on

[74] O. O. Olubuyide, D. T. Danielson, L. C. Kimerling, and J. L. Hoyt, "Impact of seed layer on material quality of epitaxial germanium on silicon deposited by low pres‐

[75] V. A. Vu, D. E. Ioannou, R. Kamocsai, S. L. Hyland, A. Pomerene, and D. Carothers, "PIN germanium photodetector fabrication issues and manufacturability," *IEEE*

[76] M. Oehme, J. Werner, O. Kirfel, and E. Kasper, "MBE growth of SiGe with high Ge

[77] M. Halbwax, D. Bouchier, V. Yam, D. Débarre, L. H. Nguyen, Y. Zheng, P. Rosner, M. Benamara, H. P. Strunk, and C. Clerc, "Kinetics of Ge growth at low temperature on Si(001) by ultrahigh vacuum chemical vapor deposition," *J. Appl. Phys*. 97, 064907

[78] H. C. Luan and L. C. Kimerling. "Cyclic thermal anneal for dislocation reduction,"

[79] D. Choi, Y. Ge, J. S. Harris, J. Cagnon, and S. Stemmer, "Low surface roughness and threading dislocation density Ge growth on Si," *J. Crys. Growth*, 310(18), 4273-4279

[80] A. Rogalski, "Infrared detectors: status and trends," *Prog. Quant. Electron*. 27, 59-210

[81] M. Itzler and M. Entwistle, "Geiger-mode focal plane arrays enable SWIR 3D imag‐

[82] A. Hairston, J. Stobie, and R. Tinkler, "Advanced readout integrated circuit signal

[83] G. Masini, G. Capellini, J. Witzens, and C. A. Gunn, "A four-channel, 10 Gbps mono‐ lithic optical receiver in 130 nm CMOS with integrated Ge waveguide photodetec‐

[84] L. Chong, X. Chun-Lai, L. Zhi, C. Bu-Wen, and W. Qi-Ming, "Sixteen-element Ge-on-SOI PIN photo-detector arrays for parallel optical interconnects," *Chin. Phys. B* 23(3),

[85] M. Amato, M. Palummo, R. Rurali, and S. Ossicini, "Silicon-germanium nanowires:

[86] E. G. Barbagiovanni, D. J. Lockwood, P. J. Simpson, and L. V. Goncharova, "Quan‐ tum confinement in Si and Ge nanostructures," *J. Appl. Phys*. 111, 034307 (2012).

chemistry and physics in play," *Chem. Rev.* 114, 1371-1412 (2014).

tor," Proc. 4th IEEE Int. Conf. Group IV Photon., Tokyo, Japan, pp. 1-3 (2007).

sure chemical vapor deposition," *Thin Sol. Films* 508(1), 14-19 (2006).

content for optical applications," *Appl. Surf. Sci*. 254, 6238-6241 (2008).

epitaxial Ge/Si," *Appl. Phys. Lett.* 72, 3175-3178 (1998).

360 Advances in Optical Fiber Technology: Fundamental Optical Phenomena and Applications

*Trans. Semi. Manufact*. 23, 411-418 (2010).

U.S. Patent No. 6,635,110, 21 Oct. 2003.

ing," *Laser Focus World*, March 2011.

processing," *Proc. SPIE* 6206, 62062Z (2006).

(2005).

(2008).

(2003).

038507 (2014).


**Passive Optical Network Technology**
