**4. Discussion**

for approximately 33% of the variation in psychological well-being among fathers. Interpreted according to [82], this value suggests a large effect size (2=.49). In the case of mothers, the multiple adjusted *R*2=.25 (2=.33) indicated a medium effect size. Other variables proposed in the analysis such as age of children with ASD, family income, and social support were not included in the models, indicating that these variables do not account for a significant amount of variance in psychological well-being after including active avoidance coping strategies,

**Variables adjusted R2 ∆ R<sup>2</sup> Degrees of**

**Variables** *adjusted R2* **∆ R<sup>2</sup> Degrees of**

Active avoidance coping .24 .24 (1,87) 29.32\*\* -.50\*\* Positive contribution .31 .07 (1,86) 20.47\*\* .26\*\* Behaviour problems .33 .02 (1,85) 15.45\*\* -.19\* (a)

Active avoidance coping .14 .14 (1,125) 20.71\*\* -.38\*\* Positive contribution .25 .11 (1,124) 22.00\*\* .35\*\* (b)

**Table 7.** (a) Regression analysis predicting psychological well-being in fathers' (b) Regression analysis predicting

**freedom**

**freedom**

*F* **β**

*F* **β**

Regression models of family quality of life are presented in Table 8. The fathers' model includes only behaviour problems and social support as predictor variables, and the total adjusted *R*2=. 11 (2=.12) indicates a small effect size. Higher behaviour problems predicted lower perceived family quality of life (β=-.28, *p*=.007), and higher levels of social support predicted higher levels

In mothers, the regression model was more complex, with four predictors that could predict 23% of the variance of family quality of life (adjusted *R*2=.23; 2=.30), which suggests a medium effect size. The active avoidance coping strategies measure was the main variable explaining

strategies and behaviour problems predicted lower levels of family quality of life (β=-.33, *p* <. 001 and β=-.18, *p*=.027, respectively). Positive contributions and positive and problem-focused coping strategies accounted for a significant amount of the variance in mothers' reported

=.04, Δ adjusted *R*<sup>2</sup>

positive contributions and positive and problem-focused coping strategies predicted higher levels of mothers' reported family quality of life (β=.29, *p*=.004 and β=.18, *p*=.011, respectively).

=.11). Behaviour problems

=.05, respectively). Higher levels of

=.02). Higher levels of active avoidance coping

positive contributions and behaviour problems.

\*\**p* <.01; \**p* <.05

psychological well-being in mothers

66 Autism Spectrum Disorder - Recent Advances

of family quality of life (β=.23, *p*=.027) among fathers.

also appeared as a predictor (Δ adjusted *R*<sup>2</sup>

family quality of life (Δ adjusted *R*<sup>2</sup>

the variance in family quality of life among mothers (Δ adjusted *R*<sup>2</sup>

We conducted a study with the aim of analysing both the perception of positive contributions of disability in a large sample of Spanish parents with children with ASD and the impact of this positive perception on their well-being. The results confirm the relevance of the perception of positive contributions of disability for both parents and support its role as predictor of psychological well-being and family quality of life. Coping strategies also appear as a relevant factor, in relation to both the parents' well-being and their perception of positive contributions. The results also provide suggestive information on common and specific issues for fathers and mothers.

Comparative analysis of the values reported by fathers and mothers in terms of the different variables of the study inform us that both groups showed similar levels of psychological wellbeing, perceptions of family quality of life and social support. However, the results reported differences in coping strategies and perceptions of positive contributions, such that mothers had higher values than fathers. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that differences exist between fathers and mothers on these measures. The finding of greater perceived positive contributions among mothers is consistent with what has been detected in other studies [54-56]. However, providing an explanation for this result is not easy. One could pose an explanatory hypothesis based on gender characteristics, but one hypothesis to consider the role of primary caregiver among mothers in most families may be more parsimonious. The role of primary caregiver can generate more everyday strain but may also provide more opportunities to experience personal growth and strength as positive contributions of their disabled child. The significant difference on the outside employment situation of fathers and mothers in our sample (89% and 54%, respectively) is a relevant fact that demonstrates the high probability that mothers were exercising the role of primary caregiver. In addition, this difference in employment status of parents of children with ASD is not unique to our sample and the social environment in which this study is carried out but instead seems to be a fairly widespread reality [83].

The results of the correlation analysis showed a positive relationship between the perception of positive contributions and psychological well-being among both fathers and mothers. That is, parents who perceived more positive contributions of their child's disability had higher levels of psychological well-being. In mothers, it also appeared that a positive relationship existed between perceived positive contributions and the perception of family quality of life. These results support the hypothesis that the positive relationship between perceived positive contributions and the perception of family quality of life exists, but it appeared only in the case of mothers. The positive relationship between positive contributions and psychological wellbeing found in this study is consistent with the results of other studies that found a negative relationship between perceived positive contributions and both paternal stress [54] and maternal anxiety [55] in parents of children with ASD.

It is pertinent to note the relationship between coping strategies and perceived positive contributions. More frequent use of active avoidance coping strategies had a negative rela‐ tionship with the perception that the condition of their child contributed to their happiness and fulfilment among both fathers and mothers. Meanwhile, positive and problem-focused coping strategies were associated with the perception of positive contributions, particularly in the case of mothers. For fathers, only a positive relationship between positive and problem focused coping strategies and the subscale of strength and family closeness appeared, while in the case of mothers, this relationship was broader. Mothers who reported greater use of positive and problem-focused coping strategies reported also higher levels of perceived contributions not only in relation to the strength and closeness of the family but also in relation to more personal aspects such as happiness and fulfilment and personal growth and maturity.

The bidirectionality of these relationships makes it difficult to know whether the ability to perceive positive contributions has a positive effect on promoting the use of positive and problem-focused coping strategies or whether parents who resort to this type of coping strategy better perceive the positive contributions of their child to their life and the life of their family. It is also possible that a third variable, such as a psychological trait, could explain the covariation of these two factors. In any case, despite the difficulty of clarifying the direction of effects, this finding on the relationship between coping strategies and positive perceptions is important, to the extent that both factors were also expressed as predictors of psychological well-being and the family quality of life reported by parents. Both aspects could become the subject of future work in psychological intervention to support parents with potential mutual benefits and positive effects on parents' well-being.

Active avoidance coping strategies appeared as the main predictor negatively related to psychological well-being in the regression models, both mothers and fathers. Positive and problem-focused coping strategies appeared as relevant predictor of family quality of life among mothers. This finding is consistent with the results of previous research on parental stress. Research examining the coping strategies used by parents to manage daily situations has demonstrated that parents who adopt active avoidance coping strategies report more stress than parents who adopt positive reframing coping strategies [29, 30]. Other studies show that, compared with parents of typically developing children, parents of children with ASD more frequently employ escape-avoidance coping strategies [84-86]. Therefore, it is important to help parents of children with ASD discover and implement positive coping strategies that can replace these avoidance coping strategies.

The results of the regression analyses are also consistent with the fundamental hypothesis of this study on the relevance of the perception of positive contributions as predictor of parental well-being. Another common result for both groups, mothers and fathers, was the detection of perceived positive contributions as the second most important predictor of parents' psychological well-being. The regression models of family quality of life also highlighted the role of positive contributions; however, in this case, this variable only appears as a relevant predictor in the model of mothers. Increases in the perception of positive contributions predicted increases in family quality of life. Inversely, behaviour problems of the child predicted lower family quality of life, both mothers and fathers.

Before considering the implications of the findings of this research, it is convenient to reflect on its limitations. The main limitation to note is the correlational and cross-sectional nature of the design and, therefore, the inability to determine the direction of effects in the relationships between variables. Although we assign and test the possible role of predictor variables when performing regression analysis and although some of the study results are significant and clear, we cannot rule out influences in the other direction. Perceived positive contributions appear in our results to have a predictive in increasing psychological well-being and family quality of life, but we cannot know to what extent the levels of parents' psychological well-being affect their ability to perceive positive contributions of disability. More research, especially longitu‐ dinal research, is required to advance knowledge of the direction of these effects.

In addition, it must be noted that this study is based on a sample of Spanish families. We must be aware that there are significant cultural differences in the understanding of disability and the dynamics of families and should therefore be cautious in generalising these results to other cultures.
