**6. Conclusion**

The use of pesticides is essential for protecting agricultural products from pest damages; however their adverse effects are inevitable almost on all habitats. From the preceding information it is clear that side effects of pesticides on natural enemies, emergence of resistant populations and entrance of pesticides into the environment are the main issues that have been considering for a long time. More precise methods should be considered to evaluate these adverse impacts at the population-level and ecosystem as well as laboratorybased and individual-level assessment. Life table response experiments reveal total effects of any pesticides on an individual (target or non-target) at the population level. However, most publications in the field of insect toxicology are based on individual-level bioassays. Meanwhile, population genetics and resistance inheritance have mostly been ignored in insect toxicology which can provide great information on the ecological impacts of pesticides in agricultural ecosystems. It is believed that modern sciences such as insect biotechnology and nanotechnology facilitate designing novel and effective pesticides with less adverse effects in the environment.

#### **7. References**

158 Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

45 to 300 days (Gupta et al. 2008). The half-life of neonicotinoids increases with increasing soil colloids. Overall, neonicotinoids have a low potential to persist in soil and accumulate

Herbicides are the major class of pesticides to control weeds. Little attention is paid to herbicides as a source of pollutants; mainly because with a few exception; most herbicides have not appreciable mammalian toxicity. Among toxic herbicides are paraquat (LD50=125 mg/kg) and dinoseb (LD50=58 mg/kg); however widely used herbicides including 2,4-D and glyphosate are not highly toxic to mammals. On the other hand groups of herbicides that have potential to persist in soil and enter surface water include triazines, sulfonylureas, phenylureas and uracils. Laboratory experiments have shown that among four triazines; prometryn and terbutylazine half-lives were 263 and 366 days in ground water respectively. The half lives of simazine and atrazine were shorter than prometryn and terbutylazine

Sulfonylureas are high potent herbicides group effective at very low dose (10-15 g/ha), for that reason persistent herbicides from previously sprayed farms may damage the next crop. These herbicides are able to penetrate into deeper layers of the soil profile, where they have a relatively high persistence. A number of sulfonylureas were detected in wetland sediments. Etametsulforun methyl, sulfosulforun and metsulforun-methyl were determined in wetland sediments with mean concentration ranging from 1.2 to 10.0 µg kg-1 (Degenhardt et al. 2010). According to Cessna et al (2006) a half-life of 84 days was observed for metsulforun-mathyl in farm dugouts. Residues of 10 herbicides were detected in prairie farm dugouts. 2,4-D was the

Based on these studies, herbicides have different tendency for binding to soil colloids and so

Fungicides are substances that destroy or inhibit the growth of fungi. Fungicides are used in agriculture and industry. Early fungicides were organic derivatives of metals such as mercury. Organomercury fungicides were widely used as seed dressing to control diseases of cereals. Although mercury content of these fungicides formulation were less than 5%, the main concern is the side effects of residues remaining in the environment long enough to enter soil and water. Both inorganic and organic compounds of mercury are toxic, however organic compounds are more lipophilic than inorganic and are liable to adsorption by soil colloids and storage in fat depot. Bioconcentration factor up to 100000 times is reported for the methyl mercury content in fish (USEPA, 1980). Dithiocarbamates (e.g. mancozeb, thiram, zineb and maneb) are the first synthetic organic fungicides. Some fungicides are toxic to aquatic organisms. Maneb is highly toxic to fish and triadimefon is highly toxic to crustaceans. Dithiocarbamate fungicides have low persistence. Among high persistent group of fungicides are triazoles (penconazole, myclobutanil and flusilazole), carboximides

The use of pesticides is essential for protecting agricultural products from pest damages; however their adverse effects are inevitable almost on all habitats. From the preceding

most frequent with median concentration 0.05 µg L-1(Cessna & Elliot, 2004).

(boscalid) and pirimidines (fenarimol) (Wightwick et al., 2010).

in the environment.

(Navarro et al. 2004).

have different movement ability.

**5.3 Fungicides** 

**6. Conclusion** 

**5.2 Herbicides** 


Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in Agricultural Ecosystem 161

Dohmen, G.P. (1998). Comparing Pesticide Effects on Beneficials in a Sequential Testing

Enayati, A.A., Ranson, H. & Hemingway, J. (2005). Insect Glutathione Transferases and

Ferson, S.; Ginzburg, L.R. & Goldstein, R.A. (1996). Inferring Ecological Risk from Toxicity

Field, L.M., Devonshire, A.L. & Forde, B.G. (1988). Molecular Evidence that Insecticide

Field, L.M., Crick, S.E. & Devonshire, A.L. (1996). Polymerase Chain Reaction-based

Foster, S.P., Harrington, R., Devonshire, A.L., Denholm,I., Devine, G.J., Kenward, M.G. &

Foster, S.P., Harrington, R., Devonshire, A.L., Denholm, I., Clark, S.J. & Mugglestone, M.A.

Foster, S.P., Denholm, I., & Devonshire, A.L. (2000). The Ups and Downs of Insecticide

Foster, S.P., Harrington, R., Dewar, A.M., Denholm, I. & Devonshire, A.L. (2002). Temporal

Foster, S.P., Young, S., Williamson, M., Duce, I., Denholm, I. & Devine, G.J. (2003).

Foster, S.P., Denholm, I., Thompson, R., Poppy, G.M. & Powell, W. (2005). Reduced

Frabotta, D. (February 2009). Hope to Horizon. Farm Chemical International, Available from http://www.farmchemicalsinternational.com/magazine/?storyid=410

Dordrecht, The Netherlands

1988), pp. 309-315, ISSN 0264-6021

1996), pp. 17-27, ISSN 0007-4853

No. 6, (December 1997), pp. 573-579, ISSN 0007-4853

19, No. 8-10, (September 2000), pp. 837-879, ISSN 0261-2194

Vol. 95, No. 2, (February 2005), pp. 37–46, ISSN 0007-4853

197-202, ISSN 1365-2583

ISSN 1526-4998

0018-067X

8, ISSN 1365-2583

1573-2932

Scheme, In: *Ecotoxicology: Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms,* P.T. Haskell & P. McEwen (Eds.), 192-201, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0412812908,

Insecticide Resistance. *Insect Molecular Biology*, Vol. 14, No. 1, (January 2005), pp. 3–

Bioassays. *Water, Air, & Soil Pollution*, Vol.90, No.1-2, (July 1996), pp. 71–82, ISSN

Resistance in Peach-potato Aphids (*Myzus persicae* Sulz.) Results from Amplification of an Esterase Gene. *Biochemical Journal*, Vol. 251, Part 1-1, (April

Identification of Insecticide Resistance Genes and DNA Methylation in the Aphid *Myzus persicae* (Sulzer). *Insect Molecular biology*, Vol. 5, No. 3, (August 1996), pp.

Bale, J.S. (1996). Comparative Survival of Insecticide-susceptible and Resistant Peach-potato Aphids, *Myzus persicae* (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in Low Temperature Field Trials. *Bulletin of Entomological Research,* Vol. 86, No. 1, (February

(1997). Evidence for a Possible Trade-off Between Insecticide Resistance and the Low Temperature Movement that is Essential for Survival of UK Populations of *Myzus persicae* (Hemiptera: Aphididae). *Bulletin of Entomological Research*, Vol. 87,

Resistance in Peach-potato Aphids (*Myzus persicae*) in the UK. *Crop Protection*, Vol.

and Spatial Dynamics of Insecticide Resistance in *Myzus persicae* (Hemiptera: Aphididae). *Pest Management Science,* Vol. 58, No. 9, (September 2002), pp. 895–907,

Analogous Pleiotropic Effects of Insecticide Resistance Genotypes in Peach-potato Aphids and Houseflies. *Heredity*, Vol. 91, No. 2, (August 2003), pp. 98-106, ISSN

Response of Insecticide-resistant Aphids and Attraction of Parasitoids to Aphid Alarm Pheromone: a Potential Fitness Trade-off. *Bulletin of Entomological Research*,


Carriere, Y., Christa Ellers-Kirk, C., Patin, A.L., Sims, M.A., Meyer, S., Liu, Y.B., Dennehy,

Caswell, H. (1996a). Analysis of Life Table Response Experiments. 2. Alternative

Caswell, H. (1996b). Demography Meets Ecotoxicology: Untangling the Population Level

Cessna, A.J. & Elliot, J.A. (2004). Seasonal Variation of Herbicide Concentration in Prairie

Chi, H. & Su, H.Y. (2006). Age-Stage, Two-Sex Life Tables of *Aphidius gifuensis* (Ashmead)

Chi, H. 1988. Life Table Analysis Incorporating both Sexes and Variable Development Rates

Chi, H. & Liu, H. (1985). Two New Methods for the Study of Insect Population Ecology.

Crow, J.F. (1957). Genetics of Insect Resistance to Chemicals. *Annual Review of Entomology*,

Dempster, J.P. (1968). The Sublethal Eeffect of DDT on the Rate of Feeding by the Ground

Devonshire, L., Moores, G.D. & Ffrench-Constant, R.H. (1986). Detection of Insecticide

Devorshak, C. & Roe, R.M. (1998). The role of esterases in insecticide resistance. *Reviews in* 

Devonshire, A.L. & Moores, G.D. (1982). A Carboxylesterase with Broad Substrate

*Modeling*, Vol.88, No.1-3, (July 1996), pp. 73–82, ISSN 0304-3800

No.6,(November-December 2006), pp.2395-2401. ISSN 1537-2537

(August 1989), pp. 221–230, ISSN 0304-3800

2004), pp.302-315, ISSN 1537-2537

26-34, ISSN 0046-225X

1968), pp.51–54, ISSN 1570-7458

(March 1986), pp. 97-107, ISSN 0007-4853

0001-3943

(February 2006), pp. 10-21, ISSN 0046-225X

Vol. 2, (January 1957), pp. 227-246, ISSN 0066-4170

*Toxicology,* Vol. 2, No. 7-8, pp. 501–537, ISSN 1382-6980

No. 2, (October 1982), pp. 235-246, ISSN 0048-3575

T.J. & Tabashnik, B.E. (2001). Overwintering cost associated with resistance to transgenic cotton in the pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol. 94, No. 4, (August 2001), pp. 935–941, ISSN 0022-0493 Caswell, H. (1989). The Analysis of Life Table Response Experiments. I. Decomposition of

Treatment Effects on Population Growth Rate. *Ecological Modeling*, Vol.46, No.3-4,

Parameterizations for Size-structured and Stage-structured Models. *Ecological* 

Effects of Toxic Substances, In: *Ecotoxicology: A Hierarchical Treatment*, M.C. Newman & C.H. Jagoe, (Eds.), 255-292, Lewis, ISBN 978-1566701273, New York Cessna, A.J.; Donald, D.B.; Baily, J.; Waiser, M. & Headley, J.V. (2006). Persistence of the

Sulfonylureas Herbicides Thifensulfuron-methyl, Ethametsulfuron-methyl, and Metsulforun-methyl in Farm Dugouts. *Journal of Environmental Quality*, Vol.35,

Farm Dugouts. *Journal of Environmental Quality*, Vol.33, No.1, (January-February

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Its Host *Myzus persicae* (Sulzer) (Homoptera: Aphididae) with Mathematical Proof of the Relationship Between Female Fecundity and the Net Reproductive Rate. *Environmental Entomology*, Vol.35, No.1,

among Individuals. *Environmental Entomology*, Vol.17, No.1, (February 1988), pp.

*Bulletin of the Institute of Zoology Academica Sinica*, Vol.24, No.2, pp. 225-240, ISSN

Beetle *Harpalus rufipes*. *Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata,* Vol.11, No.1, (March

Resistance by Immunological Estimation of Carboxylesterase Activity in *Myzus persicae* (Sulzer) and Cross Reaction of the Antiserum with *Phorodon humuli*  (Schrank) (Hemiptera: Aphididae). *Bulletin of Entomological Research*, Vol. 76, No. 1,

Specificity Causes Organophosphorus, Carbamate and Pyrethroid Resistance in Peach-potato Aphids (*Myzus persicae*). *Pesticide Biochemistry & Physiology*, Vol. 18,


Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in Agricultural Ecosystem 163

Haubruge, E. & Arnaud, L. (2001). Fitness Consequences of Malathion-specific Resistance in

Higginson, D.M., Morin, S., Nyboer, M.E., Biggs, R.W., Tabashnik, B.E. & Carriere, Y. (2005).

Jensen, S.E. (January 2000). Insecticide Resistance in the Western Flower Thrips, *Frankliniella*

Kammenga, J. & Laskowski, R. (2000). *Demography in Ecotoxicology*, John Wiley & Sons

Kavousi, A.; Chi, H.; Talebi, K.; Bandani, A.; Ashouri, A. & Hosseini Naveh, V. (2009).

Kavousi, A. & Talebi, K. (2003). Side-effects of Three Pesticides on the Predatory Mite,

Kono, Y. & Tomita, T. (2006). Amino Acid Substitutions Conferring Insecticide Insensitivity

Lashkari, M.R.; Sahragard, A. & Ghadamyari, M. (2007). Sublethal Effects of Imidacloprid

LeaMond, C.E.; Haefner, R.J.; Cauller, S.J. & Stackelberg, P.E. (1992). Ground-water Quality

Lopes, K.V.G., Silva, L.B., Reis, A.P., Oliveira, M.G.A. & Guedes, R.N.C. (2010). Modified α-

Lucas E.; Giroux, S.; Demougeot, S.; Duchesne, R.M. & Coderre, D. (2004). Compatibility of a

Martin, S., Elzen, P.J. & Rubink, W.R. (2002). Effect of Acaricide Resistance on Reproductive

McCant, C., Buckley, A. & ffrench-Constant, R.H. (2005). DDT Resistance in Flies Carries No Cost. *Current Biology,* Vol. 15, No. 15, (August 2005), pp. 587–589, ISSN 0960-9822

pp. 552-557, ISSN 0022-0493

pp.595-601, ISSN 0022-0493

207-212, ISSN 1744-7917

2010), pp. 1050–1057, ISSN 0022-1910

(January 1994), pp.19-24, ISSN 1432-0800

*occidentalis*. Ph.D. Thesis. Roskilde University.

Ltd.,ISBN 9780471490029, Chichester, England

Vol.31, No.1-2,(September 2003), pp. 51-8, ISSN 1572-9702

New York. *U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91-180*.

Vol. 27, No. 3, (March 2002), pp. 195–207, ISSN 0168-8162

85, No. 3, (July 2006), pp. 123-132, ISSN 0048-3575

0014-3820

Red Flour Beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and Selection for Resistance in the Absence of Malathion. *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol. 94, No. 2, (April 2001),

Evolutionary Trade-offs of Insect Resistance to *Bacillus thuringiensis* Crops: Fitness Cost Affecting Paternity. *Evolution*, Vol. 59, No. 4, (April 2005), pp. 915-920, ISSN

Demographic Traits of *Tetranychus urticae* Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) on Leaf Discs and Whole Leaves. *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol.102, No.2, (April 2009),

*Phytoseiulus persimilis* (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Experimental Applied Acarology,

in *Ace*-paralogous Acetylcholinesterase. *Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology*, Vol.

and Pymetrozine on Population Growth Parameters of Cabbage Aphid, *Brevicoryne brassicae* on Rapeseed, *Brassica napus* L. *Insect Science,* Vol.14, No.3, (June 2007), pp.

in Five Areas of Differing Land Use in Nassau and Suffolk Counties, Long Island,

Amylase Activity Among Insecticide-resistant and –susceptible Strains of the Maize Weevil, *Sitophilus zeamais*. *Journal of Insect Physiology*, Vol. 56, No. 9, (September

Natural Enemy, *Coleomegilla maculata lengi* (Col., Coccinellidae) and Four Insecticides Used Against the Colorado Potato Beetle (Col., Chrysomelidae). *Journal of Applied Entomology*, Vol.128, No.3,(April 2004), pp.233- 239, ISSN 1439-0418 Marade, S.J. & Weaver, D.J. (1994). Monitoring for Aldicarb Residues in the Central Valley of

California. *Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology,* Vol.52, No.1,

Ability of the Honey Bee Mite *Varroa destructor. Experimental and Applied Acarology,* 


Fragoso, D.B., Guedes, R.N.C. & Peternelli, L.A. (2005). Developmental Rates and

Ganapathy, C.; Nordmark, C.; Bennett, H.; Bradley, A.; Feng, H.; Hernandez, J. & White, J.

Gazave, E., Chevillon, C., Lenormand, T., Marquine, M. & Raymond, M. (2001). Dissecting

Georghiou, G.P. & Taylor, C.E. (1977). Genetic and Biological Influences in the Evolution of

Ghadamyari, M., Talebi, Kh., Mizuno, H. & Kono, Y. (2008). Oxydemeton-methyl

Grant, A. (1998). Population Consequences of Chronic Toxicity: Incorporating Density

Guedes, R.N.C., Oliveira, E.E., Guedes, N.M.P., Ribeiro, B. & Serrão, J.E. (2006). Cost and

Gupta, S.; Gajbhiye,V.T. & Gupta R.K. (2008). Soil Dissipation and Leaching Behavior of a

Hammock, B.D. & Soderlund, D.M. (1986). Chemical Strategies for Resistance Management,

Hassan, S.A. (1998). The Initiative of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group on Pesticides and

*and Toxicology*, Vol.80, No.5, (May 2008), pp.431-437, ISSN 1432-0800 Habig, W.H., Pabst, M.J. & Jakoby, W.B. (1974). Glutathione S-transferases. *The Journal of* 

ISBN 0-309-03627-5, Washington, D.C., USA

Dordrecht, The Netherlands

*Modelling*, Vol.105, No.2-3,(January 1998), pp.325–335, ISSN 0304-3800 Gu, X.; Zhang, G.; Chen, L.; Dai, R. & Yu, Y. (2008). Persistence and Dissipation of Synthetic

*California Department of Pesticide Regulation Report EH97-06: 106*

ISSN 0022-474X

0018-067X

ISSN 1573-2983

50–62, ISSN 0048-3575

9258

319–323, ISSN 0022-0493

2008), pp. 1432-1438, ISSN 0022-0493

Population Growth of Insecticide-resistant and Susceptible Populations of *Sitophilus zeamais*. *Journal of Stored Products Research*, Vol. 41, No. 3, (June 2004), pp. 271–281,

(1997). Temporal Distribution of Insecticide Residues in Four California Rivers.

the Cost of Insecticide Resistance Genes During the Overwintering Period of the Mosquito *Culex pipiens. Heredity*, Vol. 87, No. 4, (October 2001), pp. 441–448, ISSN

Insecticide Resistance. *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol. 70, No. 3, (Jun 1977), pp.

Resistance, Mechanisms, and Associated Fitness Cost in Green Peach Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae). *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol. 101, No. 4, (August

Dependence into the Analysis of Life Table Response Experiments. *Ecological* 

Pyrethroids Pesticides in Red Soils from the Yangtze River Delta Area. *Environmental Geochemistry And Health*, Vol.30, No.1, (February 2008), pp.67-77,

Mitigation of Insecticide Resistance in the Maize Weevil, *Sitophilus zeamais. Physiological Entomology*, Vol. 31, No. 1, (March 2006), pp. 30–38, ISSN 1365-3032 Gunning, R.V., Moores, G.D. & Devonshire, A.L. (1999). Esterase Inhibitors Synergise the

Toxicity of Pyrethroids in Australian *Helicoverpa armigera* (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). *Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology*, Vol. 63, No. 1, (January 1999), pp.

Neonicotinoid Insecticide Thiamethoxam. *Bulletin of Environmental Contamination* 

*Biological Chemistry,* Vol. 249, No. 21, (November 1974), pp. 7130–7139, ISSN 0021-

In: *Pesticide Resistance: Strategies and Tactics for Management,* Committee on Strategies for the Management of Pesticide Resistant Pest Populations, Board on Agriculture, National Research Council (Eds.), 111-129, National Academy Press,

Beneficial Organisms, In: *Ecotoxicology: Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms,* P.T. Haskell & P. McEwen (Eds.), 22-27, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0412812908,


Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in Agricultural Ecosystem 165

Pimentel, D. (2009). Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides

Price, N.R. (1991). Insect Resistance to Insecticides: Mechanisms and Diagnosis. *Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C*, Vol. 100, No. 3, pp. 319-326, ISSN 1532-0456 Priddle, M.W.; Jackson, R.E. & Mutch, J.P. (1989). Contamination of the Sandstone Aquifer

Reigart, J.R. & Roberts, J.R. (1999). Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings.

Reiser, R.G. & O`Brien, A.K., 1999, Pesticides in Streams in New Jersey and Long Island,

Rezaei, M.; Talebi, K.; Naveh, V.H. & Kavousi, A. (2007). Impacts of the Pesticides

Robertson, J.L. & Preisler, H.K. (1992). *Pesticide Bioassays with Arthropods*, CRC, ISBN 0-8493-

Robertson, J.L. & Worner, S.P. (1990). Population Toxicology: Suggestions for Laboratory

Raffa, K.F. & Priester, T.M. (1985). Synergists as Research Tools and Control Agents in

Roff, D.A. & DeRose, M.A. (2001). The Evolution of Trade-offs: Effects of Inbreeding on

Rose, R.L., Gould, F., Levi, P.E. & Hodgson, E. (1991). Differences in Cytochrome P450

Roush, R.T. & Tabashnik, B. (1990). *Pesticide Resistance in Arthropods*. Chapman & Hall, ISBN

Ruberson, J.R.; Nemoto, H. & Hirose, Y. (1998). Pesticides and Conservation of Natural

Salinas, A.E. & Wong, M.G. (1999). Glutathione S-transferases- A review. *Current Medicinal* 

Schneider, M.I.; Sanchez, N.; Pineda, S.; Chi, H. & Ronco, A. (2009). Impact of Glyphosate on

*Comparative Biochemistry,* Vol. 99, No. 3, pp. 535-540, ISSN 1096-4959 Roush, R.T. & Miller, G. L. (1986). Considerations for Design of Insecticide Resistance

207-220, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-078147-8, New York

*Chemistry,* Vol. 6, No. 4, (April 1999), pp. 279–309, ISSN 0929-8673

4020-8991-6, Netherlands

6592

*EPA/735/R-98/003* 

*Investigation Report 98-4261*

6463-9, Boca Raton, Florida

pp. 293-298, ISSN 0022-0493

041201971X, New York, USA

ISSN 0735-939X

No.3,(June 2007), pp. 385-398, ISSN 1573-8248

(February 1990), pp.8–12, ISSN 0022-0493

(January 2001), pp. 111–121, ISSN 0014-3820

Primarily in the United States, In: *Integrated Pest Management: Innovation-Development Process,* R. Peshin & A.K. Dhawan (eds.), 89-113, Springer, ISBN 978-1-

of Prince Edward Island, Canada by Aldicarb and Nitrogen Residues. *Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation*. Vol.9, No.4, (December 1989), pp.134-140, ISSN 1745-

New. York, and Relation to Land Use. *U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources* 

Imidacloprid, Propargite, and Pymetrozine on *Chrysoperla carnea* (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae): IOBC and Life Table Assays. *BioControl, Vol.* 52,

Bioassays to Predict Pesticide Efficacy. *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol.83, No.1,

Agriculture. *Journal* of *Agricultural Entomology*, Vol. 2, No. 1, (January 1985), 27-45,

Fecundity Relationships in the Cricket *Gryllus firmus*. *Evolution*, Vol. 55, No. 1,

Activities in Tobacco Budworm Larvae as Influenced by Resistance to Host Plant Allelochemicals and Induction. *Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B:* 

Monitoring Programs. *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol. 79, No. 2, (April 1986),

Enemies in Pest Management, In: *Conservation Biological Control*, P. Barbosa, (ed.),

the Development, Fertility and Demography of Chrysoperla externa (Neuroptera:


MacCarroll, L., Paton, M.G., Karunaratne, S.H.P.P., Jayasuryia, H.T.R., Kalpage, K.S.P. &

McKenzie, J.A. (1996). *Ecological and Evolutionary Aspects of Insecticide Resistance,* Academic

Medina, P.; Smagghe, G.; Budia, F.; Tirry, L. & Vinuela, E. (2003). Toxicity and Absorption of

Melander, A.L. (1914). Can Insects Become Resistant to Sprays?. *Journal of Economic* 

Meyer, J.S.; Ingersoll, C.G.; McDonald, L.L. & Boyce, M.S. (1986). Estimating Uncertainty in

Morin, S., Biggs, R.W., Sisterson, M.S., Shriver, L., Ellers-Kirk, C., Higginson, D., Holley, D.,

Navarro, S.; Vela, N.; Gimenez, M.J. & Novarro, G. (2004). Persistence of Four S-Triazine

Oppert, B., Hammel, R., Throne, J.E. & Kramer, K.J. (2000). Fitness Costs of Resistance to

Oliveira, E.E., Guedes, R.N.C., To´tola, M.R. & De Marco Jr., P. (2007). Competition Between

Overmeer W.P.J. & Van Zon, A.Q. (1982). A Standardized Method for Testing Side Effect of

Paine, T.D.; Hanlon, C.C. & Byrne, F.J. 2011. Potential Risks of Systemic Imidacloprid to

Patil, V.L. & Guthrie, F.E. (1979). Cuticular Lipids of Two Resistant and a Susceptible Strain

Pimentel, D. (2005). Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides

*Control*, Vol.56, No.2, (February 2011), pp.175-178, ISSN 1049-9644

*Entomophaga*, Vol.27, No.4, pp. 357-364, ISSN 0013-8959

No. 2, (Jun 2005), pp. 229-252, ISSN 1387-585X

*Entomology,* Vol. 7, No. 2, (April 1914), pp. 167–173, ISSN 0022-0493

No. 6807, (October 2000), pp. 961–962, ISSN 0028-0836

Press, ISBN 0124848257 Austin, Texas.

(October 1986), pp. 1156–1166, 0012-9658

No. 9, (April 2003), pp. 5004–5009, ISSN 1091-6490

No.1-3,(August 2004), pp.87-97, ISSN 0048-9697

2936

7458

2338

498X

Hemingway, J. (2000). Insecticides and Mosquito-borne Disease. *Nature*, Vol. 407,

Azadirachtin, Diflubenzuron, Pyriproxyfen and Tebufenozide after Topical Application in Predatory Larvae of *Chrysoperla carnea* (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). *Environmental Entomol*ogy, Vol.32, No.1,(February 2003), pp.194-203, ISSN 1938-

Population Growth Rates: Jackknife vs. Bootstrap techniques. *Ecology*, Vol.67, No.5,

Gahan, L.J., Heckel, D.G., Carrie`re, Y., Dennehy, T.J., Brown, J.K. & Tabashnik, B.E. (2003). Three Cadherin Alleles Associated with Resistance to *Bacillus thuringiensis* in Pink Bollworm. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA,* Vol. 100,

Herbicides in River, Sea and Groundwater Samples exposed to Sunlight and Darkness under Laboratory Conditions. *Science of the Total Environment*, Vol.329,

*Bacillus thuringiensis* in the Indianmeal Moth, *Plodia interpunctella*. *Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata,* Vol. 96, Vol. 3, (September 200), pp. 281–287, ISSN 1570-

Insecticide-susceptible and -resistant Populations of the Maize Weevil, *Sitophilus zeamais*. *Chemosphere*, Vol. 69, No. 1, (August 2007), pp. 17–24, ISSN 0045-6535 Oomen, P.A.; Romeijn, G. & Wiegers, G.L. (1991). Side-effects of 100 Pesticides on the

Predatory Mite *Phytoseiulus persimilis*, Collected and Evaluated According to the EPPO Guideline. *EPPO Bulletin*, Vol.21, No.4, (December 1991), pp.701-712, 1365-

Pesticides on the Predacious Mite *Amblyseius potentiella* (Acarina: Phytoseiidae).

Parasitoid Natural Enemies of a Cerambycid Attacking *Eucalyptus*. *Biological* 

of Houseflies. *Pesticide Science,* Vol. 10, No. 5, (October 1979), 399-406, ISSN 1526-

Primarily in the United States. *Environment Development and Sustainability,* Vol. 7,


Ecological Impacts of Pesticides in Agricultural Ecosystem 167

Sterk, G.; Hassan, S.A.; Baillod, M.; Bakker, F.; Bigler, F.; Blümel, S.; Bogenschütz, H.; Boller,

Stern, V.M.; Smith, R.F.; van den Bosch, R. & Hagen, K.S. (1959). The Integrated Control Concept. *Hilgardia*, Vol.29, No.2, (October 1959), pp. 81-101, ISSN 0073-2230 Stuart, S. (2003). Development of resistance in pest populations. The University of Notre

Suter, I.I. & Glenn, W. (1993). Ecological Risk Assessment, Lewis Publishers, ISBN

Tabashnik, B.E., Carrie`re, Y., Dennehy, T.J., Morin, S., Sisterson, M.S., Roush, R.T., Shelton,

Tabashnik, B.E., Dennehy, T.J. & Carrie`re, Y. (2005). Delayed Resistance to Transgenic

Tanaka, Y. & Nakanishi, J. (2001). Effect of Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonate on Population

Tennekes, H.A. (2010). The Significance of the Druckrey-Kupfmuller Equation for Risk

Torres, J.B. & Ruberson, J.R. (2004). Toxicity of Thiamethoxam and Imidacloprid to *Podisus* 

Urbaneja, A.; Pascual-Ruiz, S.; Pina, T.; Abad-Moyano, R.; Vanaclocha, P.; Monton, H.;

USEPA. 1980. Ambient Water Quality for Mercury. US Environmental Protection Agency,

Van den Bosch, R.; Reynolds, H.T. & Dietrick, E.J. (1956).Toxicity of Widely Used

*Economic Entomology*, Vol.49, No. 3,(June 1956), pp.359-363, ISSN 0022-0493 Van de Veire, M.; Sterk, G.; van der Staaij, M.; Ramakers, P. & Tirry, I. (2002). Sequential

*Science*, Vol.64, No.8, (August 2008), pp.834–842, ISSN 1526-4998

Criteria and Standards Division, *EPA-600-/479-049*.

A.M. & Zhao, J.-Z. (2003). Insect Resistance to Transgenic Bt Crops: Lessons from the Laboratory and Field. *Journal of Economic Entomology*, Vol. 96, No. 4, (August

Cotton in Pink Bollworm. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA*, Vol.

Growth of *Daphnia galeata*: A Life Table Evaluation. *Environmental Toxicology*,

Assessment – The Toxicity of Neonicotinoid Insecticides to Arthropods is Reinforced by Exposure Time. *Toxicology*, Vol.276, No.1, (September 2010), pp.1-4,

*nigrispinus* (Dallas) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) Nymphs Associated to Aphid and Whitefly Control in Cotton. *Neotropical Entomology*, Vol.33, No.1, (January-February

Dembilio, O.; Castanera, P. and Jacas, J.A. (2008). Efcacy of Five Selected Acaricides Against *Tetranychus urticae* (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Their Side Effects on Relevant Natural Enemies Occurring in Citrus Orchards. *Pest Management* 

Insecticides to Beneficial Insects in California Cotton and Alfalfa Fields. *Journal of* 

Testing Scheme for the Assessment of the Side-effects of Plant Protection Products on the Predatory Bug *Orius laevigatus*. *BioControl*, Vol.47, No.1,(February 2002),

Dame, Retrieved from http://www.nd.edu/~chem191/e2.html

102, No. 43, (October 2005), pp. 15389–15393, ISSN 1091-6490

Vol.16, No.4, (July 2001), pp. 344–348, ISSN 1522-7278

(March 1999), pp.99-117, ISSN 1573-8248

2003), pp. 1031–1038, ISSN 0022-0493

2004), pp. 99-106, ISSN 1678-8052

pp.101-113, ISSN 1573-8248

0873718755, Florida

ISSN 0300-483X

E.; Bromand, B.; Brun, I.; Calis, J.N.M.; Coremans-Pelseneer, J.; Duso, C.; Garrido, A.; Grove, A.; Heimbach, U.; Hokkanen, H.; Jacas, J.; Lewis, G.; Moreth, L.; Polgar, L.; Rovesti, L.; Samsoe-Peterson, L.; Sauphanor, B.; Schaub, L.; Stäubli, A.; Tuset, J.J.; Vainio, A.; Van de Veire, M.; Viggiani, G.; Viñuela, E. & Vogt, H. (1999). Results of the Seventh Joint Pesticide Testing Programme Carried Out by the IOBC/WPRS-Working Group `Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms'. *BioControl,* Vol.44, No.1,

Chrysopidae): Ecological Approach. *Chemosphere*, Vol.76, No.10, (September 2009), pp. 1451-1455, ISSN 0045-6535


Scholz, K. & Spiteller, M. (1992). Influence of Groundcover on the Degradation of 14C

Scott, J.G. (1990). Investigating Mechanisms of Insecticide Resistance: Methods, Strategies,

Scott, J.L. (1995). The Molecular Genetics of Resistance: Resistance as a Response to Stress. *Florida Entomologist,* Vol. 78*,* No. 3, (September 1995), pp. 399–414, ISSN 0015-4040 Smith, R.F.; Apple, J.L. & Bottrell, D.G. (1976). The Origins of Integrated Pest Management

Sparks, T.C., Lockwood, J.A., Byford, R.L., Graves, J.B. & Leonard, B.R. (1989). The Role of

Stark, J.D. & Banks, J.E. (2003). Population-level Effects of Pesticides and Other Toxicants on

Stark, J.D.; Banks, J.E. & Acheampong, S. (2004). Estimating Susceptibility of Biological

Stark, D.; Sugayama, R.L. & Kovaleski, A. (2007). Why Demographic and Modeling

Stark, J.D.; Tanigoshi, L.; Bounfour, M. & Antonelli, A. (1997). Reproductive Potential: Its

Stark, J.D.; Wong, T.T.Y.; Vargas, R.I. & Thalman, R.K. (1992b). Survival, Longevity, and

Steiner, M.Y.; Spohr, L.J. & Goodwin, S. (2011). Impact of two Formulations of the Acaricide

Stenersen, J. (2004). *Chemical Pesticides: Mode of Action and Toxicology,* CRC PRESS, ISBN-10

9780748409105, Boca Raton, London, New York ,Washington, D.C.

No.4, (August 1992), pp. 1125–29, ISSN 0022-0493

2011), pp.99–105, ISSN 1440-6055

888, ISBN 0948404655, British Crop Protection Council, U.k.

Smith, (eds.), 1-16, Plenum Press, ISBN 0306309297, New York

(Eds.), 39-57, ISBN 041201971X, New York, USA.

pp. 1451-1455, ISSN 0045-6535

383-399, ISSN 1526-498X

0066-4170

8248

0022-0493

60, ISSN 1526-4998

Chrysopidae): Ecological Approach. *Chemosphere*, Vol.76, No.10, (September 2009),

Imidacloprid in Soil, *Brighton Crop Protection Conference Pest and Diseases*, pp. 883-

and Pitfalls, In: *Pesticide Resistance in Arthropods,* Roush, R.T. & Tabashnik, B.E.

Concepts for Agricultural Crops, In: *Integrated Pest Management*, J.L. Apple & R.F.

Behavior in Insecticide Resistance. *Pesticide Science,* Vol. 26, No. 4, (April 1989). pp.

Arthropods. *Annual Review of Entomology*, Vol.48,(January 2003), pp.505-519. ISSN

Control Agents to Pesticides: Influence of Life History Strategies and Population Structure. *Biological Control*, Vol.29, No.3,(March 2004), pp.392-398, ISSN 1049-9644 Stark, J.D. & Rangus, T. (1994). Lethal and Sublethal Effects of the Neem Insecticide,

Margosan-O, on the Pea Aphid. *Pesticide Science,* Vol.41, No.2, (June 1994), pp. 155–

Approaches Should be Adopted for Estimating the Effects of Pesticides on Biocontrol Agents. *BioControl*, Vol.52, No.3, (June 2007), pp. 365-374, ISSN 1573-

Inuence on the Susceptibility of the Species to Pesticides. *Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety*, Vol. 37, No.3, (August 1997), pp. 273-279, ISSN 0147-6513 Stark, J.D.; Vargas, R.I., Messing, R.H. & Purcell, M. (1992a). Effects of Cyromazine and

Diazinon on Three Economically Important Hawaiian Tephritid Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) and Their Endoparasitoids (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). *Journal of Economic Entomology,* Vol.85, No.5, (October 1992), pp. 1687–1694, ISSN

Reproduction of Tephritid Fruit Fly Parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Reared From Fruit Flies Exposed to Azadirachtin. *Journal of Economic Entomology,* Vol.85,

Bifenazate on the Spider Mite Predator *Phytoseiulus Persimilis* Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae). *Australian Journal of Entomology*, Vol.50, No.1,( February


**9** 

Eton Codling

*USA* 

**Environmental Impact and Remediation of** 

*Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture,* 

**Residual Lead and Arsenic Pesticides in Soil** 

Chemical control of insects is considered one of the most beneficial developments of civilization (Klassen & Schwartz, 1983). As long ago as 1000 B.C., sulfur compounds were used to control insects in Asia Minor (National Academy of Science, 1969). However, the extensive use of chemicals to control pests has developed only in the last 150 years. The first example of large-scale effective chemical control of an insect pest occurred in 1867, with the use of Paris green (copper acetoarsenate) to control Colorado potato beetle, *Leptinotarsa deecemlineata* (Say). Paris green was later used to control codling moth, *Laspeyresia pomonella* (Linnaeus), on fruit trees (Klassen & Schwartz, 1983). Due to its effectiveness in controlling gypsy moth, *Porthetria dispar* (Linnaeus), lead arsenate replaced Paris green in New England in 1892. Lead arsenate was later used to control codling moth in apple, plum, and peach

This chapter will focus on the inorganic pesticide lead arsenate (PbHAsO4) and its effects on the environment. Both lead (Pb) and arsenic (As) have been used to produce a large number of chemical and manufactured products. Some of these products have been used in agriculture as defoliants, insecticides, and fungicides to control pests in apple, plum, and peach orchards, turf, vegetable crops, and on cattle. From the late 1800s to about 1947, lead arsenate was the most commonly used insecticide for control of codling moth in deciduous tree fruit orchards in countries throughout the world, including the USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, England, and France, because of its low cost, high efficiency, and low phytotoxicity (Focus, 2006; Peryea and Kammereck, 1997 and Shepard, 1951). The wide use of lead arsenate significantly increased its annual production during the early 1900s. Worldwide, lead arsenate production increased from 2,268 metric tons in 1908 to more than 41,000 metric tons in 1944. Even though the total amount of lead arsenate used on orchards is not known, this pesticide was applied frequently and at high application rates. Annual application rates as high as 215 kg Pb ha-1 and 80 kg As ha-1 were recommended for apple orchards (Peryea and Creger, 1994**).** Such high application rates helped minimize the development of resistant insects, a problem that farmers were facing with other insecticides. Moreover, the fact that lead arsenate has multiple sites of action made it unlikely that insect resistance could be achieved with single mutations (Georghiou, 1983). Lead arsenate was used as an insecticide until the introduction of the organochlorine dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in the 1940s (Peryea 1998a; Wolz et al., 2003). However, lead arsenate continued to be used in some locations into the 1970s and was not

**1. Introduction** 

orchards (Klassen and Schwartz, 1983; Peryea, 1998a).

officially banned until 1988 (Focus, 2006).

