**6. References**

304 Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

(Terbuthylazine and Alachlor for 5 individuals each) and fungicide Epoxyconazole (in only one case) were quantified in ospreys (see table 6). None of the ospreys from the nesting population in France showed any herbicide or fungicide contamination. Herbicides variations with osprey age, sex or origin were not significant. Herbicides were not found in osprey eggs during this study. It can be underlined a unique case of contamination by fungicide Epoxyconazole (5,64 mg.kg-1 ww, see table 6), detected in an osprey from Germany. This individual did not show any particular intoxication sign. As for OP and CA pesticides, concentrations of herbicides measured in tissues and low frequency of herbicide detection leads to a probable weak impact of these compounds on species' conservation. Nevertheless, herbicides were very rarely searched in ospreys and very few data are available in literature for comparison. Chu et al. (2007) reported contamination of osprey eggs by a Dacthal structural isomer, indicating that some herbicides could be accumulated

in ospreys with a potential reproductive impact on populations.

bbz 9-11

bbz 12

bbz 13

Table 6. Contamination of ospreys by herbicides and fungicides (mg.kg-1 wet weight).

bbz 14

Terbuthylazine - - - - - - - 0,09 0,83 0,3 - - - 0,54 - 0,88 - Alachlor - - - - - - - 0,01 - 0,01 - - 0,01 0,08 - 0,04 - Epoxyconazole - - - - - - - - - - 5,64 - - - - - -

A large non-invasive program allowed an important sampling of European otter and osprey tissues for various pesticides contamination study. Results showed that otter and osprey could be used as good sentinels of organochlorine and, to a lesser extent, organophosphate pesticides and some herbicides accumulation in aquatic food chains. Carbamates and pyrethroids pesticides were not detected in those top-predators fisheating species. Organochlorine, organophosphate pesticides and herbicides concentrations remained low and under values of concern for species direct short-term conservation. Regular increase in populations observed since three decades in France seemed to confirm a low impact of global contamination on otter and osprey. Nevertheless, long-term consequences of global contamination on otter and osprey behaviour (*e.g.* prey or habitat foraging, hunting, mating or territory defence), synergies or antagonisms between compounds or potential long-term endocrine disruptors effects of low-concentrated contaminants remains unknown and should be elucidated during future standard

Authors wish to thank the following structures or people for otter and/or osprey conservation and study or samples providing (see text): Muséum d'Orléans (sampling coordination), MEEDDM, DREAL Centre, LPO, UFCS, CRBPO, ONCFS, ONEMA, ONF, RTE, EDF, R. Wahl, private land owners and companies, Ph. Guillet & M.-F. Larigauderie of the City of Orléans Museum, D. Vey & the technical team of VetAgro Sup Toxicology unit,

"Loiret Nature Environnement" and other environmental associations.

bbz 28

bbz 21

bbz 23

bbz 4

bbz 20

bbz 24

bbz 25

bbz 17

bbz 31

Individuals bbz

**4. Conclusion** 

19

bbz 3

monitoring of these sentinels species.

**5. Acknowledgments** 

bbz 7

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**17** 

F. E. Nwilene1 et al.\*

*3Ebonyi State University,* 

*5International Consultant,* 

*1,3,4Nigeria 2Benin 5England 6Cameroon* 

*1,2Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice),* 

*4National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI),* 

**Is Pesticide Use Sustainable in Lowland Rice** 

Rice is a major staple food for about 3 billion people (Nguyen and Ferrero 2006). In West Africa, it is indeed no longer a luxury food and has become a major source of calories for the urban poor. The poorest urban households obtain 33% of their cereal-based calories from rice (NISER, 2005). Urbanization, changes in employment patterns, income levels, and rapid population growth have contributed to widening the gap between supply and demand (Figure 1). The gap between production and consumption is made up by imports, which are

Fig. 1. World Population Growth 1950–2050 (Source: United Nations, 2009).

A. Togola2, O. E. Oyetunji1, A. Onasanya2, G. Akinwale1, E. Ogah3, E. Abo4, M. Ukwungwu4,

**1. Introduction** 

 \*

A. Youdeowei5 and N. Woin6

estimated at 2 million metric tones per annum.

**Intensification in West Africa?** 

*6Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD),* 

